UNIT-1

WORKSHOP TOOLS, OPERATIONS AND

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

TOPICS

 METHODS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES – casting, forming,

metal removal processes, joining processes, surface finishing
processes.

 BASIC WORKSHOP PROCESSES – carpentry, fitting, hand forging,

machine forging, sheet metal work, cold and hot working of metals.

Principle of Metrology, Quality, Inspection and Reliability,

Interchangeability, Calipers, Bevel Protractor, Sine Bar, Slip Gauges,
Micrometres.

METHODS OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

Manufacturing processes encompass a diverse range of methods

employed to convert raw materials into finished products, playing a
pivotal role in various industries. One widely used method is machining,
which involves the removal of material through processes like turning,
milling, and drilling to achieve desired shapes and sizes.

CASTING:

 Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material,

typically metal or plastic, is poured or injected into a mold
cavity. The material is allowed to solidify within the mold,
taking its shape and forming a three-dimensional object.
 Once solidified, the object is removed from the mold, and
finishing processes may be applied to achieve the desired final
product.
 Casting is a versatile method used for producing a wide range
of complex shapes and is commonly employed in various
industries for both metal and non-metal materials.

Types of casting are:

1. Sand Casting
2. Investment Casting (Lost-Wax Casting)
3. Die Casting
4. Centrifugal Casting
5. Permanent Mold Casting
6. Shell Molding
7. Continuous Casting
8. Low-Pressure Casting

FORMING:

 Forming is a manufacturing process that involves the shaping of

materials, typically metals or plastics, into desired shapes
through the application of force, heat, or a combination of
both.
 This process is employed to create a variety of products with
specific geometries, dimensions, and properties.
 Forming methods include techniques such as forging, rolling,
stamping, bending, and extrusion, each tailored to suit different
materials and end-product requirements.
 The objective of forming is to alter the material's shape without
compromising its structural integrity, achieving the desired
form for further processing or end-use applications.

METAL REMOVAL PROCESS:

 Metal removal processes, also known as machining or

subtractive manufacturing, refer to a category of manufacturing
methods where material is selectively removed from a
workpiece to achieve a desired shape, size, or finish.
 These processes involve the use of cutting tools, abrasives, or
other sharp implements to remove excess material from a raw
workpiece, ultimately creating a finished product.

Various techniques fall under the umbrella of metal removal

processes, including:
1. MILLING: Involves rotating a cutting tool with multiple cutting edges
to remove material from the workpiece.

2. TURNING: Utilizes a lathe to rotate the workpiece while a cutting

tool removes material to achieve cylindrical shapes.

3. DRILLING: Involves creating holes in a workpiece using a rotating

cutting tool.

4. GRINDING: Uses abrasives to remove material and achieve a high-

precision surface finish.

5. ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM): Employs electrical

discharges to remove material in a controlled manner, suitable for
complex shapes.

6. LASER CUTTING: Uses a focused laser beam to melt or vaporize

material, suitable for precise cutting.

7. WATERJET CUTTING: Utilizes a high-pressure stream of water or a

mixture of water and abrasive to cut through materials.

8. CHEMICAL MACHINING: Involves the selective removal of material

using chemicals, typically through a masking process.

METAL JOINING PROCESS:

Metal joining processes involve combining two or more pieces

of metal to create a unified structure.

1. WELDING:

 Fusion of metals using heat and pressure.

 Common methods include arc welding, MIG/TIG welding, and
spot welding.

2. SOLDERING:
  Joins metals using a lower melting point filler material (solder).
 Typically used for electronic components and smaller joints.

3. BRAZING:

 Similar to soldering but uses a higher melting point filler material

(braze alloy).
 Suitable for higher temperature applications.

4. ADHESIVE BONDING:

 Joins metals using specialized adhesives or bonding agents.

 Offers advantages such as stress distribution and corrosion
resistance.

5. MECHANICAL FASTENING:

 Joins metals using mechanical methods like bolts, nuts, screws, or

rivets.
 Provides a reversible joining solution.

These processes are employed based on factors like material

compatibility, joint strength requirements, and the specific application
needs.

SURFACE FINISHING PROCESS:

Surface finishing is a set of processes applied to a material's exterior to

enhance its appearance, performance, or both.

1. POLISHING AND BUFFING:

 Involves abrasives or polishing compounds to smooth and shine

the surface.
 Enhances reflectivity and eliminates imperfections.

2. PLATING AND COATING:

  Applies a thin layer of metal or protective material to the surface.
 Enhances corrosion resistance and provides decorative finishes.

3. PAINTING AND POWDER COATING:

 Applies liquid paint or dry powder to provide color and

protection.
 Improves aesthetics and provides a protective layer.

4. ANODIZING:

 Electrochemical process that forms an oxide layer on metal

surfaces.
 Enhances corrosion resistance and provides a decorative finish.

5. SANDBLASTING:

 Uses abrasives to remove surface impurities or create a textured

finish.
 Preps surfaces for coating or painting.

Surface finishing processes are crucial for improving the

durability, aesthetic appeal, and functionality of materials across various
industries.

BASIC WORKSHOP PROCESSES:

CARPENTARY:

Carpentry in workshop technology is the skilled practice of

working with wood within a workshop setting. It involves using a variety
of hand tools, power tools, and sometimes computer-controlled
machinery to construct and assemble wooden structures and products.
Carpenters focus on precision, joinery techniques, surface finishing, and
adapting designs to meet specific needs.

1. WORKING WITH WOOD:

 Skilled craft focused on manipulating various types of wood.

2. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES:

 Utilizes hand tools, power tools, and sometimes computer-

controlled machinery.
 Involves traditional joinery methods for creating connections.

3. CONSTRUCTION AND JOINERY:

 Involves building structures like furniture, cabinets, doors, and

windows.
 Emphasizes precise measurement and accurate cutting.

4. FINISHING TOUCHES:

 Includes surface treatments like sanding, staining, painting, or

varnishing.
 Enhances both the appearance and durability of the wood.

6. ADAPTABILITY AND CUSTOMIZATION:

 Often requires adapting designs to meet specific needs.

 Can involve crafting unique, customized pieces or replicating
existing designs.

7. SAFETY MEASURES:

 Follows safety protocols for tool usage and maintains a secure

working environment.
 Includes the use of personal protective equipment (PPE).

FITTING:

Fitting, in a mechanical and engineering context, refers to the

process of assembling, aligning, and securing individual parts to create a
functional and cohesive mechanical system. This involves precision work
to ensure that the components fit together accurately and securely,
often requiring the use of hand tools, machining processes, or other
methods to achieve the desired tolerances.
 Fitting, in the context of workshop technology, refers to the
process of joining and securing different mechanical components.

1. ASSEMBLY WORK:

 Involves assembling and connecting various machine parts or

components to create functional units.

2. USE OF FASTENERS:

 Utilizes fasteners such as nuts, bolts, screws, and rivets to

securely join components.
 Ensures proper alignment and tight connections.

3. PRECISION AND TOLERANCE:

 Requires precision in measurements and adherence to specified

tolerances for accurate fitting.
 Tolerances are critical to prevent issues like misalignment or
interference.

4. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

 Involves the use of hand tools, power tools, and sometimes

specialized machinery to perform fitting tasks.
 Common tools include wrenches, spanners, screwdrivers, and
torque wrenches.

5. ADAPTATION AND MODIFICATION:

 Fitting may require adaptation or modification of components to

ensure they integrate seamlessly.
 Machining processes may be involved to achieve proper fits.

6. QUALITY CONTROL:

 Involves quality checks to ensure that fitted components meet

specified standards.
 Inspections may include measurements, visual checks, and
functional tests.
7. MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR:

 Fitting is integral to maintenance and repair work, where

components may need replacement or adjustment to restore
functionality.

8. ALIGNMENT AND RIGIDITY:

 Ensures proper alignment of components to prevent issues like

misalignment-induced wear and to maintain overall system
rigidity.

Fitting plays a crucial role in various industries, including

manufacturing, construction, and maintenance, contributing to the
overall functionality and reliability of mechanical systems.

HAND FORGING:

Hand forging is a traditional metalworking process where

skilled craftsmen, known as blacksmiths or forgemasters, manually
shape and deform metal by applying localized force using hammers,
anvils, and other hand tools. This method has been employed for
centuries and involves heating the metal to a malleable temperature and
then shaping it through controlled strikes.

1. HEATING THE METAL:

 The metal, often steel or iron, is heated to a temperature where

it becomes malleable. This temperature is referred to as the
forging temperature.

2. ANVIL AND HAMMER WORK:

 The heated metal is placed on an anvil, and a blacksmith uses

hammers of various sizes to shape and deform the metal.
 The anvil provides a sturdy surface for forging, and the hammer is
used to deliver controlled blows.
3. PRECISION AND SKILL:

 Hand forging requires a high level of skill and precision as the

blacksmith must control the shaping process through well-timed
and accurate strikes.

4. TYPES OF FORGING:

 Different techniques are used in hand forging, including drawing

out (lengthening the metal), upsetting (thickening the metal),
bending, twisting, and punching holes.

5. VERSATILITY:

 Hand forging is versatile and can be used to create a wide range

of objects, from decorative pieces to functional tools and
components.

MACHINE FORGING:

Machine forging, also known as mechanical forging or drop

forging, is a metalworking process that involves shaping and deforming
metal using machinery rather than manual labor. Unlike hand forging,
machine forging is a more automated and controlled process. Here are
key points about machine forging:

1. HAMMER OR PRESS OPERATION:

 Machine forging can be performed using either a power hammer

or a mechanical press.
 Power hammers use a series of mechanical linkages and a motor
to deliver controlled blows to the metal.
 Mechanical presses exert force through a set of dies, and the
metal is shaped between them.

2. HIGH PRECISION:

 Machine forging allows for a high level of precision and

consistency in the shaping of metal parts.
 Controlled force application and accurate die design contribute
to the uniformity of the forged components.

3. HEATING THE METAL:

 Similar to hand forging, the metal is heated to a specific

temperature to make it malleable before it undergoes the forging
process.

4. MASS PRODUCTION:

 Machine forging is well-suited for mass production of forged

components with consistent quality.
 It offers efficiency in terms of speed and repeatability.

5. TYPES OF MACHINES:

 Different types of machines are used for forging, including drop

hammers, mechanical presses, and hydraulic presses.
 Each type of machine has its specific applications and
advantages.

6. AUTOMATED HANDLING SYSTEMS:

 Modern machine forging setups often include automated

systems for handling and transporting the forged parts within the
production line.

7. DIE DESIGN:

 The design of dies used in machine forging is crucial for achieving

the desired shape and properties of the forged metal part.
 Dies are typically made from high-strength materials and are
subject to wear over time.

8. APPLICATIONS:

 Machine forging is used to produce a wide range of components

for industries such as automotive, aerospace, and manufacturing.
  Components include gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, and
other parts that require strength and precision.

Machine forging combines the advantages of automation with

the precision needed for creating high-quality forged components
efficiently. It plays a significant role in modern industrial processes,
contributing to the production of durable and reliable metal parts.

SHEET METAL WORK:

Sheet metal work is a fabrication process that involves the

manipulation and shaping of thin metal sheets to create a variety of
components and structures. Here are key points about sheet metal
work:

1. MATERIAL THICKNESS:

 In sheet metal work, the metal used is in the form of thin sheets,
typically less than 6 mm (0.25 inches) thick.

2. MATERIALS USED:

 Common sheet metal materials include steel, aluminum, copper,

brass, and stainless steel.

3. CUTTING TECHNIQUES:

 Sheet metal can be cut using various techniques, including

shearing, laser cutting, plasma cutting, and waterjet cutting.

4. FORMING AND BENDING:

 Bending and forming are essential processes in sheet metal work,

creating shapes and contours by applying force to the metal.

5. PRESS BRAKE:
  A press brake is a common tool used in sheet metal work for
precision bending and forming. It exerts controlled pressure to
shape the metal along a predetermined line.
6. STAMPING:

 Stamping involves using a press to cut or form shapes in the

sheet metal. It is often used for mass production of identical
parts.

7. ROLLING:

 Sheet metal can be rolled into cylindrical shapes using a rolling

machine. This is commonly employed in the production of tubes
or curved sections.

8. WELDING AND JOINING:

 Welding and various joining methods are used to assemble sheet

metal components into larger structures or products.

9. FINISHING:

 Surface finishes such as painting, powder coating, or plating may

be applied to sheet metal products for improved aesthetics and
corrosion resistance.

10. APPLICATIONS:

 Sheet metal work is used in a wide range of applications,

including the manufacturing of automotive parts, HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning) systems, appliances, enclosures,
and architectural components.

Sheet metal work is valued for its versatility, precision, and

suitability for both prototyping and mass production. It is a fundamental
process in various industries, contributing to the production of diverse
products with different shapes and functionalities.

COLD AND HOT WORKING OF METALS:

 Cold and hot working are two broad categories of metal
forming processes, each carried out under different temperature
conditions.

COLD WORKING:

1. TEMPERATURE:

 Cold working is performed at or near room temperature, where

the metal remains below its recrystallization temperature.

2. HARDENING EFFECT:

 Cold working increases the hardness and strength of the metal

due to the deformation occurring at a lower temperature.

3. DUCTILITY:

 Cold working reduces the ductility of the metal, making it more

prone to cracking or fracture.

4. PROCESSES:

 Common cold working processes include cold rolling, cold

drawing, bending, and cold forging.

5. SURFACE FINISH:

 Cold working often results in a smoother surface finish and

tighter tolerances compared to hot working.

6. MATERIAL THICKNESS:

 Cold working is suitable for thin materials, and it is often used for
precision applications.

7. APPLICATIONS:

 Common applications of cold working include the production of

sheet metal products, wires, and precision components.
HOT WORKING:

1. TEMPERATURE:

 Hot working is carried out at elevated temperatures, typically

above the metal's recrystallization temperature.

2. SOFTENING EFFECT:

 Hot working leads to a softening of the metal, making it more

ductile and less prone to cracking during deformation.

3. DUCTILITY:

 Hot working enhances the ductility of the metal, allowing for

more extensive deformation without fracture.

4. PROCESSES:

 Common hot working processes include hot rolling, hot forging,

extrusion, and hot drawing.

5. MATERIAL THICKNESS:

 Hot working is suitable for both thin and thick materials, and it is
often used for bulk deformation processes.

6. ENERGY CONSUMPTION:

 Hot working generally requires more energy compared to cold

working because of the need for elevated temperatures.

7. APPLICATIONS:

 Hot working is utilized in the production of large components,

such as heavy machinery parts, structural components, and items
requiring significant deformation.
PRINCIPLE OF METROLOGY:

 The principle of metrology revolves around the precise and

accurate measurement of physical quantities, ensuring
consistency and reliability in various applications.
 Metrology relies on standardized units of measurement,
employing instruments that are regularly calibrated against
reference standards to maintain accuracy.

QUALITY:

 Quality is a comprehensive measure of excellence or superiority

in products, services, or processes.
 It encompasses various attributes such as durability, reliability,
precision, and adherence to specifications or standards.
 Achieving high quality involves meticulous attention to detail,
rigorous testing, and continuous improvement practices.

INSPECTION AND RELIABILITY:

INSPECTION:

 Inspection is a systematic process of examining, testing, and

evaluating products, processes, or services to ensure they meet
specified standards or requirements.
 It involves a thorough examination for defects, deviations, or
deviations from established criteria.
 Inspection is a critical component of quality control, contributing
to the identification and rectification of issues, ultimately
ensuring the delivery of high-quality outcomes.

RELIABILITY:

 Reliability, on the other hand, pertains to the consistency and

dependability of a product, system, or process to perform its
intended function under specific conditions for a defined period
  A reliable entity demonstrates a low likelihood of failure or
deviation from expected performance.
 Achieving reliability involves robust design, regular maintenance,
and adherence to quality standards.
 In various industries, particularly technology and manufacturing,
reliability is paramount for customer satisfaction, safety, and the
overall success of products or systems.

INTERCHANGEABILITY:

 Interchangeability refers to the ability of components or parts to

be used in place of one another within a system or assembly
without affecting the overall performance or functionality.
 In manufacturing and engineering, interchangeability is a key
principle that facilitates efficient production and maintenance
processes.
 When components are interchangeable, it simplifies inventory
management, reduces costs, and streamlines assembly, as any
unit can be readily replaced by another of the same type without
the need for adjustments or modifications.
 This concept is crucial in the development of standardized
products, where uniformity in dimensions and specifications
ensures compatibility and ease of replacement, contributing to
the overall reliability and sustainability of systems and
machinery.

CALIPERS:

A caliper is a measuring instrument used to gauge the distance

between two opposite sides of an object. It typically consists of two
hinged, adjustable legs with precision measuring scales or jaws at their
tips.

TYPES:

1. Vernier Calipers
2. Dial Calipers
 3. Digital Calipers
4. Inside Calipers
5. Outside Calipers
6. Divider Calipers
7. Joint Calipers
8. Oddleg Calipers (Hermaphrodite Calipers)
BEVEL PROTRACTOR:

 A bevel protractor is a precision measuring instrument used in

metrology and metalworking to measure angles with a high
degree of accuracy.
 It consists of a graduated semicircular or circular scale attached
to a pivoting arm.
 The protractor typically has two arms, one fixed and the other
movable, with a vernier scale for fine-angle measurements.
 To measure an angle, the bevel protractor is placed on the
workpiece, and the movable arm is adjusted to align with one
side of the angle.
 The angle is then read directly from the scale or, for more precise
measurements, by interpreting the vernier scale.
 Bevel protractors are commonly used in applications such as
machining, carpentry, and engineering, where the precise
measurement of angles is essential for achieving accurate and
quality work.

SINE BAR:

 A sine bar is a precision tool with two parallel bars set at a known
angle, commonly used in metrology for accurate angular
measurements.
 It relies on trigonometric principles to establish precise angles by
measuring the height of one end raised against a gauge block.
 Sine bars are essential in machining and engineering for achieving
accurate setups and measurements.

GAUGES:
 Gauges are instruments designed for measuring, testing, or
indicating dimensions, quantities, or qualities. They play a crucial role in
quality control, ensuring that products meet specified standards. Here
are types of gauges:

1. Plug Gauge: Verifies the internal dimensions of a hole or bore.

2. Ring Gauge:Checks the external dimensions of a cylindrical object.

3. Snap Gauge: Quickly measures the outside diameter of a part using a

go/no-go approach.
4. Thread Gauge: Checks the pitch and diameter of screws, bolts, or
nuts.
5.Bore Gauge: Measures the diameter of holes or cylinders.
6. Height Gauge: Determines the height of a workpiece or the depth of a
feature.
7. Thickness Gauge: Measures the thickness of materials, often in the
form of a micrometer.
8. Radius Gauge: Checks the radius of a curved surface.
9. Feeler Gauge: Measures the gap or clearance between two
components.
10. Taper Gauge: Determines the angle and dimensions of a taper.
11. Pressure Gauge: Measures the pressure of gases or liquids.
12. Temperature Gauge: Indicates the temperature of a system.

Gauges are vital tools in manufacturing and various industries,

ensuring the conformity and reliability of products by verifying critical
dimensions and properties.

MICROMETER:

 A micrometer is a precision measuring instrument used for

accurately determining the dimensions of small objects.
 It typically consists of a calibrated screw mechanism with a
spindle that moves in response to the rotation of the screw.
 Micrometers are widely employed in engineering, machining, and
manufacturing for precise length measurements, offering high
accuracy and repeatability in the measurement of objects such as
metal components or machine parts.
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