TOPIC T2: FLOW IN PIPES AND CHANNELS AUTUMN 2023

Objectives

(1) Calculate the friction factor for a pipe using the Colebrook-White equation.
(2) Undertake head loss, discharge and sizing calculations for single pipelines.
(3) Use head-loss vs discharge relationships to calculate flow in pipe networks.
(4) Relate normal depth to discharge for uniform flow in open channels.

1. Pipe flow
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Governing equations for circular pipes
1.3 Laminar pipe flow
1.4 Turbulent pipe flow
1.5 Expressions for the Darcy friction factor, 𝜆
1.6 Other losses
1.7 Pipeline calculations
1.8 Energy and hydraulic grade lines
1.9 Simple pipe networks
1.10 Complex pipe networks (optional)

2. Open-channel flow
2.1 Normal flow
2.2 Hydraulic radius and the drag law
2.3 Friction laws – Chézy and Manning’s formulae
2.4 Open-channel flow calculations
2.5 Conveyance
2.6 Optimal shape of cross-section

Appendix

Hydraulics 2 T2-1 David Apsley

1. PIPE FLOW

1.1 Introduction

The flow of water, oil, air and gas in pipes is of great importance to engineers. In particular,
the design of distribution systems depends on the relationship between discharge, 𝑄, diameter,
𝐷, and available head, ℎ.

Flow Regimes: Laminar or Turbulent

In 1883, Osborne Reynolds1 demonstrated the occurrence of laminar

two regimes of flow – laminar or turbulent – according to the
size of a dimensionless parameter later named the Reynolds
number. The conventional definition for round pipes is
𝑉𝐷
Re ≡ (1) turbulent
𝜈
where:
𝑉 = average, or bulk, velocity (= 𝑄/𝐴)
𝐷 = diameter
𝜈 = kinematic viscosity (= 𝜇/𝜌)

For smooth-walled pipes the critical Reynolds number at which transition between laminar
and turbulent regimes occurs is usually taken as
Recrit ≈ 2300 (for PIPES only!) (2)
In practice, transition from intermittent to fully-turbulent flow typically occurs over the range
2000 < Re < 4000.

Development Length

At inflow, the velocity profile is often uniform. A

thin boundary layer develops on the pipe wall
because of friction. This grows with distance until it
fills the cross-section. Beyond this distance the velocity profile becomes fully-developed (i.e.,
doesn’t change any further with downstream distance). Typical correlations for this
development length are (from White, 2021):
𝐿dev 0.06Re (laminar)
={ (3)
𝐷 4.4Re1/6 (turbulent)

The kinematic viscosity of air and water is such that most pipe flows in civil engineering have
high Reynolds numbers, are fully turbulent, and have a negligible development length.

1
at the University of Manchester!

Hydraulics 2 T2-2 David Apsley

 Example.
𝜈water = 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1 . Calculate the Reynolds numbers for water flow with average
velocity 0.5 m s–1 in pipes of inside diameter 12 mm and 0.3 m. Estimate the development
length in each case.

Answer: Re = 6000 and 1.5 × 105 ; 𝐿develop = 0.23 m and 9.6 m.

1.2 Governing Equations For Circular Pipes

Fully-developed pipe flow is determined by a balance between three forces:

• pressure;
• weight (component along the pipe axis);
• friction.

For a circular pipe of radius 𝑅, consider the forces with components along the pipe axis for an
internal cylindrical fluid element of radius 𝑟 < 𝑅 and length Δ𝑙.
L

p 
r
direc
tion o
f flow
z
p+p
mg


Note:
(1) 𝑝 is the average pressure over a cross-section; for circular pipes this is equal to the
centreline pressure, with equal and opposite hydrostatic variations above and below.
(2) The arrow drawn for stress indicates its conventional positive direction, corresponding
to the stress exerted by the outer on the inner fluid. In this instance the inner fluid
moves faster so that, if 𝑉 is positive, 𝜏 will actually be negative.

Balancing forces along the pipe axis:

𝑝(π𝑟 2 ) − (𝑝 + Δ𝑝)(π𝑟 2 )
⏟ + 𝑚𝑔
⏟ sin 𝜃 + 𝜏(2π𝑟Δ𝑙)
⏟ =0
net pressure force weight friction

From the geometry,

Δ𝑧
𝑚 = 𝜌(π𝑟 2 Δ𝑙), sin 𝜃 = −
Δ𝑙
Hence:
−Δ𝑝(π𝑟 2 ) − 𝜌π𝑟 2 𝑔Δ𝑧 + 𝜏(2π𝑟Δ𝑙) = 0
Dividing by the volume, π𝑟 2 Δ𝑙,
Δ(𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧) 𝜏
− +2 =0
Δ𝑙 𝑟
∗
Writing 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 for the piezometric pressure and rearranging for the shear stress:

Hydraulics 2 T2-3 David Apsley

 1 Δ𝑝∗
𝜏= 𝑟 (4)
2 Δ𝑙

Since the flow is fully-developed, the shear stress and the gradient of the piezometric pressure
are independent of distance. For convenience write 𝐺 for the streamwise pressure gradient:
Δ𝑝∗ d𝑝∗
𝐺=− =− (constant) (5)
Δ𝑙 d𝑙
(The negative sign is included because we expect 𝑝∗ to drop along the pipe.) Hence, from (4),
1
𝜏 = − 𝐺𝑟 (6)
2
where
d𝑝∗ pressure drop 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓
𝐺=− = = (7)
d𝑙 length 𝐿
𝐺 is the piezometric pressure gradient and ℎ𝑓 is the head lost by friction over length 𝐿.

(6) applies to any fully-developed pipe flow, irrespective of whether it is laminar or turbulent.
For laminar flow it can be used to derive the velocity profile, because 𝜏 can be related to the
velocity gradient d𝑢/d𝑟 (Section 1.3). For turbulent flow an analytical velocity profile is not
available, but gross parameters such as quantity of flow and head loss may be obtained if the
wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 can be related empirically to the dynamic pressure 1/2𝜌𝑉 2 (Section 1.4).

1.3 Laminar Pipe Flow

Laminar flow through a circular pipe is called Poiseuille2 flow or Hagen3-Poiseuille flow.

In laminar flow the shear stress is related to the velocity gradient:

d𝑢 R
𝜏=𝜇 (8) r
d𝑟
Hence, from (6) and (8),
d𝑢 1𝐺
=− 𝑟
d𝑟 2𝜇
Integrating and applying the no-slip condition at the wall (𝑢 = 0 on 𝑟 = 𝑅),
Laminar pipe-flow velocity profile
𝐺
𝑢= (𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 ) (9)
4𝜇

2
J.L.M Poiseuille (1799-1869); French physician who was interested in flow in blood vessels.
3
G.L.H. Hagen; German engineer who, in 1839, measured water flow in long brass pipes and reported that there
appeared to be two regimes of flow.

Hydraulics 2 T2-4 David Apsley

 Example. Find, from the velocity distribution given above,
(a) the centreline velocity, 𝑈0 ;
(b) the average velocity, 𝑉;
(c) the volumetric flow rate, 𝑄, in terms of head loss and pipe diameter;
𝐿 𝑉2
(d) the friction factor, 𝜆, defined by ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 𝐷 (2𝑔), as a function of Reynolds number, Re.

𝐺𝑅 2 1 𝐺𝑅 2 π 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑓 𝐷 4 64
Answer: (a) 𝑈0 = ; (b) 𝑉 = 2 𝑢0 = ; (c) 𝑄 = 128 ; (d) 𝜆 = Re
4𝜇 8𝜇 𝜇𝐿

Part (d) of this example demonstrates that the friction factor 𝜆 is not constant for a given pipe.

1.4 Turbulent Pipe Flow

In turbulent flow one is usually interested in time-averaged quantities. “Velocity” usually

implies time-averaged velocity and the shear stress 𝜏 is the time-averaged rate of transport of
momentum per unit area: it is dominated by turbulent mixing rather than viscous stresses.

In turbulent flow there is no longer an explicit relationship between mean stress 𝜏 and mean
velocity gradient d𝑢/d𝑟 because a far greater transfer of momentum arises from the net effect
of turbulent eddies than the much smaller viscous forces. Hence, to relate quantity of flow to
head loss we require an empirical relation connecting the wall shear stress and the average
velocity in the pipe. As a first step define a skin friction coefficient, 𝑐𝑓 , by
wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤
𝑐𝑓 ≡ ≡ (10)
dynamic pressure 1 2
2 𝜌𝑉
Later, 𝑐𝑓 will be absorbed into a friction factor, 𝜆, to simplify the expression for head loss.

For the length of pipe shown, the balance of forces along the axis in fully-developed flow is:
𝜋𝐷2
−Δ𝑝 × + 𝑚𝑔
⏟ sin 𝜃 − 𝜏⏟𝑤 × π𝐷𝐿 = 0
⏟ 4
weight wall friction
net pressure force

From the geometry,

π𝐷2 Δ𝑧 L
𝑚 = 𝜌( × 𝐿), sin 𝜃 = −
4 𝐿 w
Substituting these gives: p
direc
π𝐷2 π𝐷2 tion o
f flow
−Δ𝑝 × − 𝜌𝑔Δ𝑧 × = 𝜏𝑤 × π𝐷𝐿
4 4 z
 p+p
2
π𝐷
 −Δ(𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧) × = 𝜏𝑤 × π𝐷𝐿 mg 
4
Dividing by the cross-sectional area (π𝐷2 /4),
𝐿
−Δ𝑝∗ = 4 𝜏
𝐷 𝑤

Hydraulics 2 T2-5 David Apsley

Write:
1
𝜏𝑤 = 𝑐𝑓 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) (definition of skin-friction coefficient)

Substituting, and rearranging, gives the drop in piezometric pressure:

𝐿 1 2
|Δ𝑝∗ | = 4𝑐𝑓
( 𝜌𝑉 )
𝐷 2
The quantity 4𝑐𝑓 is known as the (Darcy) friction factor and is denoted 𝜆.

Darcy4-Weisbach5 Equation
𝐿 1 2
|Δ𝑝∗ | = 𝜆 ( 𝜌𝑉 ) (11)
𝐷 2
𝐿
pressure loss due to friction = 𝜆 × (dynamic pressure)
𝐷

Dividing by 𝜌𝑔 this can equally well be written in terms of head rather than pressure:
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 ( ) (12)
𝐷 2𝑔

𝐿
head loss due to friction = 𝜆 × (dynamic head)
𝐷

*** Very important ***

There is considerable disagreement about what is meant by “friction factor” and what symbol
should be used to denote it. What is represented here by 𝜆 is also denoted 𝑓 by some authors
and 4𝑓 by others! Be very wary of the definition. You can usually distinguish it by the
expression for friction factor in laminar flow: 64/Re with the notation here; 16/Re with the
next-most-common alternative.

It remains to specify 𝜆 for a turbulent pipe flow. Methods for doing so are discussed in Section
1.5 and lead to the Colebrook-White equation. Since 𝜆 depends on both the relative roughness
of the pipe, 𝑘𝑠 /𝐷, and the flow velocity itself (through the Reynolds number Re ≡ 𝑉𝐷/𝜈)
either an iterative solution or a chart-based solution is usually required.

Although the bulk velocity, 𝑉, appears in the head-loss equation, the more important quantity
is the quantity of flow, 𝑄. These two variables are related, for circular pipes, by
π𝐷2
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 =𝑉
4
where 𝐷 is the pipe diameter.

4
Henri Darcy (1803-1858); French engineer; conducted experiments on pipe flow.
5
Julius Weisbach; German professor who, in 1850, published the first modern textbook on hydrodynamics.

Hydraulics 2 T2-6 David Apsley

At high Reynolds numbers 𝜆 tends to a constant (determined by surface roughness) for any
particular pipe. In this regime compare:
𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 ∝ 5 (turbulent flow)
𝐷
𝑄
ℎ𝑓 ∝ 4 (laminar flow)
𝐷
Note in both cases the very strong dependence (4th or 5th power) of the head loss on the diameter
of the pipe.

1.5 Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor, 𝝀

Laminar Flow (theory)

64
𝜆=
Re

Turbulent Flow (smooth or rough pipes)

Nikuradse6 (1933) used sand grains to roughen pipe surfaces. He defined a relative roughness
𝑘𝑠 /𝐷, where 𝑘𝑠 is the sand-grain size and 𝐷 is the diameter of the pipe. His experimental curves
for friction factor (see, e.g., White’s textbook) showed 5 regions:
1. laminar flow (Re < Recrit ≈ 2000; roughness irrelevant)
2. laminar-to-turbulent transition (approximately 2000 < Re < 4000)
3. smooth-wall turbulent flow (𝜆 is a function of Reynolds number only)
4. fully-rough-wall turbulent flow (𝜆 is a function of relative roughness only)
5. intermediate roughness (𝜆 is a function of both Re and 𝑘𝑠 /𝐷)

In the smooth- or rough-wall limits, Prandtl7 and Von Kármán8 gave, respectively:
1 Re √𝜆
Smooth-wall turbulence: = 2.0 log10 ( )
√𝜆 2.51

1 3.7𝐷
Rough-wall turbulence: = 2.0 log10 ( )
√𝜆 𝑘𝑠

However, in practice, many commercial pipes lie in the region where both roughness and
Reynolds number are important, so that the friction factor is not constant for any particular
pipe, but depends on the flow rate. Colebrook and White (1937) combined smooth- and rough-
wall turbulence laws into a single formula, the Colebrook-White equation.

6
Johann Nikuradse (1894-1979); PhD student of Prandtl.
7
Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953); German engineer; introduced boundary-layer theory.
8
Theodore von Kármán (1881-1963); Hungarian mathematician and aeronautical engineer; gave his name to the
double row of vortices shed from a 2-d bluff body and now known as a Kármán vortex street.

Hydraulics 2 T2-7 David Apsley

 Colebrook-White Equation:
1 𝑘𝑠 2.51
= −2.0 log10 ( + ) (13)
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 Re √𝜆

This is the main formula for the friction factor in turbulent flow. The main difficulty is that it
is implicit (𝜆 appears on both sides of the equation) and so must be solved iteratively. There
are several explicit approximations to (13), accurate to within a few percent for realistic ranges
of Reynolds number – see the references in Massey and White’s textbooks.

Equivalent Sand Roughness

For commercial pipes the pattern of surface roughness may be very different to that in the
artificially-roughened surfaces of Nikuradse. Colebrook (1939) and Moody (1944) gathered
data to establish effective roughness for typical pipe materials. Typical values of 𝑘𝑠 are given
in the Appendix.

Moody Chart

Graphical solutions of (13) exist. The most well known is the Moody chart (𝜆 versus Re for
various values of relative roughness 𝑘𝑠 /𝐷). The curves are just solutions of the Colebrook-
White equation. My home-produced version is shown below.

0.10
0.09 ks/D
0.08
0.05
0.07
Transition

0.06 0.03
0.05 0.02
Laminar
0.04 l = 64/Re
0.01
l

0.03 0.005

0.002
0.02 0.001

0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
smooth-walled limit
0.00001 0.00005
0.01
1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07
Re = VD/n

Hydraulics 2 T2-8 David Apsley

1.6 Other Losses

Pipeline systems are subject to two sorts of losses:

• wall-friction, contributing a continuous fall in head over a large distance;
• minor losses due to abrupt changes in geometry; e.g. pipe junctions, valves, etc.

Each type of loss can be quantified using a loss coefficient, 𝐾, the ratio of pressure loss to
dynamic pressure (or head loss to dynamic head):
1
pressure loss = 𝐾( 𝜌𝑉 2 )
2
(14)
𝑉2
head loss = 𝐾( )
2𝑔

Typical values of 𝐾 are given below.

Commercial pipe fittings (approximate) Entry/exit losses

Fitting 𝐾 Configuration 𝐾
Globe valve 10 Bell-mouthed entry 0
Gate valve – wide open 0.2 Abrupt entry 0.5
Gate valve – ½ open 5.6 Protruding entry 1.0
90 elbow 0.9 Bell-mouthed exit 0.2
Side outlet of T-junction 1.8 Abrupt enlargement 1.0

Minor losses are a “one-off” loss, occurring at a single point. Frictional losses are proportional
to the length of pipe, L, and, in the grand scheme of things, usually dominate. For long
pipelines, minor losses are often ignored.

Hydraulics 2 T2-9 David Apsley

1.7 Pipeline Calculations

The objective is to establish the relationship between available head and quantity of flow.
Available head, 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = sum of head losses along the pipe (15)

The available head is the overall drop in head from start to end of the pipe, usually determined
by still-water levels, sometimes supplemented by additional pumping head. Head losses are
proportional to the dynamic head, 𝑉 2 /2𝑔. Fluid then flows through the pipe at precisely the
right velocity, 𝑉, (or discharge, 𝑄) that (15) is satisfied.

Pipe parameters are illustrated below. Although a reservoir is indicated at each end of the pipe,
this is simply a diagrammatic way of saying “a point at which the total head is known”.

D h
Q

Typical pipeline problems are: given two of the following parameters, find the third:
head loss: ℎ
quantity of flow: 𝑄
diameter: 𝐷
Other parameters: length 𝐿, roughness 𝑘𝑠 , kinematic viscosity 𝜈 and minor loss coefficient 𝐾.

Calculations involve:
(1) Head losses
E.g. with friction factor, 𝜆, and minor-loss coefficient, 𝐾:
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ = (𝜆 + 𝐾)( ) (16)
𝐷 2𝑔

(2) Expressions for loss coefficients

E.g. the Colebrook-White equation for the friction factor:
1 𝑘𝑠 2.51
= −2.0 log10 ( + ) (17)
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 Re √𝜆

In most problems (16) and/or (17) must be solved iteratively. The exception is the calculation
of 𝑄 when ℎ and 𝐷 are known (and minor losses neglected) because in this special case (Type
1 in the examples which follow) the Reynolds number can be expanded to give:
1 𝑘𝑠 2.51𝜈
= −2.0 log10 ( + ) (18)
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 𝐷√𝜆𝑉 2
If minor-loss coefficient 𝐾 = 0 then the combination 𝜆𝑉 2 can be found from (16) and hence 𝜆
can be found. Knowledge of both 𝜆𝑉 2 and 𝜆 gives 𝑉 and thence 𝑄.

Hydraulics 2 T2-10 David Apsley

Inlet/Outlet Head

If there is a free surface in still water then both gauge pressure and velocity there are zero and
so the total head equals the surface elevation: 𝐻 = 𝑧. If, however, the pipe discharges to
atmosphere as a free jet then the total head includes the dynamic head, 𝑉 2 /2𝑔.

If the discharge is to another reservoir, then z1

(with a well-rounded exit):
𝐻1 = 𝑧1 , 𝐻2 = 𝑧2
and the loss in head is just the difference in z2
still-water levels:
ℎ = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

Alternatively, if the discharge is a free jet to z1

atmosphere, then
𝐻1 = 𝑧1 , 𝐻2 = 𝑧2 + 𝑉22 /2𝑔
and the loss in head is
ℎ = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑉22 /2𝑔
z2
Thus, in terms of piezometric head you V2
could, if you preferred, treat this as an “exit loss” with coefficient 1.0.

The second case also applies if there is an abrupt exit into a tank, since flow separation means
that the pressure in the jet leaving the pipe is essentially the hydrostatic pressure in the tank
(piezometric head 𝑧2 ) but there is still a dynamic head 𝑉22 /2𝑔, whose energy is ultimately
dissipated in the receiving tank. Again, this is equivalent to an exit loss coefficient 1.0. For
long pipelines, however, this is usually negligible compared with the frictional losses.

Hydraulics 2 T2-11 David Apsley

Flow problem: diameter, 𝐷, and head difference, ℎ, known; find the quantity of flow, 𝑄.

Example. A pipeline 10 km long, 300 mm diameter and with roughness 0.03 mm conveys
water from a reservoir (top water level 850 m AOD) to a water treatment plant (700 m AOD).
Assuming that the reservoir remains full, and neglecting minor losses, estimate the quantity
of flow. Take 𝜈 = 1.0 × 10–6 m2 s −1 .

Solution.
List known parameters:
𝐿 = 10000 m
𝐷 = 0.3 m
ℎ = 150 m
𝑘𝑠 = 3 × 10–5 m
𝜈 = 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1

Since 𝐷 and ℎ are known, the head-loss equation enables us to find 𝜆𝑉 2 :

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ=𝜆 ( )
𝐷 2𝑔

2𝑔𝐷ℎ 2 × 9.81 × 0.3 × 150

 𝜆𝑉 2 = = = 0.08829 m2 s−2
𝐿 10000

Rewriting the Colebrook-White equation:

1 𝑘𝑠 2.51
= −2.0 log10 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 Re √𝜆
𝑘𝑠 2.51𝜈
= −2.0 log10 ( + )
3.7𝐷 𝐷√𝜆𝑉 2
3 × 10−5 2.51 × 1.0 × 10−6
= −2.0 log10 ( + )
3.7 × 0.3 0.3√0.08829
= 8.516
Hence,
1
𝜆= = 0.01379
8.5162
Knowledge of both 𝜆𝑉 2 and 𝜆 gives

𝜆𝑉 2 0.08829
𝑉=√ =√ = 2.530 m s−1
𝜆 0.01379

Finally, the quantity of flow may be computed as velocity  area:

π𝐷2 π × 0. 32
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉( ) = 2.530 × = 0.1788 m3 s−1
4 4

Answer: quantity of flow = 0.179 m3 s–1.

Hydraulics 2 T2-12 David Apsley

Head-loss problem: diameter, 𝐷, and quantity of flow, 𝑄, known; find the head loss, ℎ.

Example. The outflow from a pipeline is 30 L s–1. The pipe diameter is 150 mm, length
500 m and roughness estimated at 0.06 mm. Find the frictional head loss along the pipe.

Solution.
List known parameters:
𝑄 = 0.03 m3 s–1
𝐿 = 500 m
𝐷 = 0.15 m
𝑘𝑠 = 6 × 10–5 m
𝜈 = 1.0 × 10–6 m2 s–1

Inspect the head-loss equation:

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ=𝜆 ( )
𝐷 2𝑔
We can get 𝑉 from 𝑄 and 𝐷, but to find ℎ we will require the friction factor.

First 𝑉:
𝑄 𝑄 0.03
𝑉= = = = 1.698 m s−1
𝐴 π𝐷2 /4 π × 0.152 /4
Inspect the Colebrook-White equation:
1 𝑘𝑠 2.51
= −2.0 log10 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 Re √𝜆
To use this we require the Reynolds number:
𝑉𝐷 1.698 × 0.15
Re = = = 254700
𝜈 1.0 × 10−6
Substituting values for 𝑘𝑠 , 𝐷 and Re in the Colebrook-White equation and rearranging for 𝜆:
1
𝜆= 2
9.854 × 10−6
[2.0 × log10 ( 1.081 × 10−4 + )]
√𝜆
Iterating from an initial guess, with successive values substituted into the RHS:
Initial guess: 𝜆 = 0.01
Successive iterations: 𝜆 = 0.01841, 0.01784, 0.01787, 0.01787, ...

𝜆 can then be substituted in the head-loss equation to derive ℎ:

𝐿 𝑉2 500 1.6982
ℎ=𝜆 ( ) = 0.01787 × × = 8.753 m
𝐷 2𝑔 0.15 2 × 9.81

Answer: head loss = 8.75 m.

Hydraulics 2 T2-13 David Apsley

Sizing problem: quantity of flow, 𝑄, and head difference, ℎ, known; find the required
diameter, 𝐷.

Example. A flow of 0.4 m3 s–1 is to be conveyed from a headworks at 1050 m AOD to a

treatment plant at 1000 m AOD. The length of the pipeline is 5 km. Estimate the required
diameter, assuming that 𝑘𝑠 = 0.03 mm.

Solution.
List known parameters:
𝑄 = 0.4 m3 s −1
ℎ = 50 m
𝐿 = 5000 m
𝑘𝑠 = 3 × 10−5 m
𝜈 = 1.0 × 10–6 m2 s–1

Before iterating, try to write 𝐷 in terms of 𝜆. From the head-loss equation:

𝐿 𝑉2 𝜆𝐿 𝑄 2 𝜆𝐿 𝑄 2
8𝐿𝑄 2 𝜆
ℎ=𝜆 ( ) = ( ) = ( ) =
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷 𝐴 2𝑔𝐷 π𝐷2 /4 π2 𝑔𝐷 5
1/5
8𝐿𝑄 2
 𝐷 = ( 2 𝜆)
π 𝑔ℎ
Substituting values of 𝑄, 𝐿 and ℎ gives a working expression (with 𝐷 in metres):
𝐷 = (1.322 𝜆)1/5 (*)

The Colebrook-White equation for 𝜆 is:

1 𝑘𝑠 2.51
= −2.0 log10 ( + )
√𝜆 3.7𝐷 Re √𝜆
The Reynolds number can be written in terms of the diameter 𝐷:
𝑉𝐷 𝑄 𝐷 4𝑄 5.093 × 105
Re = =( ) = =
𝜈 π𝐷 /4 𝜈
2 π𝜈𝐷 𝐷
Substituting this expression for Re we obtain an iterative formula for 𝜆:
1
𝜆= 2
8.108 × 10−6 4.928 × 10−6 𝐷 (**)
[2.0 × log10 ( + )]
𝐷 √𝜆

Iterate (*) and (**) in turn, until convergence.

Guess: 𝜆 = 0.01  𝐷 = 0.4210 m
Iteration 1: 𝜆 = 0.01293  𝐷 = 0.4432 m
Iteration 2: 𝜆 = 0.01276  𝐷 = 0.4420 m
Iteration 3: 𝜆 = 0.01277  𝐷 = 0.4421 m
Iteration 4: 𝜆 = 0.01277  𝐷 = 0.4421 m

Hydraulics 2 T2-14 David Apsley

 Answer: required diameter = 0.442 m.

In practice, commercial pipes are only made with certain standard diameters and the next
available larger diameter should be chosen.

Combined Pipe Friction and Minor Losses

In many circumstances, “minor” losses (including exit losses) actually contribute a significant
proportion of the total head loss and must be included in the head-loss equation
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ = (𝜆 + 𝐾)
𝐷 2𝑔
An iterative solution in conjunction with the Colebrook-White equation is then inevitable,
irrespective of the type of problem.

Example.
A reservoir is to be used to supply water to a factory 5 km away. The water level in the
reservoir is 60 m above the factory. The pipe lining has roughness 0.5 mm. Minor losses due
to valves and pipe fittings can be accommodated by a loss coefficient 𝐾 = 80. Calculate the
minimum diameter of pipe required to convey a discharge of 0.3 m3 s–1.

Answer: 0.443 m

Hydraulics 2 T2-15 David Apsley

1.8 Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines

Energy grade lines and hydraulic grade lines are graphical means of portraying the energy
changes along a pipeline.

Three elevations may be drawn:

pipe centreline 𝑧 geometric height
𝑝
hydraulic grade line (HGL) +𝑧 piezometric head
𝜌𝑔

𝑝 𝑉2
energy grade line (EGL) +𝑧+ total head
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝 is the gauge pressure (i.e. difference between the pressure and atmospheric pressure).

Illustrations

energy
grade li
ne
hydrau
lic grad
Pipe friction only e line
reservoir V2/2g

pipeline
p/g reservoir

entry loss

Pipe friction with minor losses EGL

HGL exit loss
(exaggerated), including change
in pipe diameter.
pipeline

Pumped system EGL

HGL

pipeline

pump

Hydraulics 2 T2-16 David Apsley

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

• Shows the change in total head along the pipeline.

• Starts and ends at still-water levels.

• Steady downward slope reflects pipe friction.

Slope change if pipe radius changes; (frictional losses less at lower velocity).
Small discontinuities correspond to minor losses.
Large discontinuities correspond to turbines (loss of head) or pumps (gain of head).

• The EGL represents the maximum height to which water may be delivered at
atmospheric pressure.

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

• Shows the change in piezometric head along the pipeline.

• For pipe flow the HGL lies a distance 𝑝/𝜌𝑔 above the pipe centreline. Thus, the
difference between pipe elevation and hydraulic grade line gives the static pressure, 𝑝.
If the HGL drops below pipe elevation this means negative gauge pressures (i.e. less
than atmospheric). This is generally undesirable since:
– extraneous matter may be sucked into the pipe through any leaks;
– for very negative gauge pressures, dissolved gases may come out of solution and
cause cavitation damage.

An HGL more than 𝑝atm /𝜌𝑔 (≈ 10 m of water) below the pipeline is impossible.

• The HGL is the height to which the liquid would rise in a piezometer tube.

• For open-channel flows (as opposed to pipes), pressure is atmospheric (i.e. 𝑝 = 0) at

the surface. The HGL is then simply the height of the free surface.

The EGL is always higher than the HGL by an amount equal to the dynamic head 𝑉 2 /2𝑔. For
uniform pipes (constant 𝑉), the two grade lines are parallel.

Hydraulics 2 T2-17 David Apsley

 Example. (Exam 2016)
The two reservoirs illustrated are used for water storage and supply. The water levels in the
reservoirs are constant and equal to 70 m AOD in the lower reservoir (Reservoir A) and 82 m
AOD in the upper reservoir (Reservoir B). The reservoirs are connected by a 1.2 km long
pipe with diameter 𝐷 = 200 mm and wall roughness 𝑘𝑠 = 0.2 mm. A pump is installed in
the pipe as illustrated in the figure.
82 m

70 m Reservoir B

P
Reservoir A

Neglecting minor losses,

(a) sketch the qualitative behaviour of the energy and hydraulic grade lines between
Reservoir A and Reservoir B if the system operates under gravity alone (i.e. without
the pump);

(b) sketch the qualitative behaviour of the energy and hydraulic grade lines between
Reservoir A and Reservoir B when the pump is operating and the flow direction is
from Reservoir A to Reservoir B;

(c) find the pump head required to deliver a discharge of 0.025 m3 s −1 to reservoir B.

Solution.
(a)
82 m
ne
grade li
energy
e line
lic grad
70 m hydrau Reservoir B

P
Reservoir A

(b)
energy g
rade line
hydraulic 82 m
grade line

70 m Reservoir B

P
Reservoir A

Hydraulics 2 T2-18 David Apsley

 (c)
𝐿 = 1200 m
𝐷 = 0.2 m
𝑘𝑠 = 2 × 10−4 m
𝑄 = 0.025 m3 s −1
(𝜈 = 1.0 × 10−6 m2 s −1 )

From the flow rate, the bulk velocity is

flow rate 𝑄 4 × 0.025
𝑉= = = = 0.7958 m s−1
area π𝐷2 /4 π × 0.22
and the Reynolds number is
𝑉𝐷 0.7958 × 0.2
Re = = = 159200
𝜈 1.0 × 10−6

The pump head is required to provide the static lift (ℎ𝑠 = 82 − 70 = 12 m) and overcome
frictional losses (ℎ𝑓 ).

Inspect the head-loss equation:

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆
𝐷 2𝑔
ℎ𝑓 will be known if we can find 𝜆.

Rearranging the Colebrook-White equation:

1 1
𝜆= 2 = 2
𝑘𝑠 2.51 2 × 10−4 2.51
[2.0 log10 (3.7𝐷 + )] [2.0 log10 (3.7 × 0.2 + )]
Re√𝜆 159200√𝜆
Hence,
1
𝜆= 2
1.577 × 10−5
[2.0 log10 (2.703 × 10−4 + )]
√𝜆
Iterating (from, e.g., 0.01) gives 𝜆 = 0.02135.

Hence,
𝐿 𝑉2 1200 0.79582
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜆 = 0.02135 × × = 4.135 m
𝐷 2𝑔 0.2 2 × 9.81
The pump head required is
𝐻pump = ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝑓 = 12 + 4.135 = 16.14 m

Answer: 16.1 m.

Hydraulics 2 T2-19 David Apsley

1.9 Simple Pipe Networks

For all pipe networks the following basic principles apply:

(1) continuity at junctions (total flow in = total flow out);
(2) the head is uniquely defined at any point;
(3) each pipe satisfies its individual resistance law (i.e. head-loss vs discharge relation):
ℎ = 𝛼𝑄 2

The last of these comes from the proportionality between head loss and dynamic head, i.e.
𝐿 𝑉2 𝑄
ℎ = (𝜆 + 𝐾) , where 𝑉=
𝐷 2𝑔 π𝐷2 /4
𝜆 is the friction factor and 𝐾 is the sum of minor loss coefficients.

For hand calculations, 𝛼 is often taken as a constant for each pipe. (A computer program would
be able to take into account its slight variation with flow rate).

There is a useful analogy with electrical networks:

head, 𝐻 ↔ potential, 𝑉
discharge, 𝑄 ↔ current, 𝐼
pipe ↔ resistor
However, the hydraulic equivalent of Ohm’s law is usually non-linear:
head loss 𝐻 ∝ 𝑄 2 ↔ potential difference Δ𝑉 ∝ 𝐼

1.9.1 Pipes in Series

2
1

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 same flow
𝐻 = Δ𝐻1 + Δ𝐻2 add the head changes

1.9.2 Pipes in Parallel

2
Δ𝐻1 = Δ𝐻2 same head change
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 add the flows

Hydraulics 2 T2-20 David Apsley

1.9.3 Branched Pipes – Single Junction

The simplest case is three pipes meeting at a single junction.

If the flows are known then the heads can be determined (relative to the head at one point) by
calculating the head losses along each pipe.

If, however, the heads 𝐻𝐴 , 𝐻𝐵 and 𝐻𝐶 are known A

(for example, from the water levels in reservoirs)
then we have a classic problem known as the three-
reservoir problem. (3 is just the smallest number B
that makes this non-trivial. Obviously, the 𝑛-
J ?
reservoir problem can be solved in the same way,
but with a proportionately larger amount of work.)
C
The head at J is adjusted (iteratively) to satisfy:

(a) the loss equation (ℎ = 𝛼𝑄 2) for each pipe; i.e:

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐴 |
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐴 | = 𝛼𝐽𝐴 𝑄𝐽𝐴 ⟺ 𝑄𝐽𝐴 = ±√
𝛼𝐽𝐴

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐵 |
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐵 | = 𝛼𝐽𝐵 𝑄𝐽𝐵 ⟺ 𝑄𝐽𝐵 = ±√
𝛼𝐽𝐵

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐶 |
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐶 | = 𝛼𝐽𝐶 𝑄𝐽𝐶 ⟺ 𝑄𝐽𝐶 = ±√
𝛼𝐽𝐶

(b) continuity at the junction J:

net flow 𝑜𝑢𝑡 of junction = 𝑄𝐽𝐴 + 𝑄𝐽𝐵 + 𝑄𝐽𝐶 = 0

Note the sign convention: 𝑄𝐽𝐴 is the flow from J to A; it will be negative if the flow actually
goes from A to J. The direction of flow in any pipe is always from high head to low head.

Although we consider only 3 reservoirs, the problem and its solution method clearly generalise
to any number of reservoirs (and, in fact, to any number of junctions).

Solution Procedure

(0) Establish the head-loss vs discharge (resistance) equations for each pipe;
(1) guess an initial head at the junction, 𝐻𝐽 ;
(2) calculate flow rates in all pipes (from the head differences);
(3) calculate net flow out of J;
(4) as necessary, adjust 𝐻𝐽 to reduce any flow imbalance and repeat from (2).

If the direction of flow in a pipe, say JB, is not obvious then a good initial guess is to set 𝐻𝐽 =
𝐻𝐵 so that there is initially no flow in this pipe. The first flow-rate calculation will then establish

Hydraulics 2 T2-21 David Apsley

whether 𝐻𝐽 should be lowered or raised and hence the direction of flow in this pipe.

Example.
Reservoirs A, B and C have constant water levels of 150, 120 and 90 m respectively above
datum and are connected by pipes to a single junction J at elevation 125 m. The length (L),
diameter (𝐷), friction factor (𝜆) and minor-loss coefficient (𝐾) of each pipe are given below.

Pipe 𝑳 (𝐦) 𝑫 (𝐦) 𝝀 𝑲

JA 1600 0.3 0.015 40
JB 1600 0.2 0.015 25
JC 2400 0.25 0.025 50

(a) Calculate the flow in each pipe.

(b) Calculate the reading of a Bourdon pressure gauge attached to the junction J.

Solution.
First, prepare head-loss vs discharge relations for each pipe:
𝐿 𝑉2 𝑄 𝑄
ℎ = (𝜆 + 𝐾) where 𝑉= =
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐴 π𝐷2 /4

𝐿 8
 ℎ = (𝜆 + 𝐾) 2 4 × 𝑄 2
𝐷 π 𝑔𝐷

Substituting 𝐿, 𝐷, 𝜆 and 𝐾 for each pipe we obtain the head-loss vs discharge relationships:

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐴 | = 1224𝑄𝐽𝐴 |𝐻𝐽 − 150|
Pipe AJ: or 𝑄𝐽𝐴 = ±√
1224

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐵 | = 7488𝑄𝐽𝐵 |𝐻𝐽 − 120|
Pipe BJ: or 𝑄𝐽𝐵 = ±√
7488

2
|𝐻𝐽 − 𝐻𝐶 | = 6134𝑄𝐽𝐶 |𝐻𝐽 − 90|
Pipe CJ: or 𝑄𝐽𝐶 = ±√
6134

The value of 𝐻𝐽 is varied until the net flow out of J is 0.

• If there is net flow into the junction then 𝐻𝐽 needs to be raised.
• If there is net flow out of the junction then 𝐻𝐽 needs to be lowered.
After the first two guesses at 𝐻𝐽 , subsequent iterations are guided by interpolation.

The working is conveniently set out in a table.

Hydraulics 2 T2-22 David Apsley

 𝐻𝐽 𝑄𝐽𝐴 𝑄𝐽𝐵 𝑄𝐽𝐶 Net flow out of J
(m) (m3 s –1 ) (m3 s–1 ) (m3 s–1 ) (m3 s–1)
= 𝑄𝐽𝐴 + 𝑄𝐽𝐵 + 𝑄𝐽𝐶
|𝐻𝐽 − 150| |𝐻𝐽 − 120| |𝐻𝐽 − 90|
= ±√ = ±√ = ±√
1224 7488 6134
120 – 0.1566 0.0000 0.0699 – 0.0867
140 – 0.0904 0.0517 0.0903 0.0516
132.5 – 0.1196 0.0409 0.0832 0.0045
131.8 – 0.1219 0.0397 0.0825 0.0003

This is sufficient accuracy (0.0003/0.1219 or about 0.25%). The quantity of flow in each
pipe is given in the bottom row of the table, with the direction implied by the sign.

(b) A Bourdon gauge measures absolute pressure. From the piezometric head at the junction:
𝑝
𝐻𝐽 = +𝑧
𝜌𝑔
where 𝑝 is the gauge pressure. Hence,
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔(𝐻𝐽 − 𝑧) = 1000 × 9.81 × (131.8 − 125) = 66708 Pa

Taking atmospheric pressure as 101325 Pa, the absolute pressure is then

101325 + 66708 = 168033 Pa

Answer: 1.68 bar.

Hydraulics 2 T2-23 David Apsley

1.10 Complex Pipe Networks (Optional)

1.10.1 Loop Method (Hardy-Cross, 1936)

Used for networks made up of a series of closed loops, where the external flows are known.

Basic Idea

Start with any flow satisfying continuity. Apply iterative loop 1

flow corrections 𝛿𝑄 until the net head change round each
loop is 0. loop 2

Adopt a suitable sign convention (e.g. 𝑄 positive if

clockwise) in each loop. The signed head loss for any
particular pipe is then
ℎ = 𝑠𝛼𝑄 2 (19)
with the sign function 𝑠 being +1 if 𝑄 is positive and −1 if 𝑄 is negative.

Initially, the net head loss round a closed loop probably won’t be 0. To try to achieve this after
perturbing the flow in all pipes of a loop by 𝛿𝑄 require

∑ 𝑠𝛼(𝑄 + 𝛿𝑄)2 = 0
loop

where 𝛿𝑄 is the same for every pipe in that loop. Expanding:

∑ 𝑠𝛼𝑄 2 + 2 (∑ 𝑠𝛼𝑄) 𝛿𝑄 + (∑ 𝑠𝛼) 𝛿𝑄 2 = 0

Neglecting the second-order 𝛿𝑄 2 term, and noting that 𝑠𝑄 = |𝑄|, leads to a flow correction for
this loop of
∑ 𝛼𝑄|𝑄|
𝛿𝑄 = − (20)
2 ∑ 𝛼|𝑄|

This update is applied successively to every pipe in the loop.

Algorithm

Divide the network into closed loops.

Start with any flow satisfying continuity.

For each loop in turn:

• calculate 𝛿𝑄 using equation (20);
• update all pipes in this loop by 𝛿𝑄.

Repeat until the net head change around all loops is sufficiently small.

An example with two loops is given on the Example Sheet.

Hydraulics 2 T2-24 David Apsley

1.10.2 Nodal Method (Cornish, 1939)

Used for loops or branches where the external heads are known. In H1 H2
essence, this is a generalisation of the iterative technique for the 𝑛-
reservoir problem with a more algorithmic head increment at each
junction and several junctions whose head increments are
connected by simultaneous equations.

Basic Idea

Start with guessed heads 𝐻𝑖 at each internal junction and calculate

the resulting flow in each pipe. Apply iterative head corrections 𝛿𝐻𝑖
H3 H4
so as to satisfy continuity at each junction.

As in the previous subsection, head changes at junctions 𝑖 and 𝑗 cause a change in the flow
between them:
𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑗
𝛿𝐻𝑖 − 𝛿𝐻𝑗 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝛼𝑖𝑗 𝑄𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑗 =2 𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑗 (21)
𝑄𝑖𝑗
where 𝑄𝑖𝑗 is the flow rate from the 𝑖th node to the 𝑗th node, with appropriate sign.

Initially, the net outflow at the 𝑖 th junction won’t be 0; to try to achieve this we aim to perturb
the flow so that

∑(𝑄𝑖𝑗 + 𝛿𝑄𝑖𝑗 ) = 0 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯
𝑗≠𝑖

or
𝑄𝑖𝑗
∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑗 + ∑ (𝛿𝐻𝑖 − 𝛿𝐻𝑗 ) = 0, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, ⋯ (22)
2(𝐻𝑖 − 𝐻𝑗 )
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖

Taken over all junctions 𝑖 this gives a set of simultaneous equations for the 𝛿𝐻𝑖 .

A 2-junction example is given on the Example Sheet.

Hydraulics 2 T2-25 David Apsley

2. OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Flow in open channels (e.g. rivers, canals, guttering, ...) and partially-full closed conduits (e.g.
sewers) is characterised by the presence of a free surface where the pressure is atmospheric.

Unlike pipe flow, open-channel flow is always driven by gravity, not pressure.

PIPE FLOW OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Fluid: LIQUIDS or GASES LIQUIDS (free surface)
Driven by: PRESSURE, GRAVITY or BOTH GRAVITY (down slope)
Size: DIAMETER HYDRAULIC RADIUS
Volume: FILLS pipe Depends on DEPTH
Equations: DARCY-WEISBACH (head loss) MANNING’S FORMULA
COLEBROOK-WHITE (friction factor)

2.1 Normal Flow

The flow is uniform if the velocity profile does not change along the channel. (This is at best
an approximation for natural channels like rivers where the channel cross-section changes.)
The flow is steady if it does not change with time.

Steady uniform flow is called normal flow and the depth of water is called the normal depth.
The normal depth, ℎ, depends on the discharge, 𝑄.

V
2 EGL
2g hf
HGL (fr
ee surfa
ce): p =
0
h

In normal flow, equal hydrostatic pressure forces at any cross-section mean no net pressure
force. Hence, the downslope component of weight balances bed friction;

Note.
The following assumes the slope to be sufficiently small for there to be negligible difference
between the depth ℎ measured vertically (which determines the energy level) and that
perpendicular to the bed of the channel (which determines the flow rate).

Hydraulics 2 T2-26 David Apsley

2.2 Hydraulic Radius and the Drag Law

In both open channels and partially-full pipes, wall friction occurs

only along the wetted perimeter.
A
Let 𝐴 be the cross-sectional area occupied by fluid and 𝑃 the wetted
P perimeter.

L
For steady, uniform flow, the component of
weight down the slope balances bed friction:
(𝜌𝐴𝐿)𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜏𝑏 (𝑃𝐿)
where 𝜏𝑏 is the average bed stress. Hence,
mg
𝐴
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔 ( ) sin 𝜃 b 
𝑃
Define:
Hydraulic radius
𝐴 cross-sectional area
𝑅ℎ ≡ = (23)
𝑃 wetted perimeter
Note that, in general, the hydraulic radius depends on depth.

Hence,
Normal flow relationship
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 (24)
where 𝑆 (= drop  length) is the slope. (We have assumed tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃 for small angles.)

Examples.
(1) For a circular pipe running full,
𝐴 π𝑅 2 1
𝑅ℎ = = = 𝑅 (25)
𝑃 2π𝑅 2
i.e. for a full circular pipe, the hydraulic radius is half the geometric radius. (Sorry! Just
one of those things!) As a result, it is common to define a hydraulic diameter, 𝐷ℎ , by
𝐷ℎ = 4𝑅ℎ

(2) For a rectangular channel of width 𝑏 with water depth ℎ,

𝐴 𝑏ℎ ℎ
𝑅ℎ = = =
𝑃 𝑏 + 2ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏
For a wide channel, ℎ/𝑏 ≪ 1, and hence
𝑅ℎ = ℎ
i.e. in a wide channel, 𝑅ℎ is equal to the depth of flow.

To progress we need an expression for the average bed stress 𝜏𝑏 .

Hydraulics 2 T2-27 David Apsley

2.3 Friction Laws – Chézy and Manning’s Formulae

From the balance of forces above:

𝜏𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆
In principle, a (skin-)friction coefficient can be used to relate the (average) bed shear stress to
the dynamic pressure. Hence,
1
𝑐𝑓 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 𝜌𝑔𝑅ℎ 𝑆 (26)
2

Friction factors 𝜆 = 4𝑐𝑓 based on the Colebrook-White equation (using 4𝑅ℎ as the hydraulic
diameter) are unsatisfactory for open conduits because the shear stress is not constant on the
wetted perimeter. Engineers use simpler empirical formulae due to Chézy9 and Manning10.

Rearranging equation (26) gives:

2𝑔
𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑆
𝑐𝑓 ℎ
whence:
Chézy’s Formula:
𝑉 = 𝐶√𝑅ℎ 𝑆 (27)
𝐶 = √2𝑔/𝑐𝑓 is Chézy’s coefficient. This gives the variation with slope for a particular channel,
but it is not a helpful equation because 𝐶 varies with channel roughness and hydraulic radius.

The most popular correlation for 𝐶 is that of Manning who proposed, on the basis of a review
of experimental data, that
1/6
𝐶 = 𝑅ℎ × function of roughness
which he chose to write as
1/6
𝑅
𝐶= ℎ
𝑛
Combined with Chézy’s formula (27), this yields:
Manning’s Formula:
1 2/3 1/2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 (28)
𝑛 ℎ

Very important.
Both Chézy’s 𝐶 and Manning’s 𝑛 are dimensional and depend on the units used. Typical values
of 𝑛 in metre-second units are given in the Appendix. Typical values for artificially-lined
channels and natural water courses are 0.015 m–1/3 s and 0.035 m–1/3 s respectively.

9
Antoine Chézy (1718-1798); French engineer who carried out experiments on the canals in Paris.
10
Robert Manning (1816-1897); Irish engineer. Actually, if you live on the wrong side of the English Channel
then what we call Manning’s equation is variously ascribed to Gauckler and/or Strickler.

Hydraulics 2 T2-28 David Apsley

2.4 Uniform-Flow Calculations

Assuming that the channel slope, shape and lining material are known, there are two main
classes of problem:

(Type A - easy) Given the depth (ℎ) determine the quantity of flow (𝑄)
Calculate:
(1) cross-sectional area 𝐴 and wetted perimeter 𝑃 from geometry of channel;
(2) hydraulic radius 𝑅ℎ = 𝐴/𝑃.
1 2/3
(3) average velocity from Manning’s formula: 𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 1/2.
(4) quantity of flow from velocity  area: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴.

(Type B - harder) Given the quantity of flow (𝑄) determine the depth (ℎ)

(1) Follow the steps for Type A above to write algebraic expressions for,
successively, 𝑄 in terms of depth ℎ.

(2) Invert the 𝑄 vs ℎ relationship graphically or numerically; (e.g. by iteration or

repeated trial).

Example. A smooth concrete-lined channel has trapezoidal cross-section with base width
6 m and sides of slope 1V:2H. If the bed slope is 1 in 500 and the normal depth is 2 m
calculate the quantity of flow.

Solution.
We are given slope 𝑆 = 0.002. From the Appendix, Manning’s 𝑛 is 0.012 m–1/3 s.

2m

6m 4m

Break the trapezoidal section into rectangular and triangular elements to obtain,
successively:
1
Area: 𝐴 = 6×2+2× ×4×2 = 20 m2
2

Wetted perimeter: 𝑃 = 6 + 2 × √42 + 22 = 14.94 m

𝐴 20
Hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ = = = 1.339 m
𝑃 14.94
1 2/3 1/2 2/3
Average velocity: 𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆 = 3.727 × 𝑅ℎ = 4.528 m s −1
𝑛 ℎ
Quantity of flow: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = 4.528 × 20 = 90.56 m3 s −1

Answer: 90.6 m3 s–1.

Hydraulics 2 T2-29 David Apsley

 Example. For the channel above, if the quantity of flow is 40 m3 s–1, what is the normal
depth?

Solution. This time we need to leave all quantities as functions of height h. In metre-second
units we have the following.
Area: 𝐴 = 6ℎ + 2ℎ2

Wetted perimeter: 𝑃 = 6 + 2√5 ℎ

𝐴
Hydraulic radius: 𝑅ℎ ≡
𝑃

1 2/3 √𝑆 𝐴 2/3
Average velocity: 𝑉 = 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 1/2 = ( )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑃
5/3
√𝑆 𝐴5/3 (6ℎ + 2ℎ2 )
Quantity of flow: 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 = = 3.727
𝑛 𝑃2/3 (6 + 2√5 ℎ)
2/3

Now simply try a few values of ℎ to aim for 𝑄 = 40 m3 s −1 :

ℎ (m) 𝑄 (m3 s −1 )
2 90.523
1 24.92
1.23 36.28
1.28 39.03
1.30 40.16

After the first two guesses, subsequent choices of ℎ home in on the solution by
interpolating/extrapolating from previous results.
Answer: ℎ = 1.30 m

Exercise. Use a spreadsheet or (better) write a computer program to solve this automatically.

Hydraulics 2 T2-30 David Apsley

2.5 Conveyance
1 2/3
Combining Manning’s formula for average velocity (𝑉 = 𝑛 𝑅ℎ 𝑆 1/2 ) with expressions for
hydraulic radius (𝑅ℎ = 𝐴/𝑃) and discharge (𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴) we obtain:
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑆 1/2 (29)
where
1 𝐴5/3
𝐾= (30)
𝑛 𝑃2/3

𝐾 is a function of the channel geometry and the roughness of its lining. It is called the
conveyance of the channel and is a measure of the channel’s discharge-carrying capacity.

The primary use of 𝐾 is in determining the 1 2 3

discharge capacity of compound channels – for
example river and flood plain. By adding the flood plain river flood plain
contribution to total discharge from individual
components with different roughness:

𝑄 = ∑ 𝑄𝑖 = ∑ 𝐾𝑖 𝑆 1/2 = 𝐾eff 𝑆 1/2

the total conveyance is simply the sum of the separate conveyances:

𝐾eff = ∑ 𝐾𝑖

2.6 Optimal Shape of Cross-Section

Expressions for 𝐴, 𝑃 and 𝑅ℎ for important channel shapes are given below.

rectangle trapezoid circle

h h  R

h
b b

cross-sectional area, ℎ2 1
𝐴
𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ + 𝑅 2 (𝜃 − sin 2𝜃)
tan 𝛼 2

wetted perimeter, 2ℎ
𝑏 + 2ℎ 𝑏+ 2𝑅𝜃
𝑃 sin 𝛼

hydraulic radius, ℎ 𝑏 + ℎ/ tan 𝛼 𝑅 sin 2𝜃

ℎ (1 − )
𝑅ℎ 1 + 2ℎ/𝑏 𝑏 + 2ℎ/ sin 𝛼 2 2𝜃

The most hydraulically-efficient shape of channel is the one which can pass the greatest

Hydraulics 2 T2-31 David Apsley

quantity of flow for any given area. This occurs for the minimum hydraulic radius or,
equivalently, for the minimum wetted perimeter corresponding to the given area.

A semi-circle is the most hydraulically-efficient of all channel cross-sections. However,

hydraulic efficiency is not the only consideration and one must also consider, for example,
fabrication costs, excavation and, for loose granular linings, the maximum slope of the sides.
Many applications favour trapezoidal channels.

Trapezoidal Channels

For a trapezoidal channel:

ℎ2
cross-sectional area: 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ +
tan 𝛼 h

2ℎ
wetted perimeter: 𝑃=𝑏+ b
sin 𝛼

What depth of flow and what angle of side give maximum hydraulic efficiency?

To minimise the wetted perimeter for maximum hydraulic efficiency, we substitute for 𝑏 in
terms of the fixed area 𝐴:
2ℎ 𝐴 ℎ 2ℎ 𝐴 2 1
𝑃=𝑏+ =( − )+ = + ℎ( − ) (31)
sin 𝛼 ℎ tan 𝛼 sin 𝛼 ℎ sin 𝛼 tan 𝛼
To minimise 𝑃 with respect to water depth we set
𝜕𝑃 𝐴 2 1
≡− 2+( − )=0
𝜕ℎ ℎ sin 𝛼 tan 𝛼
and, on substituting the bracketed term into the expression (31) for 𝑃, we obtain
2𝐴
𝑃=
ℎ
The hydraulic radius is then
𝐴 ℎ
𝑅ℎ ≡ =
𝑃 2
In other words, for maximum hydraulic efficiency, a trapezoidal channel should be so
proportioned that its hydraulic radius is half the depth of flow.

Similarly, to minimise 𝑃 with respect to the angle of slope of the sides, α, we set
𝜕𝑃 −2 1 ℎ
≡ ℎ ( 2 cos 𝛼 + sec 2 𝛼) = (1 − 2 cos 𝛼) =0
𝜕𝛼 sin 𝛼 tan2 𝛼 sin2 𝛼
1
This occurs when cos 𝛼 = . The most efficient side angle for a trapezoidal channel is 60.
2

Substituting these results for ℎ and 𝛼 into the general expression for 𝑅ℎ one obtains ℎ/𝑏 =
√3/2; i.e. the most hydraulically-efficient trapezoidal channel shape is half a regular
hexagon.

Hydraulics 2 T2-32 David Apsley

Circular Ducts

In similar fashion it can be shown that the maximum quantity of flow for a circular duct actually
occurs when the duct is not full – in fact for a depth about 94% of the diameter (Exercise.
Prove it; then try to explain in words why you might expect this).

Hydraulics 2 T2-33 David Apsley

Appendix

Material 𝑘𝑠 (mm)
Riveted steel 0.9 – 9.0
Concrete 0.3 – 3.0
Wood stave 0.18 – 0.9
Cast iron 0.26
Galvanised iron 0.15
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Glass 0 (smooth)

Table 1. Typical roughness for commercial pipes (from White, 2021).

𝑛 (m–1/3 s)
Artificial lined channels:
Glass 0.01
Brass 0.011
Steel, smooth 0.012
painted 0.014
riveted 0.015
Cast iron 0.013
Concrete, finished 0.012
unfinished 0.014
Planed wood 0.012
Clay tile 0.014
Brickwork 0.015
Asphalt 0.016
Corrugated metal 0.022
Rubble masonry 0.025
Excavated earth channels:
Clean 0.022
Gravelly 0.025
Weedy 0.03
Stony, cobbles 0.035
Natural channels:
Clean and straight 0.03
Sluggish, deep pools 0.04
Major rivers 0.035
Floodplains:
Pasture, farmland 0.035
Light brush 0.05
Heavy brush 0.075
Trees 0.15

Table 2. Typical values of Manning’s 𝑛 (from White, 2021).

Hydraulics 2 T2-34 David Apsley