For this week, November 18-20, 2021of this grading period, the following shall be your guide for

the different
lessons and tasks that you need to accomplish. Be patient, read it carefully before proceeding to the tasks
expected of you.
GOOD LUCK!

Date Topic Activities or Tasks

November 18-20 Read nd understand nature
Underground Distribution of underground
distribution, impedances
and other issues involving
underground distribution
system.

Read and familiarized the

different method in fault
testing.

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

THERMODYNAMICS

Content
5. Underground Distribution

Learning Outcomes  Identify the correct ampacity and fault withstands capability of
overhead conductors

 Identify the different materials, devices and conductors used in

overhead distribution lines.

 Develop patience and hard work in finding solutions.

Impedances

Resistance

Cable conductor resistance is an important part of impedance that is used for fault studies and load flow
studies. Resistance also greatly impacts a cable’s ampacity. The major variable that affects resistance is the
conductor’s temperature; resistance rises with temperature. Magnetic fields from alternating currents also reduce
a conductor’s resistance relative to its dc resistance. At power frequencies, skin effect is only apparent for large
conductors and proximity effect only occurs for conductors in very tight configurations.

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 1 | 11

where
Rt2 = resistance at temperature t2 given, °C
Rt1 = resistance at temperature t1 given, °C
M = a temperature coefficient for the given material
= 228.1 for aluminum
= 234.5 for soft-drawn copper

The ac resistance of a conductor is the dc resistance increased by a skin effect factor and a proximity effect
factor

𝑅𝑎𝑐 = (1 + 𝑌𝑐𝑠 + 𝑌𝑐𝑝 )

where
Rdc = dc resistance at the desired operating temperature, Ω/1000 ft
Ycs = skin-effect factor
Ycp = proximity effect factor

Capacitance

Cables have significant capacitance, much more than overhead lines. A single- conductor cable has a
capacitance given by:

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 2 | 11

 0.024𝜀𝑟
𝐶=
𝐷
𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑑

Where
C is the capacitance,μ/F/km
D is the outside diameter of the insulation
D is the inside diameter of the insulation
𝜀𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The vars provided by cable are

𝑄𝑣𝑎𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉∅ ²

Where
𝑄𝑣𝑎𝑟 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟/𝑘𝑚
f is the frequency, Hz
C is the capacitance
𝑉𝐿𝐺 is the line-to-ground voltage, kV

Ampacity

A cable’s ampacity is the maximum continuous current rating of the cable. The insulation temperature is
normally the limiting factor. By operating below the ampacity of a given cable, we keep the cable insulation below
its recommended maximum temperature.

Operating cables above their ampacity increases the likelihood of premature failures: water trees may
grow faster, thermal runaway-failures are more likely, and insulation strength may decrease. In addition to
absolute temperature, thermal cycling also ages cable more quickly.

Ampacity most often limits the loading on a cable; rarely, voltage drop or flicker limits loadings. Relative
to overhead lines, cables of a given size have lower impedance and lower ampacities.

Ampacity is not the only consideration for cable selection; losses and stocking considerations should also
factor into cable selection. Choosing the smallest cable that meets ampacity requirements has the lowest initial
cost, but since the cable is running hotter, the cost over its life may not be optimal because of the losses. Also
allow for load growth when selecting cables.

Using the thermal equivalent of Ohm’s law, the temperature difference is:

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝐻 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 (𝐼 2 𝑅)

where
𝑇𝐶 = conductor temperature, °C
𝑇𝐴 = ambient earth temperature, °C
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = total thermal resistance between the cable conductor and the air,
thermal W-ft
H = heat generated in the cable, W ( = I ²R)
I = electric current in the conductor, A
R = electric resistance of the conductor, W/ft

Thermal resistivity quantifies the insulating characteristics of a material. The thermal resistance of a
material quantifies the radial temperature rise from the center outward. One thermal W-ft has a radial temperature
rise of 1°C for a heat flow of 1 W per ft of length (length along the conductor).

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 3 | 11

Ampacities for common distribution configurations.

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 4 | 11

Conductor temperature limits, sheath resistance, thermal resistivity of the soil — these are some of the variables
that most impact ampacity.

Sheath resistance — on a three-phase circuit, the resistance of the sheath (or shield or neutral) plays an
important role in ampacity calculations. Because a cable’s phase conductor and sheath couple so tightly, current
through the phase induces a large voltage along the sheath. With the cable sheath grounded periodically,
circulating current flows to counter the induced voltage.

Spacings — separating cables separates the heat sources. But at larger spacings, circulating currents are
higher. Optimal spacings involve balancing these effects. For smaller cables, separating cables provides the
best ampacity.

For larger cables (with larger circulating currents), triplex or other tight spacing improves ampacity. For
one-third neutral, aluminum cables, NRECA (1993) shows that a flat spacing with 7.5 in between cables has
better ampacity than triplex for conductors 500 kcmil and smaller. For copper cables, the threshold is lower:
conductors larger than 4/0 have better ampacity with a triplex configuration.

Conductor temperature — if we allow a higher conductor temperature, we can operate a cable at higher current.
If we know the ampacity for a given conductor temperature, at a different conductor temperature we can find the
ampacity with the following approximation:

Loss factor — The earth has a high thermal storage capability; it takes considerable time to heat (or cool) the
soil surrounding the cable. Close to the cable, the peak heat generated in the cable determines the temperature
drop; farther out, the average heat generated in the cable determines the temperature drop.

Conduits — The air space in conduits or ducts significantly reduces ampacity. The air insulation barrier traps
more heat in the cable. Direct-buried cables may have 10 to 25% higher ampacities. Although, the less air the
better, there is little practical difference in the thermal performance between the sizes of ducts commonly used.
Concrete duct banks have roughly the same thermal performance as direct-buried conduits (concrete is more
consistent and less prone to moisture fluctuations).

Soil thermal resistivity and temperature —Soils with lower thermal resistivity more readily conduct heat away
from cables. Moisture is an important component, moist soil has lower thermal resistivity (see Figure 3.12).
Dense soil normally has better conductivity. More so than any other single factor, soil resistivity impacts the
conductor’s temperature and the cable’s ampacity.

Earth interface temperature — because soil conductivity depends on moisture, the temperature at the interface
between the cable or duct and the soil is important. Unfortunately, heat tends to push moisture away. High
interface temperatures can dry out the surrounding soil, which further increases the soil’s thermal resistivity. Soil
drying can lead to a runaway situation; hotter cable temperatures dry the soil more, raising the cable temperature
more and so on.

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 5 | 11

Current unbalance — almost every ampacity table (including those in this section) assumes balanced, three-
phase currents. On multigrounded distribution systems, this assumption is rarely true. An ampacity of 100 A
means a limit of 100 A on each conductor. Unbalance restricts the power a three-phase cable circuit can carry
(IA = IB = IC = 100 A carries more power than IA = 100 A, IB = IC = 70 A).

System voltage and insulation thickness — neither significantly impacts the ampacity of distribution cables.
Ampacity stays constant with voltage; 5-kV cables have roughly the same ampacity as 35-kV cables. At higher
voltages, insulation is thicker, but this rise in the thermal resistance of the insulation reduces the ampacity just
slightly. Higher operating voltages also cause higher dielectric losses, but again, the effect is small (it is more
noticeable with EPR cable).

Number of cables — Cables in parallel heat each other, which restricts ampacity.

Cable crossings and other hotspots — Tests have found that cable crossings can produce significant hotspots
(Koch, 2001). Other hotspots can occur in locations where cables are paralleled for a short distance like taps to
padmounted transformers or other gear. Differences in surface covering (such as asphalt roads) can also
produce hot spots

Riser poles — Cables on a riser pole require special attention. The protective vertical conduit traps air, and the
sun adds external heating. Hartlein and Black (1983) tested a specific riser configuration and developed an
analytical model. They concluded that the size of the riser and the amount of venting were important. Large
diameter risers vented at both ends are the best. With three cables in one riser, they found that the riser portion
of the circuit limits the ampacity. This is especially important in substation exit cables and their riser poles.

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 6 | 11

Fault Withstand Capability

Short-circuit currents through a conductor’s resistance generates tremendous heat. All cable between
the source and the fault is subjected to the same phase current. For cables, the weakest link is the insulation;
both XLPE and
EPR have a short-duration upper temperature limit of 250°C. The short circuit current injects energy as a function
of the fault duration multiplied by the square of the current.

For aluminum conductors and XLPE or EPR insulation, the maximum allowable time-current characteristic is
given by:

𝐼 2 𝑡 = (48.4𝐴)²
where
I = fault current, A
t = fault duration, sec
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, kcmil

This assumes an upper temperature limit of 250°C and a 90°C starting temperature. For copper, the upper limit
is defined by

𝐼 2 𝑡 = (72.2𝐴)²

Damage to the shield or the neutral is more likely than damage to the phase conductor. During a ground
fault, the sheath may conduct almost as much current as the phase conductor, and the sheath is normally
smaller. With a one-third neutral, the cable neutral’s I²t withstand is approximately 2.5 times less than the values
for the phase conductor (this assumes a 65°C starting temperature).

Tape shield has a limiting time-current characteristic of:

𝐼 2 𝑡 = (𝑧 ∙ 𝐴)²

where z is 79.1 for sheaths of copper, 58.2 for bronze, 39.2 for zinc, 23.7 for copper-nickel, and 15 for lead [with
a 65°C starting temperature and an upper limit of 250°C;

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 7 | 11

Cable Reliability

The most common failure cause of solid-dielectric cables has been water treeing. Water trees develop over a
period of many years and accelerate the failure of solid dielectric cables. Excessive treeing has led to the
premature failure of many polyethylene cables. Cable insulation can tree two ways:

 Electrical trees — these hollow tubes develop from high electrical stress; this stress creates partial
discharges that eat away at the insulation. Once initiated, electrical trees can grow fast, failing cable
within hours or days.
 Water trees — water trees are small discrete voids separated by insulation. Water trees develop slowly,
growing over a period of months or years. Much less electrical stress is needed to cause water trees.
Water trees actually look more like fans, blooms, or bushes whereas electrical trees look more like jagged
branched trees. As its name indicates, water trees need moisture to grow; water that enters the dielectric
accumulates in specific areas (noncrystalline regions) and causes localized degradation. Voids,
contaminants, temperature, and voltage stress — all influence the rate of growth.

The formation of water trees does not necessarily mean the cable will fail. A water tree can even bridge the entire
dielectric without immediate failure. Failure occurs when a water tree converts to an electrical tree.

The growth rate of water trees tends to reduce with time; as trees fan out, the electrical stress on the tree reduces.
Trees that grow from contaminants near the boundary of the conductor shield are most likely to keep growing.
These are “vented” trees. Bow-tie trees (those that originate inside the cable) tend to grow to a critical length
and then stop growing.

Polyethylene insulation systems have been plagued by early failures caused by water trees. Early XLPE and
especially HMWPE had increasing failure rates that have led utilities to replace large quantities of cable. By most
accounts, polyethylene-based insulation systems have become much more resistant to water treeing and more
reliable for many reasons.

 Extruded semiconducting shields — rather than taped conductor and insulation shields,
manufacturers extrude both semiconducting shields as they are extruding the insulation. This one-pass
extrusion provides a continuous, smooth interface. The most dangerous water trees are those that initiate
from imperfections at the interface between the insulation and the semiconducting shield. Reducing these
imperfections reduces treeing.
 Cleaner insulation — AEIC specifications for the allowable number and size of contaminants and
protrusions have steadily improved. Both XLPE compound manufacturers and cable manufacturers have
reduced contaminants by improving their production and handling processes.
 Fewer voids — dry curing reduces the number and size of voids in the cable. Steam-cured cables pass
through a long vulcanizing tube filled with 205°C steam pressurized at 20 atm. Cables cured with steam
have sizeable voids in the insulation. Instead of steam, dry curing uses nitrogen gas pressurized to 10
atm; an electrically heated tube radiates infrared energy that heats the cable. Dry curing has voids, but
these voids have volumes 10 to 100 times less than with steam curing.
 Tree-retardant formulations — Tree-retardant formulations of XLPE perform much better in accelerated
aging tests, tests of field-aged cables, and also in field experience.

Other Failure Modes

Cable faults can be caused by several events including:

 Dig-ins
 Cable failures
 Cable equipment failures — splices, elbows, terminations

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 8 | 11

Cable Testing

A common approach to test cable and determine insulation integrity is to use a hi-pot test. In a hi-pot test,
a dc voltage is applied for 5 to 15 min. IEEE-400 specifies that the hi-pot voltage for a 15-kV class cable is 56
kV for an acceptance test and 46 kV for a maintenance test (ANSI/IEEE Std. 400- 1980). Other industry standard
tests are given in (AEIC CS5-94, 1994; AEIC CS6-96, 1996; ICEA S-66-524, 1988). High-pot testing is a brute-
force test; imminent failures are detected, but the amount of deterioration due to aging is not quantified (it is a
go/no–go test).

For hi-pot testing of 15-kV, 100% insulation (175-mil, 4.445-mm) XLPE cable, EPRI recommended:

 Do not do testing at 40 kV (228 V/mil) on cables that are aged (especially those that failed once in
service and then are spliced). Above 300 V/mil, deterioration was predominant.
 New cable can be tested at the factory at 70 kV. No effect on cable life was observed for testing of new
cable.
 New cable can be tested at 55 kV in the field prior to energization if aged cable has not been spliced in.
 Testing at lower dc voltages (such as 200 V/mil) will not pick out bad sections of cable.

Testing on Cables
1. For paper insulated cable with lead sheath
 Conductor resistance test
 Voltage test
 Dielectric power factor/voltage test

Fault Location

Utilities use a variety of tools and techniques to locate underground faults.

Divide and conquer — On a radial tap where the fuse has blown, crews narrow down the faulted section by
opening the cable at locations. Crews start by opening the cable near the center, then they replace the fuse. If
the fuse blows, the fault is upstream; if it doesn’t blow, the fault is downstream. Crews then open the cable near
the center of the remaining portion and continue bisecting the circuit at appropriate sectionalizing points (usually
padmounted transformers). Of course, each time the cable faults, more damage is done at the fault location, and
the rest of the system has the stress of carrying the fault currents. Using current-limiting fuses reduces the fault
current stress but increases the cost.

Fault indicators — Faulted circuit indicators (FCIs) are small devices clamped around a cable that measure
current and signal the passage of fault current. Normally, these are applied at padmounted transformers. Faulted
circuit indicators do not pinpoint the fault; they identify the fault to a cable section. After identifying the failed
section, crews must use another method such as the thumper to precisely identify the fault. If the entire section
is in conduit, crews don’t need to pinpoint the location; they can just pull the cable and replace it (or repair it if
the faulted portion is visible from the outside). Cables in conduit require less precise fault location; a crew only
needs to identify the fault to a given conduit section.

Utilities’ main justification for faulted circuit indicators is reducing the length of customer interruptions.
Faulted circuit indicators can significantly decrease the fault-finding stage relative to the divide-and-conquer
method.

Utilities use most fault indicators on URD loops. With one fault indicator per transformer (see Figure 3.19),
a crew can identify the failed section and immediately reconfigure the loop to restore power to all customers.
The crew can then proceed to pinpoint the fault and repair it (or even delay the repair for a more convenient
time).

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 9 | 11

 Fault indicators should only operate for faults — not for load, not for inrush, not for lightning, and not for
backfeed currents. False readings can send crews on wild chases looking for faults.

Section testing — Crews isolate a section of cable and apply a dc hi-pot voltage. If the cable holds the hi-pot
voltage, crews proceed to the next section and repeat until finding a cable that cannot hold the hi-pot voltage.
Because the voltage is dc, the cable must be isolated from the transformer. In a faster variation of this, high-
voltage sticks are available that use the ac line voltage to apply a dc voltage to the isolated cable section.

Thumper — The thumper applies a pulsed dc voltage to the cable. As its name implies, at the fault the thumper
discharges sound like a thumping noise as the gap at the failure point repeatedly sparks over. The thumper
charges a capacitor and uses a triggered gap to discharge the capacitor’s charge into the cable. Crews can find
the fault by listening for the thumping noise. Acoustic enhancement devices can help crews locate weak
thumping noises; antennas that pick up the radio-frequency interference from the arc discharge also help pinpoint
the fault. Thumpers are good for finding the exact fault location so that crews can start digging. On a 15-kV class
system, utilities typically thump with voltages from 10 to 15 kV, but utilities sometimes use voltages to 25 kV.

Radar — Also called time-domain reflectometry (TDR), a radar set injects a very short-duration current pulse
into the cable. At discontinuities, a portion of the pulse will reflect back to the set; knowing the velocity of wave
propagation along cable gives us an estimate of the distance to the fault. Depending on the test set and settings,
radar pulses can be from 5 ns to 5 μs wide. Narrower pulses give higher resolution, so users can better
differentiate between faults and reflections from splices and other discontinuities

Radar and thumper — After a fuse or other circuit interrupter clears a fault in a cable, the area around the fault
point recovers some insulation strength. Checking the cable with an ohm meter would show an open circuit.
Likewise, the radar pulse passes right by the fault, so the radar set alone cannot detect the fault. Using radar
with a thumper solves this problem. A thumper pulse breaks down the gap, and the radar superimposes a pulse
that reflects off the fault arc. The rise time of the thumper wave shape is on the order of a few microseconds; the
radar pulse total width may be less than 0.05 μsec. Another less attractive approach is to use a thumper to
continually burn the cable until the fault resistance becomes low enough to get a reading on a radar set (this is
less attractive because it subjects the cable to many more thumps, especially if crews use high voltages).

1. Singh, Tarlok, (2013) Transmission and Distribution: Electrical Power 1, S.K. Kataria & Sons
2. Kothari, D.P. ,(2011) Modern Power System analysis, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
3. Grisby, Leonard L., ed., (2012) Power System Stability and Control., Taylor & Francis
4. Fink, Donald and Beaty, (2007) Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, ., Boston, McGraw Hill
5. B.L. Theraja et al. (1997) A Textbook of Electrical Technology. 22nd ed New Delhi. S. Chand Book Company
6. Chakrasali, Ramesh L.(2011) Testing and commissioning of electrical equipments Acme Learning
7. Bakshi…et al. (2010)Transmission & Distribution ,Technical Publications
8. Gupta, J.B., (2012) Switchgear & Protection S. K. Kataria & Sons
9. Davies, T. (1996) Protection of Industrial Power Systems. 2nd. Oxford : Newness
10. Gurevich, Vladimir. (2006) Electric relays : Principles and Applications. Florida : Taylor & Francis Group

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 10 | 11

11. Wildi, Theodore. (2006) Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J. :
Pearson
12. Deshpande M. V. (2010). Elements of Electrical Power Station Design. New Delhi; PHI Learning Private Limited.
13. Tyler, D. (1997). Electrical Power Technology. Oxford : Newness.
14. Goel, Manish and Gupta, Gaurav, (2011) Electrical Power Generation ,University Science Press
15. Gupta, J. B., (2012) Utilization of electric power & electric traction ,S.K. Kataria & Sons
16. Sharma, P. C. (2011), Power plant engineering ,S.K. Kataria & Sons

ECAL 1103 – Distribution System and Substation Design | P a g e 11 | 11