CGS-202 X-Ray physics II

X-ray production

Reference Text
Radiologic Science for technologists (Physics, Biology and protection) Stewart
Carlyle Bushong, 2021,12th Edition

Updated October 2022

 Objectives
1. Discuss the interactions between projectile
electrons and x-ray tube target

2. Explain Anode heat

3. Identify characteristic x-rays

4. Identify bremsstrahlung x-rays

 Objectives
5. Describe how characteristic and bremsstraulung x-
rays are produced

6. Describe x-ray emission spectrum

7. Explain filtration

8. Explain how mAs, kVp, added filtration, target

material, and voltage ripple affect the x-ray emission
spectrum
X-ray imaging system
 Electron target interactions

• X-ray imaging system → main function is to

accelerate electrons from cathode to anode in
the x-ray tube

• Parts are designed to provide a large number of

electrons with high kinetic energy focused to a
small spot on the anode.
 X-ray imaging system
The three principal parts

➢operating console

➢x-ray tube

➢high voltage generator

 Energy
• Two forms of mechanical energy is often used in
radiologic science.

➢Potential energy; stored energy

➢Kinetic energy; energy associated with motion of

object
 Potential energy

• PE = mgh ; h is the distance above earth’s surface

Question

A radiographer holds a 6-kg x-ray tube 1.5m above

the ground. What is its potential energy?

PE = mgh = 6kg X 9.8m/s2 X 1.5m

= 88 kg m2/s2 = 88J
 Kinetic energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion

• Stationary objects → no kinetic energy

• Objects in motion → have kinetic energy

proportional to their mass and to the square of
their velocity.

• K.E = ½ mv2. m- mass in kilograms, v – velocity in

m/s and KE is the energy in joules.
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is
proportional to the
product of mass and
velocity squared.
 Kinetic energy
• In determining the magnitude of the kinetic
energy of a projectile, velocity is more important
than mass.

• In an x-ray tube the projectile is an electron.

• All electrons have the same mass→ electron

kinetic energy is increased by raising kVp.
 Kinetic energy

As electron kinetic energy is increased

➢the intensity (quantity)

➢the energy (quality) of the x-ray beam are

increased.
 Kinetic energy
• Modern x-ray imaging systems conveys to the x-
ray tube target enormous number of electrons
at precise kinetic energy

• At 100 mA, for example, 6 X 1017 electrons travel

from the cathode to the anode of the x-ray tube
every second.
 Velocity of electrons at 70keV
• In an x-ray imaging system operating at 70kVp,
each electron arrives at the target with a
maximum kinetic energy of 70keV.

• There are 1.6 X 10-16 J per 1 keV, the energy is

equivalent to

(70keV)(1.6 X 10-16 J/keV) = 1.12 X 10-14J

 Velocity of electrons at 70keV
Inserting this energy into the expression for kinetic energy
and solving for the velocity of the electrons,

KE = ½ mv2.

v2 = 2KE/m = (2) (1.12 X 10-14J)/(9.1 X 10 -31 )kg

= 0.25 X 1017 m2/s2

v = 1.6 X 108 m/s

 Question
• At what fraction of the velocity of light do 70-keV
electrons travel?

v/c = (1.6 X 108 m/s) / (3.0 X 108)m/s

= 0.53
 Accelerating force
• The distance between the filament and the x-ray
tube target is only approximately 1cm.

• The intensity of accelerating force required to

raise the velocity of electrons from zero to half
the speed of light in so short distance is very
high.
 Projectile electrons
• The electrons traveling form cathode to anode
constitute the x-ray tube current are called
projectile electrons.

• When projectile electrons hit the heavy metal

atoms of the x-ray tube target, they transfer
their kinetic energy to the target atoms.
 Electron-target interactions
• These interactions occur within a very small
depth of penetration into the target.

• As they occur the projectile electrons

➢slow down and finally come nearly to rest

➢are conducted through the x-ray anode assembly

and out into the associated electronic circuitry.
 Electron-target interactions

• The projectile electrons interacts with

➢either the orbital electrons

➢or the nuclear field of the target atoms.

 Electron-target interactions
• These interactions result in the conversion of
electron kinetic energy into;

➢thermal energy (heat)

➢electromagnetic energy in the form of infrared

radiation (also heat)

➢x-rays
 Anode heat
• Most of the kinetic energy of the projectile
electrons is converted into heat.

• The projectile electrons interact with the outer-

shell electrons of the target atoms but do not
transfer sufficient energy to these electrons to
ionize them.
 Anode heat
• The outer-shell electrons are simply raised to an
excited, or higher, energy level.

• The outer-shell electrons immediately drop back

to their normal energy level with the emission of
infrared radiation.
 Anode heat
• The constant excitation and return of outer-shell
electrons is responsible for most of the heat
generated in the anodes of the x-ray tubes.

• Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy of

projectile electrons is converted to heat.
 Anode heat
• Most of the kinetic
energy of projectile
electrons is
converted to heat by
interactions with
outer-shell electrons
of target atoms.
These interactions
are primarily
excitations rather
than ionizations.
 Anode heat
• Only approximately 1% of projectile electron
kinetic energy is used for the production of x-
radiation.

• Therefore sophisticated as it is, the x-ray imaging

system is very inefficient.
 Anode heat
• The production of heat in the anode increases
directly with increasing x-ray tube current.

• Doubling the x-ray tube current doubles the heat

produced.

• Heat production also increases directly with

increasing kVp, at least in the diagnostic range.
 Efficiency of x-ray production
 The efficiency of x-ray production is independent of
the tube current.

 So, regardless of what mA is selected, the efficiency

of x-ray production remains constant.
 Efficiency of x-ray production

The efficiency of x-ray production increases with

increasing kVp

• At 60kVp → only 0.5% of the electron kinetic

energy is converted to x-rays

• At 100kVp → 1%

• At 20 MV, 70% is converted.

 Characteristic radiation
• If the projectile electron interacts with an inner-
shell electron of the target rather than outer
shell electron, characteristic x-rays can be
produced.

• Characteristic x-rays result when the interaction

is sufficiently violent to ionize the target atom by
totally removing an inner-shell electron.
 Characteristic radiation
 Characteristic x-rays produced after the ionization of
a K-shell electron. When an outer-shell electron fills
the vacancy in the K-shell, an x-ray is emitted,
 Characteristic radiation
• When the projectile electron ionizes a target
atom by removing a K-shell electron, a temporary
electron void is produced in the K-shell.

• This is a highly unnatural state for the target

atom and is corrected by an outer shell to an
inner shell is accompanied by the emission of an
x-ray.
 Characteristic radiation
• The x-ray has energy equal to the difference in
the binding energies of the orbital electrons
involved.
Atomic configuration and electron-
binding energy for tungsten.
 Example
• Qn. A K-shell electron is removed from a tungsten atom
and is replaced by an L-shell electron. What is the
energy of the characteristic x-ray that is emitted?

• Ans. For Tungsten, K-shell electrons have binding

energies 69keV, and L-shell electrons are bound by 12
keV. Therefore, the characteristic x-ray emitted has
energy of 69 -12 = 57 keV
 Characteristic radiation
 Energy of x-rays resulting from M-to-K, N-to-K, O-to-K, and P-
to-K transitions can be calculated by the same procedure.

 Tungsten has electrons in shells out to the p-shell, and when a

k-shell electron is ionized, its position can be filled with
electrons from any of the outer shells.

 All these x-rays are called K x-rays because they result from
electron transitions into the shell.
 Characteristic radiation
• Similar characteristic x-rays are produced when
the target atom is ionized by removal of electrons
from shells other than the K-shell.

• Such a diagram should show the removal of an L-

shell electron by the projectile electron.

• This vacancy in the L-shell would be filled by an

electron from any of the outer shells.
 Characteristic radiation
X-rays resulting from electrons transitions to
the L-shell are called L-x-rays and have much
less energy than K-x-rays. Why?
Because the binding energy of a n L-shell
electron is much lower than that of a K-shell
electron.
 Characteristic radiation

• Similarly M-characteristic x-rays, N-characteristic

x-rays and even O-characteristic x-rays can be
produced in a tungsten target.

• Table summarizes the production of

characteristic x-rays in tungsten.
 Characteristic radiation

Although many characteristic x-rays can be

produced, they can be produced at ;

specific energies, equal to the differences in

the electron-binding energies for the
various electron transitions.
 Characteristic radiation

• Except for K x-rays, all the characteristic x-rays

have very low energy.

• Only the K-characteristic x-rays of tungsten are

useful for imaging.
 Characteristic radiation
• The L x-rays, with approximately 12keV of energy,
penetrate only a few centimeters into soft tissue →
they are useless as diagnostic x-rays, as all the other
low-energy characteristic x-rays.

• This type of radiation is called characteristic because

it is characteristic of the target element.
 Characteristic radiation
• Because the electron-binding energy for every
element is different, the energy of characteristic
x-rays produced in the various elements is also
different.

• The effective energy of characteristic x-rays

increases with increasing atomic number of the
target element.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• The production of heat and characteristic x-rays
involves interactions between the projectile
electrons and the electrons of the x-ray tube target
atoms.

• A third type of interaction in which the projectile

electron can lose its kinetic energy is an interaction
with the nuclear field of a target atom.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

• In this type of interaction, the kinetic energy

of the projectile electron is also converted into
electromagnetic energy.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• A projectile electron that completely avoids the orbital
electrons as it passes through a target atom may come
sufficiently close to the nucleus of the atom to come
under the influence of its electric field.

• Because the electron is negatively charged and the

nucleus is positively charged, there is an electrostatic force
of attraction between them.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• The closer the projectile electron gets to the
nucleus, the more it is influenced by the electric
field of the nucleus.

• This field is very strong because the nucleus

contains many protons and the distance between
the nucleus and the projectile electron is very
small.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• As the projectile electron passes by the nucleus, it is
slowed down and changes its course, leaving with
reduced kinetic energy in a different direction.

• This loss in kinetic energy reappears as an x-ray.

• This interaction is somewhat analogous to a comet in its

course around the sun.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• These type of x-rays are called bremsstrahlung x-rays.

• Bremsstrahlung is a German word meaning “slowed-down

radiation.”

• Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced when a projectile

electron is slowed by the electric field of a target atom
nucleus.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be considered radiation
resulting from the braking of projectile electrons by the
nucleus.

• A projectile electron can lose any amount of its kinetic

energy in an interaction with the nucleus of the target
atom and the bremsstralung x-ray associated with the loss
can take on corresponding values.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
 For example when an x-ray imaging system is operated at
70kVp, projectile electrons have kinetic energies up to
70keV.
 An electron with kinetic energy of 70keV can loose all,
none or any intermediate level of kinetic energy in a
bremsstrahlung interaction.
 Therefore the bremsstrahlung x-ray produced can have
energy up to 70keV
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• A low-energy bremsstrahlung x-ray results when the
projectile electron is barely influenced by the nucleus.

• A maximum-energy x-ray occurs when the projectile

electron loses all its kinetic energy and simply drifts away
from the nucleus.

• Bremsstrahlung x-rays with energies between these two

extremes occur more frequently.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• In the diagnostic range, most x-rays are
bremsstrahlung x-rays.
• Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be produced at any
projectile electron energy.
• K-characteristic x-rays require a tube potential of
atleast 70kVp. At 65kVp, for example no useful
characteristic x-rays are produced, and therefore the
x-ray beam is all bremsstrahlung.
• At 100kVp, approximately 15% of the x-ray beam is
characteristic and the remaining is bremsstrahlung.
 X-ray emission spectrum
 In a 10-minute
period an automatic
ball-throwing
machine might eject
600 balls, distributed
as shown.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• The bar graph can be described as a discrete ball-
ejection spectrum representative of the
automatic pitching machine.

• It is a plot of the number of balls ejected per unit

time as a function of the type of ball.

• It is called discrete because only five distinct types

of balls are involved.
 X-ray emission spectrum
 Bar graph representing
the results of 10-minute
observation of balls
ejected by the automatic
pitching machine.

 When the height of each

bar is joined, a smooth
emission spectrum is
created.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• A discrete spectrum contains only specific values.

• Connecting the bars with a dashed curve would

indicate a large number of different types of balls.

• Such a curve is called a continuous ejection

spectrum.

• The word spectrum refers to the range of types of

balls or values of any quantity such as x-rays.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• The total number of balls ejected is represented
by the sum of the areas under the bars in the
case of the discrete spectrum and the area under
the curve in the case of continuous spectrum.

• A continuous spectrum contains all possible

values.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• Graph also tells the relative frequency with which each
type of ball was ejected.
• Relatively speaking baseballs are ejected most frequently
and basket balls least frequently.
• This type of relationship is fundamental to describing the
output of an x-ray tube.
• If one could stand in the middle of the useful x-ray
beam, catch each individual x-ray and measure its
energy, it can be described as x-ray emission spectrum.
General form of an x-ray
emission spectrum.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• The relative number of x-rays emitted is plotted as
a function of the energy of each individual x-ray. X-
ray energy is the variable considered.

• Since we cannot catch and identify each x-ray,

instruments are used to identify them.

• X-ray emission spectra have been measured for all

types of x-ray imaging systems.
 X-ray emission spectrum
• Understanding x-ray emission spectra is a key
to understanding how changes in voltage, kVp,
mA and added filtration affect optical density
(OD) and contrast of an image.
 Characteristic X-ray spectrum
• The discrete energies of characteristic x-rays are
characteristic of the difference between electron-
binding energies of a particular element.

• A characteristic x-ray from tungsten, for example,

can have 1 of 15 different energies and no others.
(refer table; slide 28)
 Characteristic x-ray emission
spectrum
• A plot of the frequency
with which characteristic
x-rays are emitted as a
function of their energy
would be as in fig.→
called characteristic x-ray
emission spectrum.
 Characteristic x-ray emission
spectrum.
• There are five vertical lines representing K x-rays
and four vertical lines representing L x-rays.

• The other lower-energy lines represent

characteristic emission from outer electron shells.

• Characteristic x-rays have precisely fixed (discrete)

energies and form a discrete emission spectrum.
 Characteristic x-ray emission
spectrum.
 The relative intensity of the K x-rays is greater than that of the
lower-energy characteristic x-rays because of the nature of the
interaction processes.
 K x-rays are the only characteristic x-rays of tungsten with
sufficient energy to be of the value in diagnostic radiology.
 Although there are five K x-rays, it is customary to represent
them as one, as has been done with a single vertical line at
69keV as in fig
 Characteristic x-ray emission
spectrum
 The characteristic x-ray
emission spectrum for
tungsten (W) is
represented by a line at 69
keV. That for molybdenum
(Mo) is represented by a
line at 19 kev.
 Bremsstrahlung emission spectrum
 Bremsstrahlung x-ray emission
spectrum extends from zero to
maximum projectile electron
energy, with the highest
number of x-rays having one-
third the maximum energy.
Bremsstrahlung X-Ray Spectrum
• If it were able to measure the energy
contained in each bremsstrahlung x-ray
emitted from an x-ray tube, one would find
that these energies range from the peak
electron energy all the way down to zero.
• In other words, when an x-ray tube is
operated at 90 kVp, bremsstrahlung x-rays
with energies up to 90keV are emitted.
Bremsstrahlung X-Ray Spectrum
• Bremsstrahlung x-rays have a range of
energies and form a continuous emission
spectrum.
Qn. At what kVp was the x-ray imaging system
presented in the fig operated?
Ans. Because the bremsstrahlung spectrum
intersects the energy axis at approximately
90keV, the imaging system must have been
operated approximately 90kVp.
 Bremsstrahlung X-Ray Spectrum
 The general shape of the bremsstrahlung x-ray spectrum is the
same for all x-ray imaging systems.

 The maximum energy (in keV) of an x-ray is numerically equal to

the kVp of operation.

 The greatest number of x-rays is emitted with energy

approximately one third of the maximum energy. The number of
x-rays emitted decreases rapidly at very low energies.
 Bremsstrahlung X-Ray Spectrum
Qn. What would be the expected emission spectrum for an x-ray
imaging system with a pure molybdenum target (effective energy
of K x-ray = 19 keV) operated at 95kVp?

Ans. The spectrum should look like as in slide 48. the curve
intersects the energy axis at 0 and 95keV and has the general
shape. The bremsstrahlung spectrum is much lower because the
atomic number of Mo is low, and x-ray production is much less
efficient. A line extends above the curve at 19keV to represent K-
characteristic x-rays.
 Minimum wavelength
• The energy of an x-ray is equal to the product
of its frequency (f) and Plank’s constant (h).

• X-ray energy is also inversely proportional to

its wavelength.

• As the x-ray wavelength increases, x-ray

energy decreases.
 Minimum wavelength

• Maximum x-ray energy is associated with the

minimum x-ray wavelength (λmin)

• The minimum wavelength of x-ray emission

corresponds to the maximum energy and the
maximum x-ray energy is numerically equal to
the kVp.
 Factors affecting the x-ray
emission spectrum
• The total number of x-rays emitted from an x-ray
tube could be determined by adding the number
of x-rays emitted at each energy over the entire
spectrum, a process called integration.

• Graphically, the total number of x-rays emitted is

equivalent to the area under the curve of the x-ray
emission spectrum.
 Factors affecting the x-ray
emission spectrum
• The general shape of an emission spectrum is always
the same, but its relative position along the energy
axis can change.

• The farther to the right a spectrum is, the higher the

effective energy or quality of the x-ray beam.

• The larger the area under the curve, the higher the x-
ray intensity or quantity.
Factors affecting the x-ray emission
spectrum
• A number of factors under the control of the
radiologic technologist influence the size and
shape of the x-ray emission spectrum, and
therefore the quality and quantity of the x-ray
beam.

• These factors are summarized in table.

 Factors that affect the size and relative
position of X-ray emission spectra
Factor Effect
• Tube current • Amplitude of spectrum
• Tube voltage • Amplitude and position
• Added filtration • Amplitude; most effective at low energy
• Target material • Amplitude of spectrum and position of line
spectrum
• Voltage waveform • Amplitude; most effective at high energy
 Effect of mA and mAs
 If one changes the current form 200 to 400mA, while all
other conditions remain constant, twice as many electrons
will flow from cathode to anode and the mAs will be
doubled.
 This operating change will produce twice as many x-rays at
every energy.
 In other words, the x-ray emission spectrum will be
changed in amplitude but not in shape.
 Change in mA and amplitude

Change in mA results
in a proportionate
change in the
amplitude of the x-ray
emission spectrum at
all energies
 Change in mA and
amplitude
 Each point on the curve labeled 400 mA is precisely
two times higher than the associated point on the
200mA curve.
 This relationship also is true for changes in mAs.
 Thus, the area under the x-ray emission spectrum
varies in proportion to changes in mA or mAs, as does
the x-ray quantity.
 A change in mA or mAs results in a proportional
change in the amplitude of the x-ray emission
spectrum at all energies.
 Area under the curve
Question

Suppose the area under the 200-mA curve in fig

totals 4.2 cm2 and the x-ray quantity is 325mR
(3.25mGya). What would the area under the
curve and the x-ray quantity be if the tube
current were increased to 400mA, while other
operating factors remain constant?
 Area under the curve
Answer

In going from 200 to 400mA, the tube current has

been increased by a factor of two. The area under
the curve and the x-ray quantity are increased
proportionately;

Area = 4.2 cm2 X 2 = 8.4cm2

Intensity = 325mR X 2 = 650mR

 Effect of kVp

• As the kVp is raised, the area under the curve

increases to an area approximating the square
of the factor by which kVp was increased.

• Accordingly, the x-ray quantity increases with

the square of this factor.
 Effect of kVp
• When kVp is increased, the relative distribution
emitted x-ray energy shifts to the right, to a higher
average x-ray energy.

• The maximum energy of x-ray emission always

remains numerically equal to the kVp.

• A change in voltage peak affects both the amplitude

and the position of the x-ray emission spectrum.
 Effect of kVp
• Change in kVp results in an
increase in the amplitude of
the emission spectrum at all
energies, but a greater
increase at high energies than
at low energies.

• Therefore the spectrum is

shifted to the right or high-
energy side.
 Effect of kVp
• The lower spectrum represents x-ray operation at
72kVp and the upper spectrum represents operation
at 82kVp, a 10kVp (or 15%)increase.
 Effect of kVp
• The area under the curve has approximately doubled, while the
relative position of the curve has shifted to the right, the high-
energy side.

• More x-rays are emitted at all energies during operation at 82kVp

than during operation at 72kVp

• The increase, however, is relatively greater for high-energy x-rays

than for low-energy x-rays.

• A change in kVp has no effect on the position of the discrete x-ray

emission spectrum.
 Effect of kVp
Qn. Suppose the curve labeled 72 kVp in figure covers a
total area of 3.6cm2 and represents an x-ray quantity
of 125mR (1.25mGya). What area under the curve
and x-ray quantity would be expected for operations
at 82kVp?

Ans. The area under the curve and output intensity are
proportional to the square of the ratio of the kVp
change. A ratio can be established.
(82/72)2 (3.6 cm2) = (1.3) (3.6cm2) =4.7 cm2
And (1.3) (125 mR) = 163 mR
 Filtration
• process of shaping the x-ray beam to increase the ratio of
photons useful for imaging to those photons that increase
patient dose or decrease image contrast.

• Diagnostic x-ray beams are composed of photons that have

a whole spectrum of energies → they are polychromatic.

• Their mean energy is from one third to one half of their

peak energy, so many photons fall in the lower energy
range.
 Filtration
• It shows that although
the intensity of the beam
is reduced, its quality is
improved because the
low energy component is
virtually removed from
the beam. Reduces the x-ray beam
intensity while increasing
average energy.
Effect of added filtration on the x-ray
spectrum
 Added filtration more effectively absorbs low-energy x-
rays than high energy x-rays.
 Therefore bremsstrahlung x-ray emission spectrum is
reduced more on the left than on the right
 Spectrum shifts to the right (higher quality)
 Reduction in x-ray quantity (reduced spectrum
amplitude)
 Effect of target material
 The atomic number of the target affects both the
number (quantity) and the effective energy (quality) of
x-rays.
 As the atomic number of the target material increases,
the efficiency of the production of bremsstrahlung
radiation increases
 high-energy x-rays increase in number more than low-
energy x-rays.
 Effect of target material
• Increase in atomic number of the target material →
characteristic spectrum shifted to right → representing
higher energy characteristic radiation.

• This is direct result of the higher electron-binding

energies associated with increasing atomic numbers.
 Effect of increase in atomic number of
the target material
• Discrete emission spectrum
shifts to the right

• Continuous spectrum increases

slightly in amplitude → to the
high energy side.
 Effect of increase in atomic
number of the target material

• Increase in target atomic number increases;

➢the efficiency of x-ray production

➢the energy of characteristic and bremsstrahlung

x-rays.
 Target elements

▪ Tungsten (Z= 74) is the primary component of x-ray tube target

▪ Some specially x-ray tubes use gold (Z= 79) as target material
 Molybdenum (Z=42) and rhodium (Z=45) are used for
mammography.
 Elements of low atomic number produce low-energy
characteristic x-rays.
 Effect of voltage waveform

There are five voltage wave forms;

1. Half-wave rectification

2. Full wave rectification

3. 3-phase/6-pulse

4. 3-phase/12-pulse

5. High frequency
Full wave-rectified voltage wave form for
x-ray imaging system operated at 100kVp
• As the voltage
across the x-ray tube
increases from zero
to its peak value, x-
ray intensity and
energy increase
slowly at first and
then rapidly as peak
voltage is obtained
 Effect of voltage wave form
• Voltage wave forms of three-phase or high
frequency operation result in considerably
more intense x-ray emission than those of
single-phase operation. Why?

• The quantity of x-rays is much higher at peak

voltages than at lower voltages.
 Effect of voltage waveform
• Three phase and high
frequency operation are
considerably more efficient
than single-phase
operation.
• Both the x-ray intensity
(area under the curve) and
effective energy (relative
shift to the right) are
increased
 Effect of voltage waveform

• The characteristic x-ray emission spectrum

remains fixed in its position on the energy
axis

• It increases slightly in magnitude because of

the increased number of projectile electrons
available for K-shell electron interactions.
Changes in X-ray beam intensity and energy produced
by factors that influence the emission spectrum

An increase in Results in
1. Current (mAs) 1. An increase in intensity; no change in energy
2. Voltage (kVp) 2. An increase in intensity and energy
3. Added filtration 3. A decrease in intensity and an increase in
energy
4. Target atomic 4. An increase in intensity, energy and
number (Z) characteristic radiation

5. Voltage ripple 5. A decrease in intensity and energy

 Factors that influence the
emission spectrum
Usually the first two,

• mAs and

• kVp are controlled by the radiologic

technologist.