UGANDA TECHNICAL COLLEGE-ELGON

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

COURSE:
(NDBCE, NDWSE & NDA)

YEAR I
SEMESTER I

COURSE: ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

CU: 3

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 0
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Civil engineering is concerned with the design, construction, supervision, maintenance, repair
and demolition or recycling of the various components of the buildings, bridges, canals, roads,
dams, tunnel etc. there is therefore need to have good knowledge of materials to be used.
Thedesign, construction, maintenance, repair and demolition or recycling in engineering forms
the life cycle of a structure or building. Normally the key element in the filed practice is to deal
with different types of materials and their properties. Engineers must be able to select and use
materials and analyses their failure under varying conditions.This entails drawing up detail
specifications, selecting the materials and testing them for acceptance etc.

A number of decisions must be made when selecting materials to be incorporated into a design
which includes whether:

The materials can consistently be formed into the correct shape and dimensional tolerance

The required properties can be achieved and maintained during use

A material is compatible with and can be easily joined to other parts of an assembly (the
assembly in this context being an engineering structure).

A material can be economically made into a useful part.

Its manufacture cannot cause environmental problems.

The materials specified then for use in the construction industry:

Must have the correct properties for production and for subsequent use.

Must not fail in use, producing a liability i.e.the material must not fail under loads imposed on
the structure and must not deflect excessively.

The material must not degrade significantly during the intended life of the structure. The other
criterion could be water tightness, speed of construction, aesthetic considerations.

The cost of the processed material must be acceptable. The estimated cost of the structure must
not exceed the available money. Usually the cheapest design ischosen, however a correct

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 1
interpretation of capital and running costs is necessary or the effects of delays in the construction
caused by uncertain delivery times of the chosen material. An alternative criterion is the energy
cost of producing and placing the material. Energy costs must include the cost of manufacturing,
transportation and fabrication.

The choices of materials must be compatible with the environmental standards from raw
materials sources through manufacturing through product usage and to eventual discard.

It is therefore very important for the engineer to:

Become aware of the types of material available.

Understand their general behavior and capabilities

Recognized their effects on the environment and vice versa

If he / she are to effectively participate in the design of reliable and economical building and
civil engineering components, structures, systems and processes that use the wide spectrum of
materials

Engineering materials deals with the study of materials in respect of the following:

Sources, composition and testing;

Manufacturing methods and testing;

Utility in the various fields of engineering and technology;

Modern techniques being developed for handling and using materials;

Classification of engineering materials;

The engineering materials can be classified as follows;

1. Civil engineering materials Examples: clay and its products, cement, lime, concrete,
mortar, timber etc.
2. Electrical engineering materials Examples copper, aluminium, iron and steel etc
3. Mechanical engineering materials Examples Cast iron, steel, lubricating materials etc.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 2
Properties of materials

The following properties of materials will be discussed; physical and mechanical properties of
engineering materials.

Physical Properties of Engineering Materials:

These properties concerned with such properties as melting, temperature, electrical conductivity,
thermal conductivity, density, corrosion resistance, magnetic properties, etc.

1. Density:
Density is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The derived unit usually used by
engineers is the kg/m3. Relative density is the density of the material compared with the density
of the water at 4°C.
The formulae of density and relative density are:
Density (p) = Mass (m)/volume (V)

Relative density (d) = Density of the material/Density of pure water at 4°C

2. Electrical Conductivity:
Figure shows a piece of electrical cable. In this example copper wire has been chosen for the
conductor or core of the cable because copper has the property of very good electrical
conductivity.

3. Melting Temperature of Material:

The melting temperatures and the recrystallisation temperatures have a great effect on the
materials and the alloys of the materials properties and as a result on its applications.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 3
4. Semiconductors:
In between conductors and insulators lies a range of materials known as semiconductors. These
can be good or bad conductors depending upon their temperatures. The conductivity of
semiconductor materials increases rapidly for relatively small temperature increases. This
enables them to be used as temperature sensors in electronic thermometers.

Semiconductor materials are capable of having their conductors properties changed during
manufacture. Examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. They are used
extensively in the electronics industry in the manufacture of solid-state devices such as diodes,
thermistors, transistors and integrated circuits.

5. Thermal Conductivity:
This is the ability of the material to transmit heat energy by conduction. Figure shows a soldering
iron. The bit is made from copper which is a good conductor of heat and so will allow the heat
energy stored in it to travel easily down to the tip and into the work being soldered. The wooden
handle remains cool as it has a low thermal conductivity and resists the flow of heat energy.

6. Fusibility:
This is the ease with which materials will melt. It can be seen from figure that solder melts easily
and so has the property of high fusibility. On the other hand, fire bricks used for furnace linings
only melt at very high temperatures and so have the properties of low fusibility.

Such materials which only melt a very high temperatures are called refractory materials. These
must not be confused with materials which have a low thermal conductivity and used as thermal

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 4
insulators. Although expanded polystyrene is an excellent thermal insulator, it has a very low
melting point (high fusibility) and in no way can it be considered a refractory material.

7. Reluctance (as Magnetic Properties):

Just as some materials are good or bad conductors of electricity, some materials can be good or
bad conductors of magnetism. The resistance of magnetic circuit is referred to as reluctance.

The good magnetic conductors have low reluctance and examples are the ferromagnetic
materials which get their name from the fact that they are made from iron, steel and associated
alloying elements such as cobalt and nickel. All other materials are non-magnetic and offer a
high reluctance to the magnetic flux felid.

8. Temperature Stability:
Any changes in temperature can have very significant effects on the structure and properties of
materials. However, there are several effects can appear with changes in temperature such as
creep.For example gas-turbine blades. The creep rate increases if the temperature is raised, but
becomes less if the temperature is lowered.

Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

These properties are concerned with the following properties:
1. Tensile Strength:
It is the ability of a material to withstand tensile (stretching) loads without breaking. As the force
of gravity acting on the load is trying to stretch the rod, the rod is said to be in tension.
Therefore, the material from which the rod is made needs to have sufficient tensile strength to

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 5
resist the pull of the load. Strength is the ability of a material to resist applied forces without
fracturing.

2. Toughness:
It is the ability of the materials to withstand bending or it is the application of shear stresses
without fracture, so the rubbers and most plastic materials do not shatter, therefore they are
tough. For example, if a rod is made of high-carbon steel then it will be bend without breaking
under the impact of the hammer, while if a rod is made of glass then it will broke by impact
loading.

3. Malleability:
It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation under compression without rupture or the
malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic deformation to occur under compressive
loading before fracture occurs. Such a material is required for manipulation by such processes as
forging, rolling and rivet heading.

4. Hardness:
It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard
body, it is an indication of the wear resistance of the material.

The ball only makes a small indentation in the hard material but it makes a very much deeper
impression in the softer material.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 6
5. Ductility:
It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo deformation under tension without rupture as in
wire drawing (as shown in figure), tube drawing operation. For more ductile material εp > 15%,
for less ductile material εp > 5.1 εp < 15%.

6. Stiffness:
It is the measure of a material‘s ability not to deflect under an applied load.

For example, steel is very much stronger than cast iron, then the cast iron is preferred for
machine beds and frames because it is more rigid and less likely to deflect with consequent loss
of alignment and accuracy.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 7
7. Brittleness:
It is the property of a material that shows little or no plastic deformation before fracture when a
force is applied. Also it is usually said as the opposite of ductility and malleability.

For brittle material εD < 5%.

8. Elasticity:
It is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when
the load is removed. If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same length before and
after the load is applied, despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the load is being applied. All
materials possess elasticity to some degree and each has its own elastic limits.

9. Plasticity:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 8
This property is opposite to elasticity, while the ductility and malleability are particular cases of
the property of the plasticity. It is the state of a material which has been loaded beyond it elastic
limit so as to cause the material to deform permanently.

Under such conditions the material takes a permanent set and will not return to its original size
and shape when the load is removed. When a piece of mild steel is bent at right angles into the
shape of a bracket, it shows the property of plasticity since it does not spring back strength again.

10. Creep:
The permanent deformation (strain) of a material under steady load as a function of time is called
creep. Length of our waist belt increases after some duration is due to creep effect.

11. Fatigue:
The behavior of materials under fluctuating and reversing loads (or stresses) is termed as fatigue.
This behaviour is different from that under the steady load. Fatigue is, however, not a dynamic
effect. The rate of loading is usually not a factor is fatigue behavior. Fatigue behavior is
experienced by all materials whether metals, plastics, concretes, or composites.

Main Effects of Fatigue:

i. Loss of ductility,

ii. Loss of strength, and

iii. Enhanced uncertainty in strength and the service life of materials.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 9
CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Soils

Introduction

Every work of construction in civil engineering is built on soil or rock and in many instances are
also the raw materials of construction. The study of soil and rock materials is an important part
of a wider area of study often geotechnical engineering. There is no clear dividing line between
the areas of study of soil as a material and soil mechanics, and both are equally important.

Soil is the relatively loose mass of mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the
bedrock, which can be relatively easily broken down into its constituent mineral or organic
particles.

Fig. 1-1: Soil layers

Soil consists of layers of minerals constituents of variable thickness, which differ from the parent
materials in the morphological, physical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics, as shown in
Fig. 2-1. It is thus a natural product of weathering of rocks and decomposition of organic matter.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 10
It is an accumulation of individual particles that are bonded together by mechanical or attractive
means, the strength of the bonds being a small fraction of the mineral particles. The particles
may range from colloidal size to small boulders.
Soil can also be referred to as regolith, or loose rock material.

1.1 SOIL FORMATION

Soil formation is the process by which soil is created. The formation of soil happens over a very
long period of time. Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.
1.1.2 WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks. Weathering occurs in situ or ―with no
movement‖, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of
rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, wind, and gravity.
Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – Physical and Chemical Weathering
Physical weathering
Involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions,
such as heat, water, ice and pressure, without any change in chemical condition. The soil formed
due to physical weathering will be cohesion less (sand and gravel).
In summary, the physical agencies causing mechanical weathering of rocks are;
(i) Daily and seasonal temperature changes.
(ii) Flowing water, glaciers and wind, which produce impact and abrasive action on rock.
(iii) Splitting action of ice.
(iv) Growth of roots of plants in rock fissures and to a minor degree burrowingactivities of small
animals like earthworms.
Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks by decomposing the parent minerals,
transforming them into new compounds such as clay silica particles, carbonates and iron oxides.
The decomposition of rock is the result of the following reactions;
(i) Oxidation
(ii) Carbonation
(iii) Hydration
(iv) Leaching
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 11
i) Oxidation
Within the weathering environment, oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most commonly
observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with oxygen and water to form Fe3+
hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limoniteand hematite. This gives the affected rocks a
reddish-brown coloration on thesurface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock. This
process is betterknown as ‗rusting‘.
ii) Carbonation
Carbonation of rock material is caused by carbon dioxide in the presence of water. Limestones
are very much affected by carbonation.
iii) Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and
OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral. When rock minerals take up water, the
increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For example iron oxides are
converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum. Another example of
hydration is the chemical decomposition of mineral fieldspar in granite to form kaolite.
iv) Leaching
Leaching is the process in which percolating water washes out water-soluble salts from the soil.
Soil produced by chemical weathering of rocks will be cohesive (silt and clay).

Formulation, exploration and sampling soils

In civil engineering usage, the term soil describes the uncemented or weakly cemented material
overlaying the harder rock on the planet‘s surface. Soils exist in great variety and are the
accumulated result of May separate factors and process. Their characteristics depend on the
parent rocks from which they are derived; on the means of these rocks and the weathering of the
soils itself at its various stages of formation; on the means of transport bringing the soil in its
present location; on the manner of deposition of the soil; on its history of loading, drainage,
wetting and drying and on many other processes.

The parent rocks themselves occur in great variety. The rock may have formed by the cooling
and hardening of a molten material, this group being termed igneous rocks. The igneous rocks

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 12
include granites, basalts and gabbros. On other hand, the rock may have formed from the
accumulation of transported and deposited weathered rock fragments, subsequently consolidated
to give relatively hard rocks; water has always been the transporting agent. These are the
sedimentary rocks which include the sandstones, limestone, shale, and conglomerates. Some of
these igneous and sedimentary rocks have been altered over ages by heat or pressure or both. The
result is the metamorphic rocks-very differentfrom the original materials. Metamorphic rocks
include schist, gneiss, slate and marble. The processes of metamorphism and weathering and
aeons of time have transformed some of the rock materials into the infinite variety of soils seen
today.

Types of soils

Residual soils

When rocks are weathered and the product accumulates in place, without transport occurring the
products are described as residual soils. In a sense the humus bearing top soils and weathered
subsoils of any formation are residual soils but the term is usually used for rock products such as
laterites. Significant thicknesses of these soils are found in various parts of the world and from
their distribution it appears that the warm humid regions are not favorable to the kind of
weathering that produces residual soils.

Transported soils.

Glacially transported soils; this is common in cold hilly countries like Britain and the
Scandinavian countries where glacier (ice) runs down slopes wearing away the surface particles
and depositing them down the streams or low lying areas. Some of the glacial debris transported
will melt to water before final deposition and as a result of this is likely to be sorted in\to size
groups of sands and gravels stratified after the manner of the river deposits.

Water transported soils; soils formed by water-borne material tend to very erratically in
physical properties from place to place and depth, a consequence of the continual changes
occurring in the streams and rivers which formed them. Fast - flowing steep streams in mountain
areas transport al but the stages rock fragments down steam and the fragments become
progressively broken up, worn and deposited. As the steepness of the steam diminishes the larger

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 13
particles being transported are left behind. On reaching the plains and estuaries only the finer
sizes remain in transport. Seasonal extremes of flood and drought , meandering ad braiding of
stream channels all lead to wide variations in the erosion and deposition patterns of waterborne
deposits and hence in the engineering and other characteristics of the soils forming these
deposits.

The mechanical process of abrasion and grinding accounts for most of the reduction in particle
sizes from the fragments of the parent rocks.

Soils transported by man; in the consideration of soils in relation to engineering works man
himself should be included as an agent of transportation. Soils which have been excavated from
one place and transported to and placed in another place are described as fills. Fills may be
materials other than soils.

Exploration and sampling.

To consider soils among the other civil engineering materials it is necessary to distinguish the
principal soil groups one from another as with other materials, to establish parameters by which
the behavior of soils can be described quantitatively. Engineering characteristics such as
permeability, compressibility and strength usually differ in value from point to point in a soil
mass and at any one point these characteristics differ with the direction in which they are
measured. Soils showing this behavior are described as anisotropic. If the characteristics were
practically unvarying in value through out a soil, it would be described as isotropic.

Many soils show a fabric of laminations, varves, fissures, organic matter or root networks. A
quantitative description of the engineering characteristics of a particular soil stratum taking
account of these features of fabric should apply convincing to the whole stratum as it exists in
activity of the civil or geotechnical engineer, namely site investigation or more particularly soil
exploration.

Given that all existing information about a site has been assembled, the extent of exploration will
depend on the character of the ground and the type of construction work to be under taken.
Geological and geographical mapping will supplement existing data and enable further water
condition are sufficiently described to allow safe and economical project design. The lateral

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 14
extent and depth of exploration should include all soils affected by the proposed work. Methods
of investigating at this stage include trial pits, shafts, boreholes, and probing. From samples of
various qualities according to soil type and sampling procedures, a geotechnical description of
the soil strata is assembled.

Soil profile

The results of a soil exploration are often presented in the form of a soil profile. Astone which is
distinguishable from the ground surface to the limit of depth of exploration is called the soil
profile. The variation with depth, of any property of the soil for example, water content or
density may be displayed by the curve as shown below.

Figure 1.2: vertical profile soil strata.

Bulk properties of soil

As a part of basic description of soil, it is necessary to establish parameters defining some

physical properties of the mixers of solid particles, water and sometimes air or gas which make
up a soil. Suppose a sample of natural soil is taken without altering in any way so that it is
entirely typically of the soil stratum from which it came. Let it total volume be denoted by V and
its total mass by M, the constituent solid particles, water and air will each have absolute volumes
and masses which when added together will give V and M respectively. It is convenient to

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 15
present these constituentsdiagrammatically in terms of their absolute volumes, stacking the
absolute volumes one on the other as figure…… thus

V= VS + VW + Vair

Where;

Vs = is the absolute volume of all solid particles

Vw = is the volume of pore water

Vair = the volume of pore air, or gas

Also; V = VS + Vv, is the absolute volume of solids or pore spaces in the sample.

The samediagrammatic form is suited to presenting the masses of the constituents of the sample
thus

M = MS + MW

Where;

MS = is the mass of dry particles

Mw = the mass of water in the pore space in the sample.

The density of solid particles

ᵨs = and density of fresh water ᵨw = = 1000kg/m3

PHASE RELATIONSHIP

Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These are solids, water and air. The space
occupied by water and air is defined as the void of the soil. The void may be partially or wholly
filled by water or air. A completely dry or completely saturated soil will have only two phases.
The components parts may be illustrated as shown by a phase diagram.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 16
Three Typical Phase Diagrams of Soil

Void ratio (e)

This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of the solids;
Moisture content (Water content) (w)
Is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solids;

Porosity (n)
This is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume;

Degree of Saturation (Sr)

Is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids usually expressed as a percentage.
Density of Solids
Is the ratio of the mass of the solids to the volume of the solids.

Bulk Density
Is the ratio of the total mass of soil to the total volume of the soil.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 17
CONSISTENCY AND PLASTICITY OF SOILS

The term consistency refers to the relative ease with which a soil mass can be deformed and is
used to describe the degree of firmness of fine-grained soils for which consistency relates to a
large extent to water content. The four states of consistency suggested by Atterberg are indicated
below;

The four states of consistency

In the solid state there will be no change in volume of soil mass accompanying change in water
content. In the remaining the three states increase in water content accompanies by increase in
volume of soil mass and decrease of water content by reduction in volume of soil mass. In the
liquid state the soil mass behaves like a liquid possessing very less sheer strength. In the plastic
state the soil mass can be deformed without cracking. In the semi-solid state the soil mass cannot
be deformed without cracking.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 18
The water contents, which arbitrarily define the boundary between the four states of consistency,
are referred to as consistency limits or Atterbag limits. The three consistency limits are Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit.
Liquid limit is denoted by WL and is the boundary between plastic and liquid states of
consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass still flows like a liquid.
Liquid limit is defined as the water content at which a groove, cut with a standard grooving tool,
in soil pat taken in the cup of a standard liquid limit device closes for a distance of 13mm when
the cup is imparted 25 blows.

The standard liquid limit device

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 19
Plastic limit is denoted by WP and is the boundary between semi-solid and plastic states of
consistency. It is the minimum water content at which the soil mass can still be deformed
without cracking.
Plastic limit is defined as the water context at which the soil mass can be rolled into a threat of
3mm diameter and the thread first shows signs of cracking.
Shrinkage limit is denoted by WS and is the boundary between solid and semi-solid state of
consistency. It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume
of soil mass accompanying reduction in water content.

DETERMINATION OF SOIL PROPERTIES BY LABORATORY TESTING

A) DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT

1. Casagrande Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a mechanical device consisting of a cup mounted on an edge pivot. The
cup rests on a hard rubber base. A mechanism enables the cup to be lifted by 10mm and dropped
on the base. The soil is put in cup and leveled off horizontally. The soil is divided by a standard
grooving tool through the pivot of the cup. The two halves of the soil flow together as the cup is
repeatedly dropped onto the base. The number of drops at the rate of two revolutions per second
required to close the groove over a distance of 13mm is recorded. The test is repeated over four
times and the water content is determined each time. The water content is plotted against log of
blows. The best straight line fitting the points is drawn. The moisture content at twenty five (25)
blow is the Liquid Limit of the soil.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 20
Casagrande’s Liquid Limit Apparatus

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 21
 2. Cone Penetrometer Apparatus
The Penetrometer is fitted with a stainless steel cone having a smooth, polished surface. The
cone is approximately 35 mm long and has an angle of 30º + 1º. The mass of the cone together
with its sliding shaft is 80g.
A metal cup, about 55mm in diameter and 40mm deep is used to contain the test sample. Figure
below shows the Cone Penetrometer Apparatus Schematic.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 22
An air dry soil sample (about 250g) passing the 425 micron sieve is mixed with distilled water.
The soil paste is filled in the metal cup and the surface struck off level. The cone is lowered to
just touch the surface of soil and then released for a period of 5 seconds. The penetration is
recorded. The cone is lifted and cleaned. The test is repeated over four different moisture
contents. The moisture contents used in the tests should be such that the penetrations obtained lie
within a range of 15 to 35 mm.

To obtain the liquid limit, cone penetration is plotted against moisture content both on normal
scales to give the best fitting straight line. The moisture content corresponding to a cone
penetration of 20mm is taken as the liquid limit of the soil, which for all practical purposes is the
same as the LL determined by the Casagrande apparatus.

The Cone Penetrometer method gives a more consistent estimate of the LL than the Casagrande
apparatus, with greater repeatability and less operator susceptibility.

B) DETERMINATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT

The sample of soil is mixed with distilled water until it is sufficiently plastic to be rolled into a
ball between palms of hands. A small portion of the ball is then rolled on a smooth plate into a
thread of 3mm diameter, and the thread is looked for signs of cracking. If no cracks are seen, the
thread is picked up and again rolled into a ball between palms. The water content is reduced by
the heat of the fingers. The ball is then rolled on smooth plate into a threat of 3mm diameter. The
steps are repeated until a 3mm diameter threat first shows signs of cracking. A portion of the
threat is taken for water content determination which gives the plastic limit.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 23
 Rolling on a smooth plate

Rolling on between palms of hands

Soil thread 3mm diameter just crumbles

C) DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

It is defined as the maximum water content at which there is no reduction in volume of soil mass
accompanying reduction in water content.
A saturated sample of soil is placed in a container of known volume V1. The weight of the soil is
determined in stage (a) of the experiment. The soil is initially dried in the air and then in an oven
to ensure that no cracks are formed. Further drying of the soil at some water content (b) will not
result in the reduction of the volume of the soil.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 24
At stage (c) of the drying process the soil is completely dry but the volume in the stage is the
same as at stage (b). The weight of the soil is measured at stage (c) and its volume is measured
by immersing the dry soil in mercury.

Shrinkage limit, ws

PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The soil grading or the distribution of particle size is quantitatively determined by performing the
particle-size analysis, also called mechanical analysis, which is carried out in two parts: sieve
analysis and sedimentation analysis. The distribution of gravel and sand particles is determined
by sieve analysis and that of silt and clay by sedimentation analysis. Depending on the type of
soil and the extent of particle-size distribution required, mechanical analysis may involve both
sieving and sedimentation or it may be restricted to either of them. For gravel and sand, sieve
analysis alone will suffice, but if silt and clay are present, a combined sieve and sedimentation
analysis may be required. If soil is predominantly silty and or clayey, sedimentation alone will
do.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 25
Sieve analysis
Soil sample to be analyzed is first either air-dried or oven-dried. Soil aggregates are then broken
by pulverization with a wooden mallet or in a mortar with a rubber pestle. If the sample is more
than required, it is reduced in size by means of a riffle box. A representative sample is then taken
for sieve analysis.
The objective of this test is to determine the relative proportions of different granular sizes as
they are passing through certain sieve sizes. Thus, the percentage of sand, gravel, silt and clay
can be obtained.
Sieve analysis is widely used in classification of soils. Data obtained from particle-size
distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine suitability of
soil for road, highway, construction, embankment fill of dam, airport runway etc.
Sieve analysis of soil test is in accordance to ASTM D-422 (American Society for Testing and
Materials) or BS 1377: Part 2 1990 (British Standards) as both are the most widely used
technical standards in construction. The dry sieving of soil is the simplest and cheapest method
among others.
Apparatus;
i. Stack of Sieve aperture sizes (including cover and pan) (Fig. 7-12).
ii. Electronic balance.
iii. Rubber pestle, mortar (for crushing the soil if lumped) and brush.
iv. Mechanical sieve vibrator (shaker).
v. Oven dry (thermostatically controlled temperature).

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 26
Sieve Analysis Apparatus: (A) Sieve aperture sizes, (B) Dry oven, (C)
Sieve shaker, (D) Mortar & Tray, (E) Rubber pestle, (F) Balance

Procedure;
i. Oven-dry sample.
ii. Crush the oven-dried sample using rubber pestle and mortar.
iii. Determine mass of sample and label as Wtotal in (g).
iv. Then prepare a stack of sieve aperture sizes with larger opening sizes at the top and down to
the last one with smaller opening sizes.
v. Pour the soil slowly into the stack of sieves from the top and place the cover, put the stack
onto the sieve shaker (vibrator), tighten the clamps, adjust the time with 5 to 10 minutes and turn
it on.
vi. When time is out, take out and measure the mass of retained soil inside, from the top sieve
until the pan.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 27
The results are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On the graph the
sieve size is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregate passing through each sieve, first find
the percentage retained in each sieve.

% Retained
Find cumulative percent of aggregate retained in each sieve.
Then % Cumulative Passing = 100% - % Cumulative Retained.

Particle-Size Distribution Curves

Consider Figure below showing a typical particle-size distribution curve.

The position and general shape and slope of a curve indicate type and grading of the soil.
 A curve lying higher up or to the left represents relatively finer material.
 The gradation of soil is said to be either well graded or poorly graded.
 A soil is well graded when there is a good representation of all the particle sizes from the
largest to the smallest.
 A soil is poorly graded if there is an excess or a deficiency of certain particle sizes within
the limits of the minimum and maximum sizes, or if most of the particles are of about the
same sizes (uniformly graded).

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 28
We can compute the Coefficient of Uniformity Cu and Coefficient of Curvature Cc by obtaining
D10, D30 and D60 values from the curves.
 D10 – 10% passing point on the curve.
 D30 – 30% passing point on the curve.
 D60 – 60% passing point on the curve.

D10 : Maximum size of the smallest 10% D10 : Effective size ( e.g. for permeability)
D30: Maximum size of the smallest 30% Cu : Coefficient of Uniformity = D60/D10
D50 : Maximum size of the smallest 50% Cc : Coefficient of Curvature = (D30)2/(D60*D10)
D60 : Maximum size of the smallest 60% (also called Cg : Coefficient of Gradation)

To be well graded, Cc must lie within 1 and 3 and in addition, Cu must be greater than 4 for
gravels and greater than 6 for sands. If all particles are of the same size, Cu is unity.
A low value of Cu indicates a uniform soil and a high value a well graded soil.

Sieve analysis test result

Sieve size Weight retained % Retained % Cum. % Passing

Retained
6 126 12.6 12.6 87.4
2 86 8.6 21.2 78.8
0.6 194 19.4 40.6 59.4
0.2 202 20.2 60.8 39.2
0.075 124 12.4 73.2 26.8
Base 268 26.8 100 0
Total 1000

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 29
Example Particle Size Distribution Curves
(a) Silty SAND with little gravel

(b) Silty SAND with a trace of gravel

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 30
(c) Silty SAND and GRAVEL

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 31
(d) Silty sandy GRAVEL with occasional cobbles

(e) sandy GRAVEL

Limitations of Sieve Analysis

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 32
For materials finer than 150 μm, dry sieving can be significantly less accurate. This is because
the mechanical energy required to make particles pass through an opening and the surface
attraction effects between the particles themselves and between particles and the screen increase
as the particle sizes decreases.Wet sieving analysis can be utilized where the material analyzed is
not affected by the liquid – except to disperse it. Suspending the particles in a suitable liquid
transports fine material through the sieve much more efficiently than shaking the dry material.
Sieve analysis assumes that all particles will be round (spherical) or nearly so and will pass
through the square openings when the particle diameter is less than the size of the square opening
in the screen. For elongated and flat particles, a sieve analysis will not yield reliable mass-based
results, as the particle size reported will assume that the particles size reported will assume that
the particles are spherical, where in fact an elongated particle might pass through the screen
endon, but would be prevented from doing so if it presented itself side-on.

SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION
Soil description includes the details of both material and mass characteristics. Soil classification
on the other hand is the allocation of a soil to a limited number of groups on the basis of material
characteristics only, viz: - particle size distribution and plasticity. Soil classification is therefore
independent of the in situ mass condition of the soil mass. It is unlikely that any two soils will
have the same description, while they could have the same classification.
In some engineering processes the description and classification are useful. Such engineering
processes include foundations and seepage. However in other cases the classification is by the far
the most important. Such processes include embankment construction where classification of
material is key factor in choice and construction process. It is essential that a standard language
be used in description and classification of soils. A comprehensive description should include the
characteristics of both soil material and in situ soil mass.
Material characteristics can be determined from disturbed samples of soil, i.e. samples having
the same particle size distribution as the in situ soil but whose in situ structure has been altered.
The principal material characteristics are particle size distribution (or grading) and plasticity.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 33
Secondary material characteristics are colour of the soil, shape, texture and composition of the
particles.
Mass characteristics are best determined in the field but can also be determined in the
laboratory when undisturbed samples are available. Mass characteristics include firmness,
strength, details of any bedding, discontinuities and weathering. The arrangement of minor
geological details referred to as macro-fabric should be carefully described as this can influence
the engineering behaviour of in situ soil considerably. Such macro-fabric features are thin layers
of fine sand and silt in a clay strata, silt filled fissures in clay, small lenses of clay in sand,
organic intrusions and root holes etc.

SOIL DESCRIPTION
A detailed description of the method of describing soils is contained in BS 5930. The basic soils
are boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand, silt and clay. Often soils appear in mixtures and are referred
to composite types.
In accordance to BS 5930, a soil is of basic type sand or gravel (coarse soil), if after removal of
boulders and cobbles, over 65% of the material is in the sand and gravel range. A soil is of basic
type silt or clay (fine grained soil) when over 35% of the soil is in the silt and clay range.
Composite soils are named as described in the table 1. Mixtures containing over 50% boulders
and cobbles are referred to as very coarse soils. The descriptions may be of the form COBBLES
with finer material or gravelly SAND with occasional cobbly BOULDERS.
The firmness or strength of the soil in the field can be assessed by means of tests
shown on Table 2 below.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 34
Table 1: Soil description terminology

Soil group Soil description Indicative particle size distribution

Slightly sandy GRAVEL Up to 5% sand
Sandy GRAVEL 5-20% sand
Very sandy GRAVEL Over 20% sand
GRAVEL/SAND About equal proportions
COARSE SOILS Very gravelly SAND Over 20% gravel
Gravelly SAND 5-20% gravel
Slightly gravelly SAND Up to 5% gravel
Slightly silty SAND (or GRAVEL) Up to 5% silt
Silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% silt
Very silty SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% silt
Slightly clayey SAND (or Up to 5% clay
GRAVEL)
Clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 5-15% Clay
Very clayey SAND (or GRAVEL) 15-35% Clay
FINE SOILS Sandy SILT (or CLAY) 35-65% Sand
Gravelly SILT (or CLAY) 5-65% Gravel

Table 2: Field identification tests

Soil type Term Field test

Loose Loose Can be excavated by spade. A 50
mm wooden peg can be easily driven
Dense Dense Requires a pick to excavate. 50 mm
Sands and gravels wooden peg difficult to drive
Slightly cemented Visual examination. Pick removes lumps
Silts Soft or loose Easily molded or crushed in the fingers
Firm or dense Can be molded or crushed by strong
pressure in fingers
Clays Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in
the hand
Soft Molded by light finger pressure
Firm Can be molded by strong finger pressure
Stiff Cannot be molded by fingers
Very stiff Cannot be indented by thumb nails
Organic & Peat Firm Fibers already compressed together
Spongy plastic Very compressible and open structure. Can
be molded by fingers and smears fingers

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 35
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Purpose of Soil classification
A soil classification system is an arrangement of different soils into soil groups having the
similar properties. The purpose of soil classification is to make possible the estimation of soil
properties by association with soils of the same class whose properties are known. Thus with
consistent soil classification it is possible to;
1. Use data of others in predicting foundation performance.
2. Build the geotechnical engineers data base for application of design.
3. Maintain a permanent record which can be easily understood by others should problems
develop later.
There are several methods of soil classification. Two such methods in use by engineers in
Uganda are described below;
(A) BRITISH SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The British soil classification system is based on the particle size distribution and the plasticity
as plotted on a plasticity chart. The plasticity chart is a plot of the soil PI against LL.
In the British soil classification any cobbles and boulders retained on 63mm BSSieve Size are
removed from the soil before the classification. The percentage of this very coarse portion is
determined and mentioned in the report. The soil groups in the classification are noted by the
group symbols composed of main and qualifying descriptive letters having the meaning shown
on Table 3.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 36
Table 3: Soils descriptive terms

Main terms Qualifying terms

GRAVEL G Well graded W
SAND S Poorly graded P
Uniform Pu
Gap graded Pg
FINE SOIL F Of low plasticity L
(LL<35)
FINES SILT (M M Of intermediate I
SOIL) plasticity (LL 35-50)
C Of high plasticity (LL H
CLAY 50-70)
Of very high plasticity V
(LL 70-90)
Of extremely high E
plasticity
Of upper plasticity U
range (LL<35)
Organic (may be a O
suffix to any group
Peat Pt
The letter describing the dominant group is placed first in the group symbol.
When the group has significant organic content the suffix O is added as the last letter. The above
is illustrated below in the description of sand, clay and silt samples.
SW – well graded SAND
SCL – very clayey SAND (the clay in the sample is of low plasticity)
CIS – sandy CLAY of intermediate plasticity
MHSO – organic sandy SILT of high plasticity

SOIL STABILIZATION

Soil stabilization is a general term for any mechanical, physical, chemical or combined method
of changing a natural soil to meet an engineering purpose. Improvements include increasing the
weight bearing capacities, tensile strength and overall performance of in-situ soils, sands and
other waste materials in order to strengthen road surfaces.

Purpose of soil stabilization

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 37
 I. Dust control. Thisis done to eliminate or alleviate dust, generated by theoperation of
equipment and aircraft during dryweather or in arid climates.
II. Soilwaterproofing, which is done to preserve the naturalor constructed strength of a soil
by preventing theentry of surface water.
III. To reduce frost action.
IV. To facilitate compaction and increase load bearing properties.
V. To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements.
VI. Strength improvement. This increases the strength of the existing soil to enhance
its load-bearing capacity.

Soil stabilization methods with different materials

The following are the soil stabilization methods and materials.

Mechanical stabilization

The oldest types of soil stabilization are mechanical in nature. Mechanical solutions involve
physically changing the property of the soil somehow, in order to affect its gradation, solidity
and other characteristics. Dynamic compaction is one of the major types of soil stabilization; in
this procedure a heavy weight is dropped repeatedly onto the ground at regular intervals to quite
literally pound out deformities and ensure a uniformly packed surface. Vibro compaction is
another technique that works on similar principles, though it relies on vibration rather than
deformation through kinetic force to achieve its goals.

Soil stabilization with cement

The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is believed to be
the result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The
important factors affecting the soil cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing,
compaction, curing and admixtures used.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 38
Factors affecting soil cement stabilization

During soil cement stabilization the following factors affect stabilization.

I. Type of soil: cement stabilization may be applied in fine or granular soil, however
granular is preferable for cement stabilization.
II. Quantity of cement: a large amount of cement is needed for the stabilization.
III. Quantity of water: Adequate water is needed for the stabilization.
IV. Mixing, compaction and curing: Adequate mixing, compaction and curing is needed for
cement stabilization.
V. Admixtures: cement has some important admixtures itself which helps them to create a
proper bond. These admixtures play vital role incase of reaction between cement and
water.

Advantages of cement stabilization

I. It is widely available
II. Cost is relatively low
III. It is highly durable
IV. Soil cement is quite weather resistant and strong
V. Granular soils with sufficient fines are ideally suited for cement stabilization as it
requires least amount of cement.
VI. Soil cement reduces the swelling characteristics of the soil.
VII. It is commonly used for stabilizing sandy and other low plasticity soils. Cement interacts
with the silt and clay fractions and reduces their affinity for water.

Disadvantages of cement stabilization

I. Cracks may form in soil cement

II. It is harmful for environment
III. It requires extra labor
IV. The quantity of water must be sufficient for hydration of cement and making the
mixture workable.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 39
 Soil stabilization using lime

Slaked in lime is very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey soils. Lime may be used alone or
in combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy soils can also be stabilized with these
combinations. Lime has been mainly used for stabilizing the road bases and the subgrade.

The following factors affect lime stabilization process.

I. Type of soil: lime stabilization is useful for stabilization of clayey soils but it is not
effective for sandy soils.
II. The amount of lime required for stabilization varies between 2 to 10% of the soil.
III. Ratio of fly ash to lime: The ratio of fly ash to lime generally varies in between 3 to 5.
The fly ash used is about 10 to 20% of the soil weight.
IV. Different type of lime: The quick lime is more effective but for safety and convenience to
handle the hydrated lime is generally used.
V. Soil becomes more workable
VI. Strength is generally improved.
VII. Lime stabilization increases the compressive strength sometimes as high as 60 times.
VIII. It is not effective for sandy soils

Advantages of lime stabilization

I. Soil becomes more workable

II. Strength is generally improved
III. Lime stabilization increases the compressive strength sometimes as high as 60 times.
IV. It is effective for soils

Disadvantages of lime stabilization

I. Lime is produced by burning of lime stone in kilns, so that it is harmful for environment.
II. It needs more cost to burnt limestone
III. It is not effective for sandy soils.
IV. There is limited percentage of amount of lime required about 2 to 10% of the soil.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 40
Soil bitumen stabilization

The addition of bitumen binder to a soil improves its properties considerably. If the bitumen
lacks cohesion, the bitumen coats the soil particles, binds them together and supplies cohesion.
Bitumen being a waterproof material, the mixture becomes less prone to the adverse effect
caused by ingress of water. If bitumen binder sprayed on dry surface of low-cost road it prevents
dust and stops the entry of moisture into the road.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 41
CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Clay and Clay Products

2.1 Introductions

Definition; ―A clay is an earthly mineral mass or an earthly fragment rock capable of forming
with water a plastic paste which retains the shape impartial to it after it is allowed to dry out and
which acquires the hardness of stone after burning‖.

Clays and clay minerals have been mined since the Stone Age; today they are among the most
important minerals used by the building and manufacturing industries. The term clay is applied
both to minerals having a particle size of less than 2 micrometers and to the family of minerals
that have similar chemical composition and common crystal structural characteristics.

Thus clays may be composed of mixtures of finer grained clay minerals and clay-sized crytals of
other minerals such as quartz, carbonate, and metal oxides. Clay and clay minerals are found
mainly on or near the surface of the earth and are predominantly made of Silica (SiO2) and
Alumina (Al2O3).

2.2 How and where clay deposits form

2.2.1 Erosion

The transport and deposit of clays and clay minerals produced by eroding older continental and
marine rocks and soils are important cycles that form sedimentary rocks. The ancient
sedimentary rock record is composed of 70% mudstone (contains approximately 50% clay –
sized fragments) and shale (may contain clay – sized particles), Blats etc. today sedimentary
Environments that contain mud cover about 60% of marine continental shelves and 40% of deep
ocean basin. Clearly clays are critical components of both ancient and modern
sedimentaryenvironments.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 42
2.2.2 Weathering.

Weathering of rocks and soil is the primary way that clay and clay minerals form at the Earth‘s
surface today. The weathering process involves physical disintegration and chemical
decomposition that change original minerals to clay minerals. Weathering is uneven and many
stages of breakdown may be found in the same clay sample. The type of clay minerals found in
weathering rocks strongly control how the weathered rock behaves under various climate
conditions.

Kaolinite is found in most weathering zones and soil profiles. Montmorillonite are common in
the lower parts of the weathering profiles nearer rock, where chemistry exerts a strong control on
mineralogy. Complex – mixed day minerals (such as illite-smectites) are abundant in day
assemblages that develop from mica-beating precursor rocks.

2.3 Physical and chemical properties of clays

The characteristics common to all clay minerals derive from their chemical composition, layered
structure and size.

All clay minerals have a great affinity for water

Water absorption =

Some clay swells easily and may double in thickness when wet. The process of swelling is
reversible and it depends on the environment factors

Water molecules are strongly attracted to clay minerals surfaces.

When a little clay is added to water, slurry forms because the clay distributes itself evenly
throughout the water. This property of clay is used by the paint industry to disperse pigments
evenly throughout paint.

A mixture of a lot of clay and water (little) results on a mild that can be shaped and dried to form
a relatively rigid solid. This property s exploited in the building industry and ceramic industry to
produce various clay products.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 43
Most clay minerals have the ability to soap up ions from a solution and release the ions later
when conditions change.

The ability of clay mineral structures to exchange ions relates to their charged surface.

Ions can be attracted to the surface of a clay particle or taken up within the structure of these
minerals.

2.4 Classifications of clays.

Clays are classified in two ways; on the basis of their mode of formation and on the basis of
dominant characteristics

2.4.1 Basing on the mode of formation

a). Residual Clays

Residual clays are those that are found at the place of their formation. They generally form a
cover over the rock from which they have been formed as a result of weathering processes. Such
clays are pure in their composition, which is related broadly to the parent rock. China day in
generally a residual type of clay.Residual type of clay. Residual clays are less common in their
occurrence.

b). Transported Clays

Transported clays are the most common type of clay and are formed by deposition of the
disintegrated clayed and other materials produced by wind, water and ice from the erosion of
rocks from different places.

2.4.2 Basing on dominant characteristics

On the basis of the dominant characteristics, which actually related to their composition they are
of four types.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 44
a). China Clay

This is the purest type of clay containing a very high percentage of a clay mineral Kaolinite
(orKaolin) – Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is considered high clay and is used for the manufacture of
porcelain ware and other special products e.g. fine – resisting cement, white Portland cement,
etc.

b) Fire / Refractory clays

Thesecontain silica and Alumina in very high proportions. These clays are capable of
withstanding very high-temperatures without deformation of shapes given to them. They are
mainly used for the manufacture of refactory bricks, which are very important lining material in
high-= temperature metallurgical, mechanical and chemical operations.

c) Vitrifying clays

Theseclays are rich in fluxing compounds like Iron Oxide and carbonates of Calcium and
Magnesium. They are easily fusible, that is cannot withstand high temperatures.

On heating to high temperatures, (above 110000), the fluxes get softened and form glass – like
material that acts as a strong binding agent between the other clay particles. This results in the
formation of a smooth – surfaced clay product.

The vitrifying clays, also called hard-burning clays, for the above reason are specially used for
the manufacture of facing bricks, flooring tiles, sewer pipes and other similar ornament and
dense clay products.

d. Brick Clays ( brick earth)

These are low grade clays, quite rich on a variety of components, chief among which are Silica,
Alumina, Oxides of Iron, Lime and Magnesia and Organic matter. It is the mutual proportion of
these components that defines their suitability or otherwise for making good quality bricks for
building construction.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 45
The oxides of iron and carbonates of Calcium and Magnesium acts as fluxes which are easily
fused when heated to about 10000c or so, thereby giving binding properties which hold the Silica
and Alumina together in the burnt brick.

The brick clays are generally of transported group of clays. By virtue of their common
occurrence, these have been widely used for making of building bricks and ordinary load bearing
or partition tiles.

2.5 Clay Products

Clay products are those materials (products) that are made from clay... construction materials
such as bricks, tiles, refractory bricks, earthenware and stoneware are example of clay products.

The brick is the most commonly used building material, though tiles, refractory blocks, earth
ware and stoneware serve different construction purpose. Bricks are commonly used for
constructing walls, columns, roofs, paving floors and as aggregate for concrete work in
foundations under – floors etc.

2.5.1 Building tiles

Tiles are thin slab of brick earth burnt in a kiln. Tiles are thinner than bricks and have a greater
tendency to crack and warp in drying than ordinary bricks and are more liable to breakage.
Therefore, greater care is needed in their manufacture. They should be dried in the shade,burnt
and cooled in specially made kilns.

2.6 Types Of Tile

The differenttypes of tiles are distinguished on the basis of their use. The five major classes
include; roofing tile, wall tiles, flooring tiles drain tiles and glazed earthen ware.

a). Roofing Tiles

Roofing tiles form the single most important and most commonly used class of tiles. They are
used as alternatives to corrugated and plain G.I sheets and timber as roofing material, especially
on slopping roofs.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 46
Some common types of roofing tiles include:

i. Plain tiles: measures about 25cm x 15cm o 28cm and from 10mm to 17mm thick.
These may have a continuous projection at one end or two small projecting nibs.
These nibs should not be less than 2cm wide and 1 cm deep. Camber should be
between 5mm and 10mm for handmade tiles. The camber could be reduced for
machine made tiles.

Diagram missing.

ii. Pot tiles: they are semicircular in section and taper along the length. Diameter at larger
end is about 23cm and at the smaller end it is about 20cm. rows of these tiles are laid
with the concave side up. Then rows of same tiles with convex sides up are laid to
cover the adjoining edges of every pair of the previously laid tiles.

Diagram missing
iii. Allahabad tiles: these consist of two sets of tiles. The lower ones are flat tiles with
upturned sides. End widths reduce from 27cm to 23cm and the length is about 38cm,
the cover tile is half round in section and tapers from 16.5cm to 12cm in diameter.
Taper allows the tile in the next course to fit in. half round tiles are moulded on a
potter‘s wheel as a round tapering cylindrical tile. Two longitudinal cuts are given to
the cylinder while still to dry. With this it is easy to break it into two semicircular tiles
after burning.

Diagram missing.
iv. Mangalore tiles: these are very common. They are flat pattern tiles with suitable key
projection. About 16 tiles are required to cover one square meter of roof. The
arrangement of Mangalore tiles on a slopping roof is shown below.

Diagram missing.
v. Pan tiles: the tiles are curved in section. These are 33cm to 38cm long and 23cm to
28cm wide. Implements needed for its moulding are mould, a horse, a bow and strike.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 47
 For moulding pan tiles a ball of prepared clay s pressed well to fill all corners mould.
Allsurplus is cut with the bow and removed. Strike is ten passed over the wet top of
tile in mould. It is done so many times as to render the top surface of tiles smooth.
The tiles is then carefully removed and placed over already burnt tiles to dry. After
the tile has dried a little it is then placed on the curved top of horse and pressed with
hand to make it curve. After another five to six hours the raw tile is once again shaped
on the horse and its edges trimmed with a sharp knife. To stop the clay from sticking
to the mould or horse their top is sprinkled over with ash every time before use.

Diagram missing

b) Flooring Tiles

These tiles are flat and usually square or rectangular in shape and can be made in any clour or
geometric shape. The tiles should give a ringing sound when struck with each other, should not
absorbed more than 24% water, by weight and should have maximum resistance to impact.

c) Wall tiles

These are similar to floor tiles except for their design and burning. They are burnt at a
comparatively low temperature, glazed and burnt again at still low temperatures. They can be
made in different designs and colours and be built to any size. They are used on face work, to
some extent on arches for architectural ceilings, etc.

d) Drain tiles

These tiles are usually long curved sections of various shapes and sizes such as semi- circular, a
segment of a circular or circle. They are generally used for draining wastewater. If employed for
carrying sewage, glazed tiles are used.

e) Glazedearth ware tiles

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 48
These are tiles made of earth ware, having the top surface glazed and underside unglazed so that
the tile adheres properly to the base. They are generally used for furnishing the surface of walls,
floors and floors of water closets, bathrooms, kitchen, hospitals, etc. the joint thickens is 1 mm ,
the tiles should not absorb more than 18% of water.

2.7 specification of building tiles

a). war page test

In case of floating tiles, warpage should not exceed 2% along the edges and 1.5% along the
diagonal.

In case of terracing (flat tiles), maximum warpage should not exceed in any direction by 1%

b). water absorption test

Water absorption test for roofing, flooring and terracing tiles is carried out as follows:

Take six tiles and dry them in an oven at a temperature between 1000c and 1100c, until they
attain a constant wright and then cool.

Weigh tem (W1) and immerse them completely in clean water at temperaturebetween 240c and
300c for 24 hours.

Remove each specimen, wipe off the surface water with a damp cloth and weigh the specimen
within 3 minutes after removing the specimen from water (W2)

Percentage water absorption =

Where W1 = weight of dry specimen

W2 = Weight of the specimen after 24 hrs.immersion in cold water.

c) General quality

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 49
The building tiles should be made from good clay of even texture

They should be well burnt

They should be uniform in size and shape

They should be free from irregularities such as bend, cracks, trusts etc.

2.8 Manufacture of Tile

The manufacture of tiles entails four operations namely

i. Preparation of clay

The selected clay is made free from any impurity such as grit, pebbles and the clay is ground into
powder in a crushing roller or molls and then thoroughly pugged. For manufacture of superior
tiles, the powder is mixed with a large quantity of water in a tank, stirred and the mixture is
allowed to settle. The heavier particles sink to the bottom and the fine ones are runoff into a
lower tank, where the water is evaporated, and leaving fine clay ready for mixing. To make the
tiles hard and impervious, a mixture of ground glass and pottery ware may be added in the
required quantities to the clay of the tiles.

ii. Moulding of tiles

The tiles are moulded using any of the three methods namely; wooden patterns, potter‘s wheel or
mechanical method. The method used as mainly determined by the shape and cross section of the
tile required.

iii. Drying of tiles

Two days after moulding, tile is slightly beaten with a flat wooden mallet to correct the
irregularity in shape due to warping. The tiles are lifted up on the next day andedges and under
surface scrapped. They are then placed on edge and left to any for about 2 days under shade (to
prevent warping and cracking when they are ready for loading in the kiln).

iv. Burning of tiles

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 50
The tiles are burnt in a typical Kiln (Sialkote Kiln). Such a kiln is partly underground and
generally provided with a roof. a layer of bricks is laid flat. Rows of long narrow flues and the
burning areaffected by firing wood placed in these flues. The top is covered with tiles and ash
and the doorways closed with bricks in mud plaster.

2.9 clay bricks (Standard size 215 x 102.5 x 65mm)

As outlined in the introduction, bricks are the most popular construction clay products. Bricks do
not require dressing like stones and the art of laying bricks is so simple that the brick work can
be carried out with the help of unskilled labourers. Also in places where stores are not easily
available, but there is plenty of clay suitable for manufacture of bricks can replace the functions
of the stones.

A good earth should be such that if can easily be moulded and dried without cracking and
warping. A good brick earth should be composed of Alumina, Silica and Silt (majorconstituents),
and iron oxide, magnetism oxide (magnesia), lime and sodium potash (minor constituents). All
the constituents should be in proper proportions to produce a brick with good quantities such as
hardness, controlled shrinkage, lack of cracks, controlled warping and dying, durability
resistance to heat, good binding properties, good colour, etc.

Requirements of a good brick earth.

Proper proportions of sand, silt and clay

Homogenous

Sufficient plasticity (for proper and convenient moulding of bricks)

Free from lumps of lime or kankar modules

Free from earth containing alkaline salts, kankar or reh

Free from pebbles, grit, and organic matter

Free from vegetable and organic matter

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 51
Types of bricks based on their use.

a). common bricks

These are bricks where appearance and high strength are not importance. Common bricks are
used in inferior and temporary buildings, for internal walls where the bricks are generally hidden
from view, and may be used as aggregates (when crushed) for making concrete to be used in
foundation floors, etc.

b) Facing bricks

Facing bricks are used for decoration. These bricks are used in the exposed face of masonary
without any further surface protection.

The use of such bricks is economical where external plastering or rendering have to be
frequently renewed due to corrosive atmosphere and also for high – raise buildings.

C). Engineering Bricks

These are also referred to as heavy duty bricks. They are characterized by high compressive
strength, low water absorption, high durability and high bulk density. They should be free from
cracks and other flaws.

These heavy –duty may have compressive strength as high as 44N/mm2 and water absorption as
low as 5% with the least efflorescence.

Such bricks are required for masonary in heavy engineering world such as bridge structures,
multi-storeyed buildings, and industrial foundations and in situations where construction has to
remain in contact with water.

Properties of bricks

The following are the required properties of good bricks;

(i) Colour: colour should be uniform and bright.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 52
 (ii) Shape: bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right
angled corners
(iii) Size: they should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not
possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime
(iv) Soundness: when struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce
metallic sound.
(v) Hardness: finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick
(vi) Strength: crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5N/mm2. A field
test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9m to 1.0mm on a hard
ground, the brick should not break into pieces.
(vii) Water absorption: after immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water
absorption should not be more than 20 per cent by weight. For class –I world this
limit is 15 per cent.
(viii) Efflorescence: bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24
hours and they allowed drying in shade. White patches are due to the presence of
sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium. They keep the masonary
permanently in damp and wet conditions.
(ix) Thermal conductivity: bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that
buildings built with them are cool in summer and warm in winter.
(x) Sound insulation: heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while lift weight and
hollow bricks provide good sound insulation.
(xi) Fire resistance: fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to
encase steel columns to protect them from fire.

Manufacture of bricks

The manufacture of bricks involves four steps namely:

i) Preparation of clay.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 53
A site with suitable soil for manufacture of bricks, and in sufficient quantities, should be
selected. Other materials necessary to be added to the soil, should be near the site door bricks-
making and the water table should be at least below the proposed floor of the Kiln.

The top layer of soil (about 200mm depth) is taken out and throw – away and the soil below is
dug out and cleared off shore, pebbles, vegetable matter etc. all lumps are broken to powder
form.

The earth is then spread out to a depth of 600 to 1200mm and left to atmospheric action; this
process is known as weathering. This process can extend from a few weeks to some months and
imparts plasticity and strength to clay. It is at this stage that the earth soil is blended with
different types of earths such as sandy or calcareous clays in appropriate proportions with little
quantities of cocked, ash etc. to develop the essential qualities needed for moulding, drying and
burning of bricks.

The whole mass is mixed uniformly and proportionate quantity of water added. The earth is
covered up with cloth or mats.

The tempering process, which consists in kneading the earth under feet of men or cattle or use of
a pug mill to make it stiff and plastic, follows. Water is added from time to time and tempering
continued till a homogenous mass of earth is obtained.

ii. Moulding of bricks

After the earth is prepared, the, moulding of bricks is carried out either by hand or by machine.
Hand moulding usually adopted is either ground or table moulding. Amachine can be performed
either by the plastic method or the dry process method.

Iii. Drying of bricks

After moulding bricks are dried by the following two methods.

a) Natural drying; also referred to as hack drying consists of arrangement the wet bricks
in rows on their edges on slightly raised ground called hacks. A little space for
circulation of air is kept for each brick. It should be ensured that no sudden drying
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 54
 occurs, caused by direct sun and wind. A portable cover is also provided to protect
the bricks from rain. In places where temperature variations are too much, temporary
sheds are reacted for drying purposes

The bricks produced (air and sun dried) are adequately strong for construction of simple
structures.

b) Artificial drying; this method is used when bricks are required on large scale and at a
rapid rate. The heating of the brick is carried out in special driers such as tunnels or
chambers which receive heat from special furnaces, built for the purposes not flue
gases from the cooling chambers of a kiln and waste steam from the engines of
driving machinery.
iv. Burning /firing of bricks

Bricks after being moulded and dried are burnt on the kilns. The purpose of burning its o imparts
hardness and strength to the bricks and to increase the density of the bricks so that they will
absorb less quantity of water. The Kiln used may be of the clamp or open type, intermittent type
or continuous type, each with its pros and cons.

Clamp or open Kiln

This is the commonest method employed for burning bricks (ordinary bricks).

The method of burning is suitable for burning only ordinary bricks and it is employed in rural
areas where transport charges of bricks from urban areas are high. Furth more, as the number of
bricks required for the construction of an ordinary building is small; it is not felt necessary to set
up bigger Kilns, which entail a huge expenditure. Clamp or Open Kilns are temporary structures

The size of the clamp depends on the number of bricks required. In a typical clamp, a slopping
ground is prepared in a trapezoidal shape, with the narrow end excavated below the ground and
the wider end is raised by filling. The slope angle is about 150.

In a clamp, fuel and bricks are arranged in alternate layers. On the sides and on top of the clamp,
some protection is provided by a coating of earth. The air –dried – bricks are arranged in layers

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 55
in crises-cross and up-ward drought of the hot gases from below. After the Kiln is started, it
takes two to six months for burning and cooling the bricks.

Advantages

Burning of bricks is cheap and economical

Considerable saving of fuel.

bricksproduced are tough and strong (due to gradual burning and cooling )

Skilled labour is not required for construction of clamps

The clamp is not liable to injury from wind or rain.

Disadvantages

The process is very slow; therefore time required for burning is very long

The quality of bricks produced is not uniform (since the burning is not uniform)

The bricks are liable to burn unevenly

Intermittent Kilns

Intermittent Kilns are permanent clamps and can be put to use for burning bricks, here the
burning is not continuous. Intermittent Kilns are made rectangular or circular in shape and may
be of ―upward drought‖ or ―downward drought‖ type. Brunt bricks from these Kilns can be made
only after a definite interval of time once they have been fired. (Brick supply is intermittent.)

Continuous Kilns

Continuous Kilns are those types from which it is possible the supply of bricks almost
continuously. This is because they consist of a number of chambers. Working in these chambers
is so arranged that at any given time if one chamber is being loaded with dried bricks, another
chamber may be in burning process and another in the un-loading process.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 56
Tests for bricks

i. Water absorption test

The procedure is similar to that for tiles

The specimen brick is first weighed dry (after drying in an oven between 100 and 1100c) - W1

The specimen after cooling is immersed in water for period of 16hours

It is weighed again (W2)

Water absorption =

It should not inany case exceed 20%

ii) Efflorescence test

Soluble salts, if present in the bricks, cause efflorescence on the surface of the bricks

Procedure

Immerse the brick to be tested in water for 24hours and then taken out and allowed to dry in a
shade.

The absence of grey or white deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble salts

If white deposits cover about 10% surface, theefflorescence is said to be slight and it is
considered moderate when the white deposits cover about 50% of the surface. Greater than 50%,
the efflorescence becomes heavy and is considered serous.

iii) Structure test

A specimen brick is broken and its structure is examined.

A good structure should be homogenous, compact and free from any deposits e.g. lumps, holds
etc.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 57
 iv) Soundness test

The test is performed by striking two specimen bricks with one another; the bricks should not
break and a clear ringing sound should be produced

v) Shape and size test

In this test, specimen brick should be closely inspected. It should be of standard size and its
shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges

Twenty bricks of standard size are randomly selected and stacked length – wise, along the width
and along the height.

For good quality bricks, the results should be within the following permissible limits length;
3920mm; width 1740 to 1860mm; height: 1740 to 1860mm for bricks of standard size (190 X 90
X 90mm)

vi) Compressive strength test

The specimen brick is immersed in water for 24hours

The frog of the brick is filled with a 1:3 mortar mix and the brick is stored under damp jute bags
for 24 hours, followed by immersion in clean water for three days.

The specimen is then paled between the plates of the compression testing machine

The load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14N/mm2. The maximum lad at which the
specimen fails is noted for determination of the compressive strength of brick given by;

Compressive strength =

The crushing or compressive strength of common building bricks should not be less than
3.5N/mm2. Bricks of high quality do not have strength > 14N/mm2.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 58
If no testing machine is available, the strength can roughly be judged from the force required to
break the brick with a hummer. The brick should not break when fallen on it‘s of the ground,
from a height of two meters.

Classification of bricks based on their quality

The bricks used in construction are classified as:

i) First class bricks

ii). Second class bricks

ii) Third class bricks and

iii) Fourth class bricks

i. First class bricks: these bricks are of standard shape size. They are burnt in kilns. They
fulfill all desirable properties of bricks.
ii. Second class bricks: these bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns. The edges may
not be sharp anduniform. The surface may be somewhat rough. Such bricks are
commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be plastered.
iii. Third class bricks: these are the over burnt bricks. They are dark in colour. The shape is
irregular. They are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floor and roads.

Uses of bricks

Bricks are used in the following civil works:

i. As building blocks.
ii. For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys
iii. For protecting steel columns from fire.
iv. As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C roofs.
v. For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks
vi. For lining sewer lines

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 59
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 60
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Timbers

Introduction

Timber refers to wood used for construction works, in fact the word timber is derived from an
old English word ‗Timbrian‘ which means ‗to build‘. A tree that yields good wood for
construction is called ‗standing Timber‘. After felling a tree, its branches are cut and its stem is
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, so that it can be transported to timber yard. This
form of timber is known as rough timber. By sawing , rough timber is converted into various
commercial sizes like planks, battens, posts, beams etc. such form of timber is known as
converted timber. Timber was used as building material even by primitive man. Many ancient
temples, places and bridges built with timber can be seen even today.

Classification of timber

Various bases are considered for the classification of timbers. The following are the important
basis

i. Mode of growth
ii. Modulus of elasticity
iii. Durability
iv. Grading
v. Availability
I. Classification based on mode of growth

On the basis of mode of growth tree are classified as;

a. Exogenous
b. Endogenous
(a) Exogenous trees: These trees grow outward by adding distinct consecutive ring every
year.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 61
 These rings are known as annual rings. Hence it is possible to find the age of timber by
counting these annual rings. These trees may be further divided into;

1.Coniferous
2.Deciduous

Coniferous tree are having cone shaped leaves and fruits. The leaves do not fall till new ones
are grown. They yield soft wood.

Deciduous trees are having broad leaves. These leaves fall in autumn and new ones appear in
springs. They yield hard wood and hence they are commonly used in building construction

The classification as soft wood and hard wood has commercial importance. The difference
between soft wood and hard wood is given below.

1.In soft wood annual rings are seen distinctly whereas in hard wood they are indistinct
2.The colour of soft wood is light whereas the color of hard wood is dark.
3.Soft woods have lesser strength in compression and shear compared to hard woods
4.Soft woods are light and hard woods are heavy.
5.Fire resistance of soft wood is poor compared to that of hard wood.
6.The structure of soft wood is reinous while structure of hard wood is close grained

The cross section of an exogenous tree is as shown in the fig. 1.9. The following components are
not visible to the naked eye

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 62
 1.Pith. It is the inner most part of the tree and hence the oldest part of exogenous tree
when the plant becomes old, the pith dies and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies in
sizes and shape.
2.Heat wood: This is the portion surrounding the pith. It is dark in colour and strong.
This portion is useful for various engineering purpose. This is the dead part of wood.
It consists of several annular ring
3.Sap wood: It is the layer next to heart wood. It denotes recent growth and contains sap.
It takes active part in the growth of trees by allowing sap to move in upward
direction. The annual rings of sap wood are less sharply divided and are light in
colour. The sap wood is also known alburnum.
4.Cambium layer: It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and their inner
bark. It contains sap which is not yet converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed
and cambium layer is exposed to atmosphere, cells cease to be active and tree dies.
5.Inner bark: It is an inner skin of the tree protecting the cambium layer. It gives
protection to cambium layer.
6.Outer bark: It is an inner skin of the tree and consists of wood fibers. Sometimes it
contains fissures and cracks.
7.Medullary rags: These are thin radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer.
They hold annular rings together. In some of trees they are broken and some other
they may not be prominent.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 63
 (b) Endogenous trees: These trees grow inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most
portions. Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo and cane. They are not useful for
structural works.
II. Classification based on modulus of elasticity: young‘s modulus is determined by
conducting bending test. On this basis timber is classified as:

Group A: E = 12.5KN/mm2

Group B: E = 9.8KN/mm2 to 12.5kN/mm2

Group C: E = 5.6kN/mm2 to 9.8kN/mm2

III. Classification based on durability: Durability tests are conducted by the forest research
establishment. They bury test specimen of size 600 x 50 x 50mm in the ground to half
their length and observe their conditions regularly over several years. Then timbers are
classified as: high durability: average life between 5 to 10 years

Low durability: average life less than 5 years

IV. Classification based on grading: IS 883-1970 classifies the structural timber into their
grades select, grade-1 and grade-II respectively. The classification is based on
permissible stresses defects etc.
V. Classification based on availability: forest departments classify timbers based on the
availability as;

X- Most common. 1415m3 or more per year

Y – Common 355m3 to 1415 m3 per year.

Z – Less common. Less than 355 m3 per year.

PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

Colour: it should be uniform.

Odour: it should be pleasant when cut freshly.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 64
Soundness: A clear ringing sound when struck indicates the timber is good.

Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even

Grains: In good timber grains are close.

Density: The higher the density the stronger is the timber

Hardness: A harder timber is strong and durable.

Warping: Good timber does not warp under changing environmental conditions.

Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting shock loads.

Abrasion: Good timber does not deteriorate due to wear. This property should be looked into, if
timber is to be used for flooring.

Strength: Timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct compression.

Modulus of elasticity: Timber with higher modulus of elasticity is preferred in construction.

Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.

Permeability: Good timber has low water permeability.

Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the saw.

Durability: Good timber is one which is capable of resisting the action of fungi and insects
attack

Defects: Good timber is free from defects like dead knots, shakes and cracks.

CONVERSION OF TIMBER:
The process by which timber is cut and sawn into suitable sections is known as the conversion.
Following important facts in connection with the conversion of timber are to be
remembered:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 65
(i) The conversion is a skilled art and it should be carried out in such a way that there is
minimum wastage of useful timber.
(ii) The allowance should be made for shrinkage, squaring and planning. It is about 3 mm to 6
mm.
(iii) The wooden beams should be sawn in such a way that they do not contain pith in their cross-
section. To achieve this, the timber is first sawn through pith into two halves.
(iv) To obtain strong timber pieces, the saw cuts should be made tangential to the annual rings
and practically parallel to the direction of medullary rays.
(v) The conversion may be achieved either by ordinary sawing, quarter sawing, tangential
sawing or radial sawing as shown in fig. 9-4 to fig 9-7.

ORDINARY SAWING
Fig. 9-4 shows ordinary sawing or bastard sawing or flat sawing or slab sawing. The saw cuts are
tangential to the annual rings and right through the cross-section of timber piece. The log is
moved forward and backward on the platform of a sawing mill. Thus the parallel cuts are made
throughout the length of the log and parallel slices of planks are obtained.

This is a very easy and quick method of sawing and it is widely adopted in our country. It is also
most economical method and wastage of useful timber is minimum. However the planks
obtained by this method are liable to warp and twist as a result of unequal shrinkage. The outer
portion is of sap wood and it shrinks more.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 66
The central portion is of heart wood and it shrinks less. Thus, the thickness at the center remains
almost unaltered while the circumferential shrinkage causes warping and twisting of planks.

QUARTER SAWING
The saw cuts are at right angles to each other. It may produce fine figure wood when adopted in
case of timber having no distinct medullary rays. In this method, there is a tendency for the
timber to bend in a transverse direction.

TANGENTIAL SAWING
Fig. 9-6 shows tangential sawing or plain sawing or flat grained sawing. The saw cuts are
tangential to the annual rings and they meet each other at right angles. This method is adopted
when the annual rings are very distinct and the medullary rays are not clearly defined.
The planks obtained by this sawing warp too much because the sections are weak as the
medullary rays which impart strength to the longitudinal fibres are cut. The timber obtained by
this method is unsuitable for flooring and it cannot be polished evenly.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 67
Fig. 9-7 shows radial sawing or rift sawing. The saw cuts are made radially in a parallel direction
to the medullary rays. This method is used for conversion of hard timber. It gives wood with
decorative effect.
The timber obtained by this method shrinks and warps to a less degree and it is distorted to the
minimum. However the wastage is maximum and the cost of sawing proves to be high as more
time and labour are required in turning wood several times.

During conversion, there will be loss of timber due to sawing and it may extend up to 40 per cent
in reduction of weight of log.

SEASONING OF TIMBER

Timber seasoning refers to the controlled drying of converted timber by natural or artificial
means.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 68
All freshly converted green timber contains free amounts of water in cell cavities and cell walls
that should be reduced to approximate to that of the atmosphere in which the timber is to be
finally located if moisture movement is to be avoided.

IMPORTANCE OF TIMBER SEASONING.

a. To ensure that shrinkage takes place before timber is used. (To avoid distortion of
finished work).
b. To ensure that the moisture content of timber is below the dry rot safety line of
20%
c. To increase the strength of timber
d. To enable finishes like painting, varnishing, gluing, preservation etc.
e. To reduce timber weight for easy transportation
f. To make timber easily workable.
g. To reduce the risk of insect/fungal attack on timber.

METHODS OF TIMBER SEASONING

A. Air/natural seasoning.

This is the method of seasoning, where timber is stacked in open sided sheds. Which
facilitate free air circulation within timber and afford it protection from sun and rain. When
choosing the site, the following factors should be born in mine.

(i) The site should be open, well drained and concreted to prevent vegetative
growth. Where cleanliness ought to be observed.
(ii) Brick piers should be constructed to keep the stack off the ground for the
good air circulation.
(iii)Stack the boards horizontally from the largest to the smallest, and once
piece separated by stickers at 25mm from each other to prevent distortion.
(iv) Pilling sticks (stickers) should be introduced between each layer at
approximately 600mm and should be of the same type of timber as that
being seasoned to avoid staining.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 69
 (v) Ends of boards should be painted or covered with strips of wood to
prevent them from faster drying.

NB Hardwood boards converted using slab sawing should be stacked as they were converted

Advantages of natural / air seasoning.

- Defects due to rapid seasoning are minimal.

- It is a cheap and economical method of seasoning timber.
- It is a simple method and does not therefore require skilled labour.
- Very unreliable method of seasoning due to differing weather / climatic
conditions.

Disadvantages of air / natural seasoning

- Timber takes long to dry

- Insect and fungal attack is likely due to the long time timber take to dry
- There is little or no control over the final moisture content of timber
- Even under favorable condition, required moisture content cannot easily be
achieved
- Timber is exposed to the risk of thieves, wildfire, termites etc.

Conditions that affect the drying time of timber when air seasoned.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 70
 - Method of stacking adopted
- The type of timber being seasoned
- The size of timber boards being seasoned.
- The condition of the atmosphere (climatic conditions)
- Season of the year, e.g. summer, spring, autumn etc.
- Required moisture content
- Location of the site
- Time of exposure (duration timber takes in stack)
B. Kiln / artificial seasoning

This is a method of drying timber in built up chambers, through which air of controlled humidity
and is circulated by powerful electric fans.

It is therefore a mechanized process commonly used for rapid seasoning timber especially for
internal use. This method can also be used in conjunction with air seasoning to achieve the
required moisture content.

There are two types of kilns in common use;

a. The compartment kiln and

b. The progressive kiln.

THE COMPARTMENT KILN

This is a brick or concrete building to which the timber is packed similar to air seasoning.

Timber remains stationery during the seasoning process while the conditions are adjusted to the
correct levels as the drying process progresses. Inside the kiln, warm air is circulated by means
of fans, while steam or water vapour jets control humidity.

In this method, timber is dried out to required moisture content as tests are periodically carried
out to check on the progress of the drying process, which should be controlled to avoid impairing
timber by too rapid drying.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 71
The drying of timber depends on;

a. Air circulation, which is supplied by fans.

b. Heat that is normally supplied by heating coils through which steam flows
c. Humidity (moisture content of the air). Sprays are used to raise humidity ;
they are installed along the whole length of compartment,

THE PROGRESSIVE KILN

A progressive kiln is a drying tunnel where timber is packed and moved in trunks / trolleys
gradually from warm and humid to hot and dry conditions. They are normally used in situations
where there is need for constant supply of timber of the same species.

The drying schedules are such that when high steam is introduced, lower the heat. Reduced
steam, increase heat.

Advantages of kiln seasoning

- The required moisture content can easily be achieved

- Timber dries faster
- The sterilizing effect of heated air prevents insect and fungal attack
- There is uniformity of drying timber since fans evenly distribute heat.
- Capital is not tied up (cost effective) due to the short time timber takes to dry

Disadvantages of kiln seasoning

- It is a very expensive method of seasoning timber.

- The method requires skilled labour to manager the process if good quality timber
is to be got.
- Seasoning defects due to rapid drying are most likely
- This method is limited to urban places because of the need for electricity power.
- The method requires a lot of attention.

Factors that affect drying time of timber when kiln seasoned

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 72
 - Size of timber being seasoned
- They type of timber. Timber from hardwood trees dries faster than timber from
softwood trees as a result of a large amount of sap.
- The required moisture content. This is determined by the final location of timber.
- The humidity in the kiln. If timber is produced is not balance with the
surrounding, timber will take long to dry.
- The state of timber (precondition). Some timber is first seasoned before kiln
seasoning. Therefore more heat is subjected than humidity hence faster withdrawn
of moisture.

Other artificial seasoning methods include:

(a) Boiling. In this method timber is immersed in water and then water is boiled for 3 to 4
hours. Then it is dried slowly. Instead of boiling water hot steam may be circulated on
timber. The process of seasoning is fast, but costly.
(b) Chemical seasoning. In this method, the timber is immersed in a solution of suitable salt.
Then the timber is dried in a kiln. The preliminary treatment by chemical seasoning
ensures uniform seasoning of outer and inner parts of timber.
(c) Electrical seasoning. In this method high frequency alternate electric current is passed
through timber. Resistance to electric current is low when moisture content in timber is
high. As moisture content reduces the resistance reduces. Measure of resistance can be
used to stop seasoning at appropriate level.

However it is costly process. This technique has been tried in some plywood industries but not in
seasoning of timber on mass scale.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER

Various defects which are likely to occur in timber may be grouped into the following three.

(i) Due to natural forces

(ii) Due to defective seasoning and conversions
(iii) Due to attack by fungi and insects

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 73
 (i) Defects due to natural forces. The following defects are caused by natural forces.
(a) Knots (b) shakes (c) Wind cracks (d) upsets

(a). knots: when a tree grows, many of its branches fall and the stump of these branches in
the trunk is covered. In the sawn pieces of timber the stumps of fallen branches appear as
knots. Knots are dark and hard pieces. Grains are distorted in this portion. Figure 1.9 shows
some varieties of knots. If the knots are intact with surrounding wood, it is called live knot. If
it is not held firmly it is dead knot.

(b) Shakes. The shakes are cracks in the timber which appear due to excessive heat, frost or
twisting due to wind during the growth of a tree. Spending upon the shape and the
positions shakes can be classified as star shake, ring shakes and heart shakes (ref.
fig.1.10)

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 74
 (c) Wind cracks. These are the cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of the
exterior surface. They appear as shown in fig. 1.11

(d) Upsets: figure 1.12 shows a typical upset in a timber. This type of defects is due to
excessive compression in the tree when it was young. Upset is an injury by crushing. This
is also known as rupture.

(ii) Defects due to defective seasoning and conversion. If seasoning is not uniform, the
converted timber may warp and twist in various directions. Sometimes honey
combining and even cracks appear. This type of defects is more susceptible in case of
kiln seasoning. In the process of converting timber to commercial sizes and shapes
the following types of defects are likely to arise, chip marks, torn grain etc.
(iii) Defects due to fungi and insects attack. Fungi are minute microscopic plant
organism. They grow in wood if moisture content is more than 20oc and exposed to
air. Due to fungi attack rotting of wood, takes place. Wood becomes weak and stains
appear on it. Beetles, marine borers and termites (whit ants) are the insects which eat
wood and weaken the timber. Some woods like teak have chemicals in their
compositions and resist such attacks. Other woods are to be protected by chemical
treatment.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 75
DISEASES OF TIMBER

The common diseases of timber include;

Dry rot; is the decomposition of felled timber by the action of various fungi which feed up on
the wood and reduces it to powdery condition. This disease highly destroys timber but charring,
painting or varnishing unseasoned timber can also cause dry rot. Dry can also be detected in
timber by scratching or tapping timber from one side and listening from one side if the noise is
heard easily then the timber internal decay.

Prevention of dry rot; These can be done by keeping timber in dry state with adequate
ventilation, reliable DPC layer and avoidance of any leakage to the timber.

Keep the timber at maximum moisture content of 20% to avoid the development of any fungi.

If dry rot is detected in timber, remove the affected one immediately and burn it off.

Wet rot; It is the decomposition of timber caused by dampness and moisture and by alternate
wetting and drying, these type of decay is not caused by fungal attack. It is commonly found in
living trees, the attack takes place through wounds in the bark by the access of water.

Prevention of wet rot; By using well-seasoned wood for both exterior and underground work.
Wood should be protected from moisture by tarring or painting

PRESERVATION OF TIMBER

Is the art of treating the timber with some chemicals so as to increase its life span. The major
aims of preserving timber are;

 To protect the timber structure from the attack of destroying agencies such as fungi,
insects etc.
 To lengthen the life of timber structures.
 To make the timber structures durable.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD PRESERVATIVE FOR TIMBER

The preservative used to protect the timber should contain following requirements or properties.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 76
  It should be easily and cheaply available.
 It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc.
 It should cover larger area with small quantity. Hence, it should be economical.
 Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on timber after the
application of preservative.
 Strength of timber should not be affected by the preservative.
 It should not contain any unpleasant smell.
 It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc.
 It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc. and should also efficient to kill them.
 It should not generate flame when contacts with fire.
 It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them.
 The depth of penetration of preservative in wood fibers should be minimum 6mm to
25mm.

Types of timber preservatives

Timber is to be seasoned well before application of preservatives. The following are the widely
used preservatives.

1. Tar oils

These are derived from coal and dark brown or black in colour. They are fairly permanent,
cheap, effective and easy to apply. They are however have a strong odor and are flammable.
They are used mainly for external use and the timber treated using tar oils will not accept finish
such as paint and varnish.

2. Water soluble preservatives

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 77
These are toxic chemicals, which are mixed with water. They are suitable for use in both external
and internal situations. They are odorless and non-inflammable. The timber accepts other
finishes after applying the water soluble preservatives.

3. Organic solvent preservatives

These are toxic chemicals which are mixed with a spirit that evaporates after the preservative has
been applied to the timber. They are the most expensive types of preservatives but considered to
be superior because of their excellent penetration properties.

Methods of timber Preservation

Preservatives are applied by different methods depending upon the extent of preservation
required. Starting from the simplest to complex, these are:

1. Brush applications,
2. Dipping,
3. Open tank immersion,
4. Pressure application.
1. Brush Application;
In this method, timber is given one or two coats of the preservative with the help of a brush. This
is used for painting the ends of beams or base of poles and posts that go to the ground with coal
tar. The method is quite cheap. At the same time, it is not very effective.

2. Dipping Application;
The timber part to be treated is made to dip in the preservative and kept immersed in it for
various periods from a few hours to few days. It is used when organic preservative solvents are
to be applied.

3. Open Tank Application;

In this method, the timber is kept immersed in a suitable metallic tank of proper size till a proper
saturation is obtained. To ensure deeper penetration of the preservative, the tank is heated while
the timber is immersed in it. The temperature of preservative is brought to 70°-80°C, and it is

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 78
kept at that temperature for several hours. After this, the timber is allowed to cool within the tank
in the presence of a preservative.

In this way, the timber may actually suck a lot of preservatives and ensure complete penetration.
Softwoods (confiners) receive this type of treatment in a remarkable manner because their cells
are more permeable. The treatment has the disadvantage that it increases the weight of the treated
timber considerably.

4. The Pressure Process;

This is the best and commonly applied method for preservation of timber of costly varieties. It
involves the passage of preservative into the timber under pressure. This is achieved by either
Two Process.

The Full-Cell Process. The timber is placed in a large steel cylinder acting as a pressure vessel.
Vacuum is created and maintained for about one hour or more. After this, coal tar creosote oil or
any other suitable preservative, preheated to a required temperature, is forced into the cylinder
under sufficient pressure. This is continued till the required quantity of preservative has been
introduced into the timber. Thereafter, the pressure is reduced, and after giving some vacuum,
timber is taken out.

Empty cell method; no vacuum is created in the beginning. Instead, timber placed in the
pressure vessel is subjected to initial pressure while preservative is being introduced into the
cylinder. Once the vessel is full of preservative, full pressure is applied which forces the
preservative from the tank into the timber. After this, the pressure is released. This causes the air
compressed in the cells of timber to come out along with any excessive preservative.

The main advantage of pressure processes (of one type or another) is that they ensure a proper
and deeper penetration of preservative into the timber in a controlled manner.

Even those timbers which may not absorb preservatives in the open-tank process can be filled
with preservatives by this method.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 79
The main disadvantage is that these are as yet costly processes involving the use of pressure
vessels and require skilled operators for better results.

Charring. It is a common method used for preserving timber poles and posts that are to be dug
into the ground. The outer part of the lower ends is charred (incompletely burnt) before insertion
into the ground. The charcoal layer so formed is an easy safeguard against attacks by fungi or
termite (as these organisms do not find any food in charcoal).

Uses of timber

Timber is used for the following works.

1. For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles

2. For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing
3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles ad gates
4. For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and strutting,
packing of materials.
5. For decorative works like showcases and furniture‘s
6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats
7. For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall papers
8. For marking sports goods and musical instruments.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 80
 CHAPTER FOUR

BUILDING STONES AND AGGREGATES

4.1 BUILDING STONES

Introduction

Stone is naturally available building which has been used from the early age of civilization. It is
available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as a building
block.

A rock is commonly defined as a hard mass of mineral having as a rule, no definite external form
(shape) or chemical composition, but a mixture of two or more minerals. A mineral is a
substance, which is formed by the natural organic process and possesses a definite chemical
composition and molecular structure.

Building stones are those types of stones that possess such properties, which make them suitable
for building construction.

Type of stones

Stones used for civil engineering may be classified in the following three ways

- Geological
- Physical
- Chemical

Geological classification

Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups – igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

(i) Igneous rocks. These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses
from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous
rocks are strong and durable. Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this
category; granites are formed by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 81
 top. Hence they have crystalline surface. The cooling of lava at the top surface of
earth results into non-crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and basalt belongs to this
category.
(ii) Sedimentary rocks. Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks
disintegrates. The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water, the water being
most powerful medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some
points of obstacles to its flow. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated
under pressure and by heat. Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the
deposits. The rocks thus formed are more uniform, fine grained and compact in their
nature. They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general. Sand stones, lime
stones, mud stones etc. belong to this class of rock.
(iii) Metamorphic rocks. Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo
changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to
metamorphic action granite becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and
laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone
becomes slate.

Physical classification

Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as.

- Stratified rocks
- Unstratified rocks
- Foliated rocks
(i) Stratified rocks. These are rocks having layered structure. They possess planes of
stratification or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones,
lime stones slate etc. are the examples of this class of stones
(ii) Unstratified rocks. These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and
compact grains. They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the
examples of this type of rocks.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 82
 (iii) Foliated rocks. These rocks have a tendency to split along a defined direction only.
The direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This
type of structure is very common in case of metamorphic rocks.

Chemical classification

On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:

- Silicious rocks
- Argillaceous rocks and
- Calcareous rocks.
(i) Silicious rocks. The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable

Examples of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.

(ii) Argillaceous rocks. The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e. clay. These stones
are hard and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and
laterites are examples of this type of rocks
(iii) Calcareous rocks. The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate.
Limestone is a calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous
rock of metamorphic origin.

PROPERTIES OF STONES

The following are the engineering and physical properties of the stones that should be looked
into before selecting them for engineering works:

1. Structure. The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured
stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and
difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

2. Texture. Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they
are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

3. Density. Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 83
4. Appearance. A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face
works in buildings.

5. Strength. Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as

building block. Table given below shows the crushing strength of various stones. Due to non-
uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the permissible stress in
a stone. Hence even laterite can be used safely for a single storey building, because in such
structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm2. However in stone masonry
buildings care should be taken to check the stresses when the beams (Concentrated Loads) are
placed on laterite wall.

Crushing strength of common building stones

Name of Stone Crushing Strength in N/mm2

Trap 300 to 350

Basalt 153 to 189

Granite 104 to 140

Slate 70 to 210

Marble 72

Sand stone 65

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 84
Lime stone 55

Laterite 1.8 to 3.2

6. Hardness. It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works
stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.

7. Percentage wear. It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered

in selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of
more than 2%.

8. Porosity and absorption. All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of
water with stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage of water
absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good stone it should
be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.

9. Weathering. Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good
weather resistance should be used for face works.

10. Toughness. The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.
Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13 to
19 is considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.

11. Resistance to fire. Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in
strength, are good in resisting fire.

12. Ease in dressing. Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient
strength rather than high strength while selecting stones for building works.

13. Seasoning. The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of
the stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 85
moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to the action of
nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much required in the case of laterite stones.

TESTS ON STONES:

To ascertain the required properties of stones, the following tests can be conducted:

(i) Crushing Strength Test:

For conducting this test, specimens of size 40 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared from parent stone.
Then the sides are finely dressed and placed in water for 3 days. The saturated specimen is
provided with a layer of plaster of paris on its top and bottom surfaces to get even surface so
that load applied is distributed uniformly. Uniform load distribution can be obtained
satisfactorily by providing a pair of 5 mm thick playwood instead of using plaster of paris
layer also. The specimen so placed in the compression testing machine is loaded at the rate
of 14 N/mm2 per minute. The crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the
crushing load divided by the area over which the load is applied. At least three specimen
should be tested and the average should be taken as crushing strength.

(ii) Water Absorption Test:

Just like a sponge, porous rocks have the ability to absorb water and other liquids. Water-
absorbing rocks are formed from minerals that can hold water in their crystal structure or
between grain boundaries. Such water absorption is often accompanied by a change in the
crystal dimension that manifests itself as a swelling of the rock. These rocks, including
pumice and sandstone, increase in weight and size as they take in water. For the water
absorption test, the specimens are dried in an oven for a specified time and temperature and
then placed in a desiccators to cool. Immediately upon cooling the specimens are weighed.
The material is then emerged in water at agreed upon conditions, often 23°C for 24 hours or

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 86
until equilibrium. Water absorption is expressed as increase in weight percent. Percent Water
Absorption = [(Wet weight - Dry weight)/ Dry weight] x 100 .

(iii) Abrasion Test:

This test is carried out on stones which are used as aggregates for road construction.
The test result indicate the suitability of stones against the grinding action under traffic.

(iv) Impact Test:

The resistance of stones to impact is found by conducting tests in impacting testing machine .

(v) Acid Test:

This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate,
which weakens the weather resisting quality. In this test, a sample of stone weighing about 50
to 100 gm is taken and kept in a solution of one per cent hydrochloric acid for seven days.
The solution is agitated at intervals. A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and
keeps its surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates
the presence of calcium carbonate. Such stones will have poor weather resistance.

Common Building Stones:

(i) Granite: Granites are intrusive igneous rocks. Their colour varies from light gray to pink.
The only natural stones harder than granite are diamonds, rubies, and sapphires. Therefore,
choose granite when permanence, enduring color and texture, and complete freedom from
deterioration and maintenance are prime requirements. Granite is highly heat, scratch and
stain resistant, and is commonly used to face commercial and institutional buildings and
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 87
monuments. Commercially, the term ‗granite‘ includes a range of other types of non-granite
dimension stone including any feldspathic crystalline rocks or other igneous or metamorphic
rocks which possess qualities similar to granite‘s grainy, interlocking texture. Many
variations of granite appear on the commercial market with white, gray, pink, and red being
the most common primary colors.

The structure is crystalline, fine to coarse grained. They take polish well. They are hard
durable. The compressive strength is 100 to 250 N/mm2. Specific gravity: 2.64 and absorption
2
less than 1%.Crushing strength: 110 to 140 MN/m . Colour depends upon that of
feldspar and may be brown/ grey/ green or pink. Scientifically, an intrusive (plutonic) similar
stones such as gabbro, diabase, anorthosite, sodalite, gneiss, and basalt are sometimes
sold as ―granite‖ commercially.

They are used primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They are used as kerbs
and pedestals. The use of granite for monumental and institutional buildings is common.
Polished granites are used as table tops, cladding for columns and wall. They are used as
coarse aggregates in concrete.

Granodiorite: It is an intermediate intrusive igneous rock composed of light colored white

to light grey feldspar and dark green to black amphibole and/or biotite. The mix of light and
dark minerals gives the rock a coarse ―salt-and-pepper‖ appearance.

Gabbro: It is a dark-colored (mafic) intrusive rock that consists of dark grey feldspar and
black to dark green minerals such as amphibole and pyroxene.

To a geologist, the term ―black granite‖ would be an oxymoron, since by definition granite
must be light colored.

(ii) Basalt and Trap: These are extrusive igneous rocks. The structure is medium to fine
grained and compact. Their colour varies from dark gray to black. Fractures and joints are

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 88
common. Crushing strength is70 to 80 MN/m. Specific gravity = 2.96. Basalt is rough,
lightweight and grey to black in colour. The compressive strength of basalt varies from 200 to
350 N/mm2. They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used for
rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are suitable for paving
sets and as road metal, for the manufacture of artificial stones and used as aggregate in
concrete.
(iii) Sand stone: These are sedimentary rocks, and hence stratified. The stone is composed
mainly of sand-sized grains, or clasts, of quartz cemented with silica, calcium carbonate, or
iron oxide. They consist of quartz and feldspar. They are found in various colours like white,
grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even dark gray. The specific gravity varies from 1.85 to
2.7 and compressive strength varies from 20 to 170 N/mm2. Its porosity varies from 5 to 25
per cent. Weathering of rocks renders it unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to use
sand stones with silica cement for heavy structures, if necessary. They are used for masonry
work, for dams, bridge piers and river walls. A range of sandstones exist on the market,
varying in the amount of quartz present in the stone. These varieties can be different in
density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics. The commercial sandstone category encompasses
many variations of texture and color. Common forms of sandstone include arkose which has
a high feldspar content, graywacke which contains angular rock fragments, and conglomerate
which contains rounded rock fragments. Other common stones included in this category are
bluestone, a hard, dense feldspathic sandstone, brownstone, a reddish-brown stone taking its
color from its high iron content, and flagstone, a sandstone or sandy slate that is easily split
into large, thin slabs.

(iv) Slate: These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed of quartz, mica and clay
minerals. While slate is primarily comprised of quartz and either muscovite or illite,
quantities of biotite, chlorite, hematite, and pyrite are also commonly present. Less
frequently, apatite, graphite, kaolin, magnetite, tourmaline, and zircon can be constituents, as
well. The structure is fine grained. They split along the planes of original bedding easily. The
colour varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. The specific gravity is 2.6
to 2.7. Compressive strength varies from 100 to 200 N/mm2. They are used as roofing tiles,
slabs, pavements etc. Slate is naturally found in an array of colors. The most common include
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 89
black, gray, blue-gray, and mottled varieties. When iron compounds are present in the
formation, slate can take on hues of brick red, deep purple, or one of many shades of green.

(v) Laterite: It is a alteration product of a rock. It is having porous and sponges structure. It
contains high percentage of iron oxide. Its colour may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and
grey. Its specific gravity is 1.85 and compressive strength varies from 1.9 to 2.3 N/mm2. It
can be easily quarried in blocks. With seasoning it gains strength. When used as building
stone, its outer surface should be plastered.

(vi) Marble: This is a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different
pleasing colours like white and pink. Its specific gravity is 2.65 and compressive strength is
70–75 N/ mm2. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for columns, flooring,
steps etc. Marble formed from very pure limestone is white, but the presence of other
minerals, as well as clay, silt and sand, can give it richly varied coloration. A wide variety of
marbles exist on the market, both foreign and domestic, and these can be drastically different
in density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics.

(vii) Gneiss: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having fine to coarse grains. Alternative dark and
white bands are common. Light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray and dark grey coloured
varieties are available. These stones are not preferred because of deleterious constituents
present in it. They may be used in minor constructions. However hard varieties may be used
for buildings. The specific gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0 and crushing strength varies from 50
to 200 N/mm2.

(viii) Quartzite: Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. The structure is fine to coarse grained
and often granular and branded. They are available in different colours like white, gray,
yellowish. Quartz is the chief constituent with feldspar and mica in small quantities. The
specific gravity varies from 2.55 to 2.65. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 300 N/mm2.
They are used as building blocks and slabs. They are also used as aggregates for concrete.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 90
(ix) Limestone: Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate, plus
calcium and/or magnesium. It is formed when layers of minerals (particularly calcite), fine
sediment, and the skeletons and shells of marine organisms undergo lithification.
Terrestrially-formed limestone is known as travertine.
An especially wide variety of limestones exist on the market, both foreign and domestic, and
these can be drastically different in density, hardness, porosity, and aesthetics. The ability of
limestone to readily adapt to various architectural styles, along with its pleasing natural color,
ease of shaping, and its durability are advantages that have all worked together to maintain
the stone‘s popularity throughout the years.

Common uses of stones:

Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:

(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.

(ii) Stones are used for flooring.

(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.

(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and
granite are commonly used for face works.

(v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.

(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.

(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with
tar they form finishing coat.

(viii) Crushed stones are used in the following works also:

(a) As a basic inert material in concrete mix.

(b) For making artificial stones and building blocks
(c) As railway ballast.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 91
 4.2 AGGREGATES

Aggregates are inert materials mixed with cement in the preparation of mortar or concrete.
However the aggregates may not completely be inert as in some cases their chemical
compositions may affect the properties of concrete in both its plastic and hardened states.

Purpose of Aggregates in concrete;

I. To improve both the volume stability and durability of the resulting concrete.
II. To reduce the cost of concrete. Most aggregates are natural materials which require only
extraction, washing and grading prior to transport to site.
III. Correctly graded aggregates produce workable yet cohesive concrete.
IV. To reduce the heat of hydration of concrete since they are normally chemically inert and
act as a heat sink for hydrating cement.
V. To reduce the shrinkage of concrete since most aggregates are not affected by water and
restrain shrinkage of the hydration cement.
VI. To control the surface hardness. Most aggregates have a better abrasion resistance the
hydrated cement but where heavy abrasion is anticipated, hard, high strength aggregates
such as granite or carborundum can be incorporated.
VII. For colour or light reflecting properties. Aggregates can be exposed for their visual
properties.
VIII. To control density of the concrete. Some light weight aggregates have densities below
5000kg/m3 while others have solid densities over 7000kg/m3. In general natural
aggregates have densities of 2600kg/m3 are widely used.
IX. To control fire. Light weight concretes are best in fire control because they transmit heat
most slowly than dense concrete.

Aggregate classification;

Aggregates are classified based on so many considerations, but here we are going to discuss
about their size, shape, unit weight and sources classifications in detail. An aggregate which has
substantial amounts of both fine and coarse aggregate is termed as an all-in aggregate.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 92
Classification of aggregates according to size
 Fine aggregate
 Coarse aggregate
 Cyclopean aggregate
Fine Aggregate
These are the aggregates which have a size less than 4.75 mm. In the laboratory, they are
classified as the aggregates which pass through the BIS sieve no. 480. In general, Natural river
sand is used as a fine aggregate.
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate passed through it called as
fine aggregate. Natural sand is generally used as fine aggregate, silt and clay are also come under
this category. The soft deposit consisting of sand, silt and clay is termed as loam. The purpose of
the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

Fine aggregate Size variation

Coarse Sand 2.0mm – 0.5mm

Medium sand 0.5mm – 0.25mm

Fine sand 0.25mm – 0.06mm

Silt 0.06mm – 0.002mm

Clay <0.002

Coarse Aggregate
These are the aggregates which have sizes more than 4.75 mm. In laboratories they are separated
as the aggregates which are retained on the BIS test sieve no. 480. Generally, broken stones are
used as the coarse aggregates.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 93
When the aggregate is sieved through 4.75mm sieve, the aggregate retained is called coarse
aggregate. Gravel, cobble and boulders come under this category. The maximum size aggregate
used may be dependent upon some conditions. In general, 40mm size aggregate used for normal
strengths and 20mm size is used for high strength concrete. The size range of various coarse
aggregates given below.

Coarse aggregate Size

Fine gravel 4mm – 8mm

Medium gravel 8mm – 16mm

Coarse gravel 16mm – 64mm

Cobbles 64mm – 256mm

Boulders >256mm

Size Use

200 to 75mm Mass concrete foundation, dams

50 to 75mm Roadwork

24 to 50mm Plain concrete work

15 to 20mm R.C.C. works

10 to 12mm Thin R.C.C. section, curtain walls

Cyclopean Aggregates

Size of this aggregate is from 7.5cm to 15cm.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 94
Classification of Aggregates Based on Shape
We know that aggregate is derived from naturally occurring rocks by blasting or crushing etc.,
so, it is difficult to attain required shape of aggregate. But, the shape of aggregate will affect the
workability of concrete. So, we should take care about the shape of aggregate. This care is not
only applicable to parent rock but also to the crushing machine used.

Aggregates are classified according to shape into the following types

Rounded Aggregate
The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore
gravel. Rounded aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives
more workability. They require lesser amount of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for
high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond strength.

Irregular Aggregates
The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available
in the form of pit sands and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will
give lesser workability when compared to rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly
higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 95
Angular Aggregates
The angular aggregates consists of well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly
planar surfaces and these are obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result
maximum percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less workability. They give 10-20% more
compressive strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So, these are useful
in high strength concrete manufacturing.

Flaky Aggregates
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it
is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than
the 60% of its mean dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 96
Elongated Aggregates
When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated
aggregate or the length of aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.

Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it is
said to be flaky and elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable for
concrete mixing. These are generally obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 97
Classification According to Their Unit Weights:

1. Normal Weight Aggregates:

Lightweight concrete contains aggregate that is natural or synthetic which weighs less than 1100
kg/m3. The lightweight is due to the cellular or high internal porous microstructure, which gives
this type of aggregate a low bulk specific gravity. The most important aspect of lightweight
aggregate is the porosity. They have high absorption values, which require a modified approach
to concrete proportioning. For instance, slump loss in lightweight concrete due to absorption can
be an acute problem, which can be alleviated by prewetting (but not saturating) the aggregate
before batching.

Examples are: Sand, gravel and crushed stone.

Concrete produced by these aggregates: 2160 to 2560 kg/m3 .

2. Light Weight Aggregates:

This is composed of particles of high porosity resulting in low bulk density. The use of
lightweight aggregates reduces the dead weight of a structure, allowing the use of smaller
supporting members and foundations at reduced cost. It also gives improved thermal insulation.

Examples are; Slag, slate, pumice, sawdust and wood fibre, clinker and other light stones.

Concrete produced by them: 240 to 1440 kg/m3.

3. Heavy Weight Aggregates:

These are mainly used for the special purpose of screening radioactivity e.g. in nuclear plants.

Suitable aggregates are those with specific gravity greater than 4.0. These include certain
minerals like Hematite, barite magnetite, steel and iron punchings.

Concrete produced by them: 2800 to 6400 kg/m3

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 98
Classification According to their Source:

1. Natural aggregate: Native deposits with no change in their natural state other than
washing, crushing & grading. (Sand, gravel, crush stone).
2. Artificial aggregates: They are obtained either as a by-product or by a special
manufacturing process such as heating. (Blast furnace slag, expanded perlite)

SAMPLING

A test in the laboratory is carried out on the samples. So, certain precautions in obtaining a
sample must be taken to obtain ―representative sample‖. The main sample is made up of portions
drawn from different points.

Methods of reducing the amount of sample:

1) Quartering:

Mix the field sample over three times on a level surface.

Shovel the sample to a conical shape.

Press the apex & flatten the conical shape.

Divide them into four equal quarters.

Discard two diagonally opposite quarters & use the remainder.

If this remainder is still too large follow the same path.

2) Splitting:

Use the ―sample splitter‖ to divide the aggregate sample into two. Sample splitter is a box with
an even of chutes alternately discharging to two sides. The width of each chute should be greater
than 1.5 times the size of the largest aggregate size.

If the remainder is still too large follow the same path.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 99
General requirements for natural aggregates;
They should be;
I. Hard
II. Durable
III. Clean
IV. Free from any harmful matters to an extent which would adversely affect the hardening
of the binders or the strength or durability of the finished material in which they are put.
V. Aggregates for reinforced concrete work should not contain substances which will attack
the reinforcement. Substances which may be classified as harmful include certain salts,
coal, shale and similar laminated or flaky particles, clay or loam and pyrites(mineral iron
sulphide).

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 100
 CHAPTER FIVE: CEMENT AND LIME

5.1 CEMENT
Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction industry. The cement is
obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very
high temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. Today cement finds
extensive use in all types of construction works; in structures where high strength is required e.g.
bridge piers, light houses, lofty towers, and large structures such as bridges, silos, chimneys. And
also in structures exposed to the action of water, e.g. reservoirs, dams, dock yards etc. Cement
mortar, concrete, reinforced brick work, artificial stones, plastering, pointing and partition walls
are routinely used in buildings.
Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic. The
latter does not set and harden in water such as non-hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water,
e g. Plaster of Paris. The hydraulic cement set and hardens in water and gives a product which is
stable. Portland cement is one such.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT

The three constituents of hydraulic cements are lime, silica and alumina. In addition, most

Cements contain small proportions of iron oxide, magnesia, sulphur trioxide and alkalis.

The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is given below:

Ingredient Percentage in cement

Lime 60-65
Silica 17-25
Alumina 3-8
Magnesia 1-3
Iron oxide 0.5-6
Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
Alkaline 0-1

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 101
Functions of Cement Ingredients
The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

 Presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and aluminates of

calcium.
 Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.
 Deficiency in lime causes cement to set quickly.
 Excess lime makes cement unsound.
 Excessive presence of lime causes cement to expand and disintegrate.

2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.

 Sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium

silicate.
 Silica imparts strength to cement.
 Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.
3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
 Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
 Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
 Excess alumina weakens the cement.
4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. Chemical formula is MgO.
 Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
 Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

 Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
 It acts as a flux.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 102
  At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
 Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4

 This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)

 It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

 Should not be present more than 2%.

 Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes cement to unsound.

8. Alkaline:

 Should not be present more than 1%.

 Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT CLINKER

The various constituents combine in burning and form cement clinker. The compounds formed
in the burning process have the properties of setting and hardening in the presence of water.
They are known as Bogue compounds after the name of Bogue who identified them. Le-
Chatelier and Tornebohm have referred these compounds as Alite (C3S), Belite (C2S), Celite
(C3A) and Felite (C4AF). The following Bogue compounds are formed during clinkering process.
S.NO COMPOUND FORMULA NAME SYMBOL
1. Tricalcium silicate 3CaO.SiO2 Alite C3S

2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 Belite C2S

3. Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 Celite C3A

4. Tetracalcium alumino ferrite 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 Felite C4AF

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 103
The properties of Portland cement varies markedly with the proportions of the above four
compounds, reflecting substantial difference between their individual behavior as discussed
below;

i. Tricalcium silicate(C3S)
 Generates heat more rapidly
 Hydrates more rapidly
 Possesses less resistance to chemical attack
 Develops early strength
ii. Dicalcium silicate(C2S)
 Imparts ultimate strength to the cement
 Offers more resistance to chemical attack
 Hardens more slowly
 Hydrates slowly
iii. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
 Weak against sulphate attack
 Reacts fastly, generating a large amount of heat
 Does not contribute to develop strength
 Causes initial setting of cement
iv. Tetra calcium aluminium ferrite (C4AF)
 Poor cementing value
 Reacts slowly, generating small amount of heat
 Comparatively inactive

HYDRATION OF CEMENT

The chemical reaction between cement and water is known as hydration of cement. The
reaction takes place between the active components of cement (C4AF, C3A, C3S and C2S) and
water. The factors responsible for the physical properties of concrete are the extent of hydration
of cement and the resultant microstructure of the hydrated cement. When the cement comes in
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 104
contact with water, the hydration products start depositing on the outer periphery of the nucleus
of hydrated cement. This reaction proceeds slowly for 2-5 hours and is called induction or
dormant period. As the hydration proceeds, the deposit of hydration products on the original
cement grain makes the diffusion of water to unhydrated nucleus more and more difficult,
consequently reducing the rate of hydration with time. At any stage of hydration, the cement
paste consists of gel (a fine-grained product of hydration having
large surface area collectively), the unreacted cement, calcium hydroxide, water and some
minor compounds. The crystals of the various resulting compounds gradually fill the space
originally occupied by water, resulting in the stiffening of the mass and subsequent development
of the strength.

RATE OF HYDRATION
The reaction of compound C3A with water is very fast and is responsible for flash setting of
cement (stiffening without strength development) and thus it will prevent the hydration of C3S
and C2S. However, calcium sulphate (CaSO4) present in the clinker dissolves immediately in
water and forms insoluble calcium sulphoaluminate. It deposits on the surface of C3A forming
a colloidal membrane and consequently retards the hydration of C3A. The amount of CaSO4 is
adjusted to leave a little excess of C3A to hydrate directly. This membrane in the process breaks
because of the pressure of the compounds formed during hydration and then again C3A becomes
active in the reaction.
The hardening of C3S can be said to be catalyzed by C3A and C3S becomes solely responsible
for gain of strength up to 28 days by growth and interlocking of C-S-H gel. The increase in
strength at later age is due to hydration of C2S.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

The following physical properties should be checked before selecting a Portland cement for the

civil engineering works.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 105
 a) Fineness: It is measured in terms of percentage of weight retained after sieving the

cement through 90 micron sieve or by surface area of cement in square centimeters per

gramme of cement. According to IS code specification weight retained on the sieve

should not be more than 10 percent. In terms of specific surface should not be less than

2250cm2/gm.

b) Setting time: A period of 30 minutes as minimum setting time for initial setting and a

maximum period of 600 minutes as maximum setting time is specified by IS code,

provided the tests are conducted as per the procedure prescribed by IS 269-1967.

c) Soundness: Once the concrete has hardened it is necessary to ensure that no volumetric

changes take place. The cement is said to be unsound, if it exhibits volumetric instability

after hardening.

d) Crushing strength: For this mortar cubes are made with standard sand and tested in

compression testing machine as per the specification of IS code. The minimum strength

specified is 16 N/mm2 after 3 days and 22N/mm2 after 7 days of curing.

PHYSICAL TESTS ON CEMENT

a) Fineness test: It is conducted by sieve analysis 100gms of cement is taken and sieved

through IS sieve No.9 for fifteen minutes. Residue on the sieve is weighed. This should

not exceed 10 percent by weight of sample taken.

b) Setting time: Initial setting time and final setting are the two important physical

properties of cement. Initial setting time is the time taken by the cement from adding of

the water to starting of losing its plasticity. Vicat apparatus is used for finding the setting

times. Vicat apparatus consists of a movable rod to which any one of the three needles

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 106
 shown in figure can be attached. An indicator is attached to the movable rod. A vicat

mould is associated with this apparatus which is in the form of split cylinder.

Vicat apparatus

Before finding initial and final setting time it is necessary to determine water to be added to get

standard consistency. For this 300gms of cement is mixed with about 30% and cement paste

prepared is filled in the mould which rests on non-porous plate. The plunger is attached to the

movable rod of Vicat apparatus and gently lowered to touch the paste in the mould. Then the

plunger is allowed to move freely. If the penetration is 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the

mould then cement is having standard consistency. If not, experiment is repeated with different

proportion of water fill water required for standard consistency is found. Then the tests for initial

and final setting times can be carried out as explained below.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 107
Initial setting time: 300gms of cement is thoroughly mixed with 0.85 times the water for

standard consistency and vicat mould is completely filled and top surface is leveled. 1 mm

square needle is fixed to the rod and gently placed over the paste. Then it is freely allowed to

penetrate. In the beginning the needle penetrates the paste completely. As time lapses the paste

start losing its plasticity and offers resistance to penetration. When needle can penetrate up to 5

to 7mm above bottom of the paste experiment is stopped and time elapsed between the addition

of water and end if the experiment is noted as initial setting time.

Final setting time: The square needle is replaced with annular collar. Experiment is continued

by allowing this needle to freely move after gently touching the surface of the paste. Time

elapsed between the addition of water and the mark of needle but not of annular ring is found on

the paste. This time is noted as final setting time.

False set: No heat is evolved in a false set and the concrete can be re-mixed without adding
water. It occurs due to the conversion of un-hydrous/semi-hydrous gypsum to hydrous gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O).
Flash Set: is due to absence of Gypsum. Specifically used for under water repair.

c) Soundness test: This test is conducted to find free lime in cement, which is not desirable.

Le Chatelier apparatus shown below is used for conducting this test. It consists of a split

brass mould of diameter 30mm and height 30mm. On either side of the split, there are

two indicators, with pointed ends. The ends of indicators are 165mm from the centre of

the mould.

Properly oiled Le Chatelier mould is placed on a glass plate and is filled completely with a

cement paste having 0.78 times the water required consistency. It is then covered with another

glass plate and a small weight is placed over it. Then the whole assembly is kept under water for

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 108
24 hours. The temperature of water should be between 240 C and 500C. Note the distance

between the indicators. Then place the mould again in the water and heat the assembly such that

water reaches the boiling point in 30 minutes. Boil the water for one hour. The mould is removed

from water and allowed to cool. The distance between the two pointers is measured. The

difference between the two readings indicates the expansion of the cement due to the presence of

unburnt lime. This value should not exceed 10mm.

d) Crushing Strength Test For this 200gm of cement is mixed with 600gm of standard

sand confirming to IS 650-1966.After mixing thoroughly in dry condition for a minute

distilled potable water percentage is added.

Where; P is the water required for the standard consistency.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 109
They are mixed with trowel for 3 to 4 minutes to get uniform mixture. The mix is placed in a

cube mould of 70.6mm size (Area 5000mm2) kept on a steel plate and prodded with 25mm

standard steel rod 20 times within 8 seconds. Then the mould is placed on a standard vibrating

table that vibrates at a speed of 12000 + 400 vibration per minute. A hopper is secured at the top

and the remaining mortar is filled. The mould is vibrated for two minutes and hopper removed.

The top is finished with a knife or with a trowel and leveled. After 24 + 1 hour mould is removed

and cube is placed under clean water for curing.

After specified period cubes are tested in compression testing machine, keeping the specimen on

its level edges. Average of three cubes is reported as crushing strength. The compressive strength

at the end of 3 days should not be less than 11.5 N/mm2 and that at the end of 7 days not less

than 175 N/mm2.

MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT

Cement could be manufactured by any one of the two methods:

i) Dry process

ii) Wet process

In both of the processes above, the three distinct operations of;

a) Collection of raw materials b) Crushing, grinding and mixing of raw materials c)

Burning and d) Grinding are carried out.

(i) Dry process

In this process lime stone and clay are ground separately to fine powders and are then mixed

together in the desired proportions. Water is then added to it so as to get a thick paste of which
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 110
cakes are then made, dried and burnt in kilns. To the clinker obtained is added three to four

percent of gypsum and ground to very fine powder. This powder is cement ready for use.

This process is slow and costly. Also is difficult to have the correct proportion of constituents

and to do so is cumbersome operation. The quality of cement is not as good as that of the one

manufactured by the wet process. This method has, therefore, become obsolete and the wet

process of manufacturing cement, described in details below, is widely used.

Flow Diagram for the dry process

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 111
 (ii) Wet process

i) Collection of raw materials: Calcareous materials such as lime stone, marl, chalk etc

are quarried by blasting. Argillaceous materials such as clay, slate etc. are transported

to the site by wine ropeways of dumping trucks.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 112
 ii) Crushing, grinding and mixing of raw materials. The crushed raw materials in

desirable proportions are fed into ball mills. A little water too is added to it. Ball mill

is a rotating steel cylinder in which there are hardened steel balls. When the mill

rotates, the steel bails pulverize the raw material which forms into a solution with

water. The mixture is known as slurry. This slurry is then passed into storage tanks

known as silos where their proportioning is finally adjusted to ensure the correct

chemical composition. Corrected slurry is then fed into the rotary kiln for burning.

iii) Burning. Corrected slurry is fed at the higher end of the inclined rotary kiln whereas

from the lower end of the kiln flame is produced by injecting pulverized coal with a

blast of air. Rotary kiln is a steel tube lined with fire bricks. It is 90 to 120 metres

long and from 25 to 3.5 meters in diameter. The kiln is mounted on rollers at a

gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in 30 and rotating moisture and forms into small lumps or

―nodules‖. The nodules gradually roll down passing through zones of rising

temperatures until they reach burning zone where they are finally burnt at 1500 to

16500C. At these temperatures ―nodules‖ change to clinkers. Clinkers are air cooled

in another inclined tube similar to the kiln but of lesser length.

iv) Grinding. Grinding of the clinker is done in large tube mills which are kept cool by

spraying water on them from outside. While grinding the clinker three to four percent

gypsum (calcium sulphate) is added so as to control the setting time of cement. Finely

ground cement is stored in silos where it is drawn for packing.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 113
COMPARISON OF WET AND DRY PROCESS:
The chief advantages of the wet process are the low cost of excavating and grinding raw
materials, the accurate control of composition and homogeneity of the slurry, and the economical

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 114
utilization of fuel through the elimination of separated drying operations. On the other hand the
longer kilns, essential in the wet process, cost more and are less responsive to a variable clinker
demand than the short kilns which can be used in the dry process.

STORAGE OF CEMENT
Portland cement is a finely ground material. It, therefore, readily absorbs moisture even from the

atmosphere. It is therefore essential to protect it from dampness during storage. Lack of proper

care may cause setting of cement or reduction in its strength due to partial setting. Following

precautions must as such be taken in storing cement.

i) Walls, roof and floor of the building in which cement is to be stored should be

completely water proof.

ii) In case the cement store is newly constructed then its interior should have been

thoroughly dried before cement is stored in it.

iii) Doors and windows should be properly fitted and should be kept shut.

iv) Except in case of dry concrete floor the cement bags should be stacked on wooden

planks.

v) The bags should be stacked away from walls. A space of 25cm all around should be

left between the exterior walls and the piles.

vi) Bags should be compiled close together

vii) Bags should be piled in header stretcher fashion and not more than 15 bags high

viii) While removing cement from store do not take out bags from one tier only. Step back

two or three tiers.

ix) Each incoming consignment should be stacked separately and a placard bearing date

of arrival of the consignment should be pinned to it. This would help in using cement

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 115
 in the same order as it arrives thereby avoiding dead storage that is stack remaining in

position for a long time while other consignments of cement come in and go out.

x) For temporary storage of cement at site of work, bags should not be stacked on the

ground. Minimum number of bags needed should be piled upon raised dry platform

and covered with tarpaulins.

USES OF CEMENT

Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are listed below:-

i) Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.

ii) Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.

iii) Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings,

bridges, water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbours etc.

iv) Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles

etc.

v) For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is

commonly used.

vi) It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 116
TYPES OF CEMENT

In addition to ordinary Portland cement there are many varieties of cement. Important varieties

are briefly explained below.

i) Ordinary Portland Cement. Ordinary Portland Cement, as it is called is made of

ordinary clinker mixed with gypsum. Ordinary Portland cement is graded according
to its compressive strength. There are three grades of Ordinary Portland cement
namely, OPC-33 grade, OPC-43 grade and OPC-53 grade.

The OPC- 53 is produced using a highly specialized process that allows optimum distribution of
each particle, thereby allowing superior crystalline structure and balanced composition. The
result is better strength and durability. OPC - 43 grade cement is produced by inter grinding of
clinker and gypsum, to an optimum fineness to ensure both strength & durability of concrete at
all ages, which it suitable for all construction works.

The cost of producing OPC is very low and available at the best quality because of the readily
available raw material in the area where it is produced. Being low cost cement it is widely used
in the production of concrete, which is the most popular material used for construction of roads,
houses, buildings, dams etc. Ordinary Portland cement is also used for mortars and in making
grouts.

ii) White cement. The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron,

manganese and chromium results into white cement is used for the floor finishes,

plastering, omamental works etc. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace

glazed titles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazed titles.

iii) Coloured cement: The cement of desired colours are produced by intimately mixing

pigments with ordinary cement. The chromium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt

produce blue colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown, red or

yellow colour. Addition of manganese dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 117
 These cements are used for giving finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills,

roofs etc. These cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls

(stucco), ornamental works, and casting stones.

iv) Quick setting cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage

of gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during the manufacture

of cement. Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property. This cement starts

setting within 5 minutes after adding water and becomes hard mass within 30

minutes. It is used when concrete is to be laid under water or in running water.

v) Rapid hardening cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime content

and burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is

also necessary. Though the initial and final setting time of this cement is the same as

that of Portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier

removal of form works and speed in construction activity. It is suitable for repair of

roads and bridges and when load is applied in a short period of time.

vi) Low heat cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced

due to hydration of cement will not get dispersal easily. This may give rise to cracks.

Hence in such constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This cement

contains low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage

(46%) of dicalcium silicate (C2S). It is most suitable for large mass concrete works

such as dams, large raft foundations, etc.

vii) Pozzolana Cement: Pozzolana is a volcanic power found in italy. It can be processed

from shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzolana material is 10 to

30 percent. It can resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat during setting. It

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 118
 imparts higher degree of water tightness. Its tensile strength is high but compressive

strength is low. It is used for mass concrete works. It is also used in sewage line

works.

viii) Expanding cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by

adding expanding medium like sulpho aluminate and stabilizing agent to ordinary

cement. This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.

ix) High Alumina cement: It is manufactured by Calcining a mixture of lime and

bauxite. It is more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full

strength within 24 hours of adding water. It is used for under water works. It has low

heat evolution and is used in the places of mass concrete such as dams and in places

of high temperature.

x) Blast furnace cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste

product. By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 percent of slag, this

cement is produced. The properties of this cement are more or less same as ordinary

cement, but it is cheap, since it utilize waste product. This cement is durable but it

gains the strength slowly and hence needs longer period of curing.

xi) Acid Resistant Cement: This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregate

such as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good

resistance to action of acid and water. It is commonly used in the construction of

chemical factories.

xii) Sulphate Resistance cement: By keeping the percentage of Tricalcium Aluminate

C3A below five percent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 119
 construction of structures which are likely to be damaged by alkaline conditions.

Examples of such structures are canals, culverts etc.

xiii) Fly Ash Blended Cement: Fly ash is byproduct in thermal stations. The particles of

fly ash are very minute and they fly in the air, creating air pollution problems.

Thermal power stations have to spend lot of money to arrest fly ash and dispose

safety. It is found that one of the best ways to dispose fly ash is to mix it with cement

in controlled condition and derive some of the beneficiary effects on cement. Now a

days cement factories produce the fly ash in their own thermal stations or borrow it

from other thermal stations and further process it to make it suitable to blend with

cement 20 to 30% fly ash is used for blending.

Fly ash blended cements have superior quality of resistance to weathering action. The ultimate

strength gained is the same as that with ordinary Portland cement. However strength gained in

the initial stage is slow.

5.2 LIME

Lime is a very important building and construction material, which has been in use since ancient

time for plastering, mortar and concrete works. Lime is still today as important building material

but is also used for other purposes.

PROPERTIES OF LIME

Following are properties of lime, which makes it a very important engineering material:

(i) It has good plastic properties

(ii) It gives strength to the masonry when used as a binder

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 120
 (iii) It stiffens quite easily and in a short time

(iv) It is easily workable

(v) It has a good adhering properties with stones and bricks

(vi) Its shrinkage is comparatively low and hence masonry in lime mortar is more durable

(vii) It can withstand moisture easily

USES OF LIME

Lime can be used for the following purposes:

(i) As a binding material in mortar

(ii) As a binding material in concrete

(iii) As aggregate in form of crushed limestone

(iv) For whitewashing and also as a base coat for distemper

(v) Used for preparing lime sand bricks

(vi) Used as a fluxing material in so many manufacturing processes

(vii) May be used for masonry work in form of limestone

(viii) As component of refractory clay

(ix) Used for soil stabilization

(x) Used to improve soil for agricultural purposes

(xi) Used for water purification and sewage treatment work

(xii) When used in combination with cement, its properties are modified and a lot of

cement can be saved

(xiii) Used even in paints

(xiv) Used in the manufacturing of glass

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 121
 SOURCES OF LIME

Lime does not occur in nature in a free state. It is obtained from substances having a lot of

calcareous content in it e.g. limestone, chalk. All these substances have calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) as the chief constituent. When heated, carbon dioxide and moisture are driven out

leaving behind calcium oxide (CaO), which is lime.

IMPORTANT TERMS AND THEIR DEFINITIONS

(i) Calcination. This is a process of heating the lime stone to redness in the presence of air

During calcination, carbon dioxide is driven off and calcium oxide is left as the final product,

which is lime.

CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2

(Limestone) (Lime) (Carbon Dioxide)

(ii) Quicklime. Lime obtained from the calcination of pure limestone is known as quick lime.

This has a high affinity to water/moisture. It is essentially calcium oxide but sometimes small

amounts of Magnesium Oxide (MgO) may be present.

Quick lime is also known as caustic soda.

(iii) Setting of lime. When lime is converted in to paste form and then exposed to the

atmosphere, it gradually hardens. This phenomenon of slow hardening of lime in

exposed conditions is known setting of lime.

(iv) Slaking/ slacking. Quick lime has a high affinity for moisture. Adding of water in

sufficient quantity to quicklime is known as slacking. When water is added, to

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 122
 quicklime, it swells and cracks. A lot of heat is generated and quicklime is converted

into Hydrated Lime or Calcium Hydrate.

CaO + H20 Ca(OH)2

(Quicklime) + (Water) (Hydrated lime)

(v) Slaked lime. Water required for slaking lime is about 32% of the weight of quicklime.

Due to various factors, like method of slaking, degree of burning, composition of

lime, water required in the slaking is taken 2-3 times the volume of the quicklime.

Hydrated lime is then obtained in form of dry powder, which is sold in packed bags.

When more water is mixed with this lime, we get limewater.

Slaked lime should be used fresh because it has the tendency to absorb carbonic acid

from the atmosphere in presence of moisture to form carbon dioxide as follows:

H2CO3 H2O + CO2

(Carbonic acid) (Water) (Carbon Dioxide)

Ca (OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

(Calcium hydroxide) (Carbon dioxide) (Calcium carbonate) (Water)

When slaked lime is converted into carbonate of lime, it becomes spoiled because it loses its

setting property and hence slaked lime should not be kept in a damp place.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIME

Composition of various limestone differs considerably and there are numbers of different kinds

of limes each having characteristic properties which influence the purposes for which they are

used.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 123
Lime can be classified into;

i) Pure, fat, white or rich

ii) Lean, poor, grey chalk or stone

iii) Hydraulic or blue lias

iv) Magnesian

i) Pure, fat, white or rich lime

This lime contains less than 5% of impurities such as silica or alumina (in form of clay). In the

analysis, the specimen is shown consisting almost entirely of calcium oxide (about 93%). It

slakes rapidly, evolves much heat, and expands to 2-3 times its original bulk during slaking. It

has a high degree of plasticity (hence the name fat), is slow setting and very slow in hardening.

This stiffening can only occur when the lime is in contact with air.

Pure lime is white in colour, is used extensively for plastering, not so suitable for mortar because

of in slow- hardening and lack of strength (unless gauged with cement).

ii) Lean, poor grey chalk or stone lime

This consists of more than 5% of the impurities of silica, alumina and iron oxide. It is therefore

less pure than fat lime. It contains about 82% of CaO. Characteristics are similar to those of fat

lime by on account of its impurities, it slakes less rapidly (resulting in a diminution of heat and

volume). Its iron content is responsible for its grey colour. Like fat lime, it sets and hardens

slowly. It is used for both plaster and lime mortar.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 124
 iii) Hydraulic or Blue Lias

This class of lime is capable of setting and hardening when not in contact with air and even

submerged in water, hence the name hydraulic. Limestone from which hydraulic lime are

prepared contain varying properties of silica, and alumina in the form of clay and iron oxide. It

contains about 67% of CaO. The clay and iron oxide play an important part in the setting and

hardening of such lime.

When the limestone is burnt, CO2 dioxide driven off and calcium oxide formed, it has a strong

affinity for clay, and combines with it to form silica and aluminates of lime.

If water is added to this burnt product after it has been finally ground, the mass begins to set an

harden as the water combines with the various products. This action is not dependent on the

presence of CO2 and therefore will continue even when air is not present. The setting and

hardening are similar to Portland cement. These hydraulic lime are subdivided into 4 types.

a) Feebly hydraulic lime: This contains less than 15% of silica and alumina. The rate of

slacking is slow(5-60 minutes) and expansion on slaking is small. It produces sound

mortar.

b) Moderately hydraulic lime: Alumina and silica content is about 15-25%. Slaking is

slow and expansion is small. It makes excellent mortar, is stronger than feebly hydraulic

lime and suitable for good class brickwork and masonry.

c) Eminently or very hydraulic: This type contains 25-30% of the important constituents

is silica and alumina. Chemical composition is very similar to that of Portland cement

also known as the Blue bias lime.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 125
It is similar to but stronger than the moderately hydraulic variety. It must be very finely ground

and screened before use to eliminate coarse un slaked particles. It closely resembles Portland

cement and is used for similar purposes.

d) Magnesium or Dolomitic lime

The rocks from which such limes are produced are known as magnesium limestone or dolomitic

they contain up to 45% magnesium carbonate. When calcinations takes place, the finished

product will contain both calcium oxide (quicklime) and magnesium.

CaCO3 + heat Cao + CO2

MgCO3 + heat MgO + CO2

Magnesium oxide has similar characteristics to calcium oxide although it slakes much more

quick. When more than 5% of magnesium oxide is present; the finished product is classified as

magnesium lime.

MANUFACTURE OF LIME

Following three distinct operations are involved in the manufacture process of lime:

1. Collection of Lime Stones:

The lime stones of required quality are collected at site of work. For fat lime, the percentage of

impurities in lime stones should not exceed 5 per cent. It is desirable to use comparatively pure

carbonate of lime in the manufacturing process of lime.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 126
 2. Calcination of Lime Stones:

The calcination or burning of lime stones to bright red heat is the next important operation. The

fuel required for calcination of lime stones may consist of charcoal, coal, firewood or coal ashes.

The initial firing is achieved with the help of few chips of dry wood or cow-dung cakes. As in

case of bricks, the burning of lime stones can be achieved either in clamps or kilns. The clamps

are temporary structures.

The kilns are permanent structures and they may be of intermittent type or continuous type.

The burning of lime stones is thus carried out in one of the following:

(i) Clamps

(ii) Intermittent kilns

3. Slaking of Burnt Lime:

The quick lime which is obtained by burning of lime stones slakes when exposed to the
atmosphere. This is known as the natural slaking or air slaking and it is a very slow process.
Hence the slaking is achieved by adding water to quick lime.
Following are the two methods of slaking:
(i) Slaking to Paste:
In this method, the quick lime is spread in a layer of 150 mm depth in a wooden or masonry
basin. The water in sufficient quantity is then added so as to submerge quick lime. It is found that
the quantity of water required is about 2½ to 3 times the volume of quick lime. The excess water
retards slaking and little water results in unsatisfactory slaking.
The water should be added at a time and it should not be added after the temperature has risen.
The basin is covered with wooden planks to preserve heat and to ensure proper slaking of the
entire mass of quick lime. The stirring is not necessary and slaking is completed in about ten
minutes or so.
(ii) Slaking to Powder:
In this method, the quick lime is slaked to powder form.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 127
 CHAPTER SIX: MORTARS

Mortars may be defined as mixtures of sand, and binders such as lime or cement and water. The

mortar can also be defined as the bedding materials used for bricks, blocks and masonry in cases

where joints have insufficient thickness (3mm or more).

The prime function of mortars is to take up tolerance between building units such as bricks,

blocks and stones. Before properties and uses of the different types of mortar are explained, let

us look closely the fine aggregate known as sand. Sand is used as an inert material in mortars and

concretes.

Sand (fine aggregates)

It is a form of silica (SiO2), which may be siliceous, argillaceous according to composition. Sand

particles consist of small grains of silica. It is mostly obtained from pits, shores, river beds and

sea beds. Sand is formed by the disintegration of rocks by weathering. Sand may be classified in

to three natural categories and one artificial category:

(i) Pit sand or quarry sand – Natural category

(ii) River sand (or lake sand) - Natural category

(iii) Sea sand - Natural category

(iv) Stone dust - Artificial category

Pit sand is obtained by forming pits in to the soil and the sand excavated out. It is sharp, angular,

porous and free from harmful salts. Clay and impurities should be washed and screened.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 128
River sand/lake sand- is obtained from the banks and beds of rivers and lakes. It may be fine

coarse. There are chances of fine sand having silt and should therefore be washed out before use

coarse sand is generally clean and is excellent for all purposes.

Sea sand- This consists of fine rounded grains of brown colour and is collected from the sea

beach. Usually contain salt which attracts moisture from the atmosphere and causes

disintegration of work in which it is used. It can be used locally after it has been thoroughly

washed to remove salt.

Stone dust- This is obtained during the crushing of stone to obtained coarse aggregates. This

size of stone dust is the size of sand. Stone dust from good quality stone is an excellent fine

aggregate. Using stone dust of the same stone, a mortar matching the colour of stone masonry

can be easily obtained.

Classification based on fineness

Sand may be divided in to three categories; fine sand, coarse sand and gravely sand. Fine sand is

used mostly for plaster work, coarse sand for masonry work and gravely sand for concrete work.

Bulking of sand

Bulking of sand means the increase in its volume. Fine aggregates or sand increases in volume

when it possesses some moisture. Bulking is due to formation of a thin film of water around the

fine aggregate or sand particles. Thickness of water around the fine aggregate goes on increasing

with moisture and consequently increase in volume continues. However, after a certain

percentage water, volume of sand starts decreasing with increasing amount of water and at a

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 129
certain percentage water, increase in volume completely vanishes and volume occupied by sand

becomes equal to the volume of dry sand.

Desirable properties of sand are;

(i) Should be completely inert

(ii) Grains should be sharp, strong and angular

(iii) Should not contain salts, which attracts atmosphere moisture

(iv) Clay and soil are considered harmful ingredients; their amount should not exceed 4% in this

case of natural sand and ground gravel. In sand or grit obtained from stone (i.e. stone dust) their

amount may be up to 10%.

(v) It should not be too fine. It should be coarse and clean and free from all sorts of deleterious

materials.

(vi) It should be well graded so that minimum voids are left in it. This amount will require a less

amount of binding material.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 130
(vii) Properties like iron pyrites, acidic and basic salts, mica should not be present in sand.

Functions of sand in mortars

Sand is mixed with binding materials for the following purposes:

(i) Bulk-It increases the volume of the mortar and consequently makes mortar more

economical.

(ii) Sand prevents excessive shrinkage of the mortar. This aspect avoids cracking of the

mortar during setting.

(iii) It helps in the setting action of fat lime mortars. Atmospheric air containing carbon

dioxide can reach lime through voids of sand and cause its setting.

(iv) Strength of the mortar or concrete can be adjusted by addition of larger or smaller

amounts sand.

(v) Since sand is an inert material, it renders the structure more resistant against

atmosphere agencies.

Properties of mortar

Desirable properties of mortar are:

(i) Good workability in the plastic state but with sufficient early stiffening to prevent

joint squeezing.

(ii) Good water retentivity (the mixing water should not bleed out)

(iii) Adequate cohesion in the plastic state to ease handling and reduce droppings.

(iv) Adequate adhesion to the bedded units both in the plastic and hardened state. the term

bond used in the hardened state.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 131
 (v) Sufficient strength when hardened for the work concerned. Should impart sufficient

strength to the complete unit.

(vi) Durability should be sufficient with regard to the degree of exposure likely and any

aggressive chemical agency.

(vii) Tolerable drying shrinkage and moisture movement where this relevant to the of

proposed work.

(viii) They should permit movement (unless this is negligible or movement joints are

provided) when movement occurs within a well-constructed masonry unit it should

take the form of micro crack within the mortar rather than cracking in the bricks or

blocks

(ix) Should resist penetration of water through the unit.

In practice, any improvement in any one of these properties can readily be achieved by varying

the mix proportions or constituents but usually to the detriment of one or more of the other

characteristics for example,

(a) An increase in cement content results in a stronger mortar but drying shrinkage is

increased.

(b) The use of finer sand in a mix improves its cohesion, water retentivity and workability

but reduces strength and increases drying shrinkage

(c) The cost of material is an important factor and there is usually the need to limit the

cement content (because it is the most expensive material) thus limiting the strength

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 132
Types of Mortars

There are 3 basic types of mortars:

(i) Cement mortars

(ii) Lime mortars

(iii) Cement-lime mortars

Cement mortars

Cement mortars consists of a mixtures of cement, sand and water in suitable proportions. The

proportion of cement to sand by volume varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or even more. Cement mortar is

the strongest of all the mortars and is commonly used in work which is below the ground level

dpc, to very exposed work such us free standing walls and parapets to engineering constructions

with bricks of high strength (i.e. in load bearing wall, pillar columns etc.). All these are cases

requiring dense mortar of high strength and low permeability.

Cement is measured in bags one cement bag is 50kg in weight and 351itres in volume (sand is

used in volume but allowance needs to be made for bulking). Cement and sand are mixed in

required proportions in dry states on an impervious platform. The contents are mixed two to

three times until the mixture shows a uniform colour.

Dry mix can be taken in pans to the place of work and water added by the mason himself when

he intends to use it or water can be added at the mix place to achieve the required workability.

On big sites where water mortar supply is continuously required. Mixer machines may be used.

Any mixture containing cement should be used up within 2 hours of mixing. The addition of

further water after first mixing known as re-tempering should not be permitted. However,

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 133
remixing (agitation without the addition of water) assists in maintaining workability of the

mortar within permissible working period without detriment to the final strength of the mortar.

Mortar mixes are classified in BS 5628 part three cement sand mortars for masonry work varies

from1:2 to 1:8.

Lime mortars

In this type of mortars, lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as a binding material.

One of its characteristics is the continued strength development over long periods.

Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar to be used for plastering and hydraulic lime is used in

preparing mortar for use in masonry construction.

During setting, lime shrinks considerably and hence 2 to 3 times its volume of sand is added to

lime for the shrinkage.

If fat lime is used in the mortar, it should be slaked before use. Fat lime mortar is unsuitable for

water logged and damp conditions. If hydraulic lime is used, proportion of lime to sand by

volume is above 1-2; this mortar should be used within one hour of fixing. This mortar can

withstand damp condition and is stronger than fat lime mortar. 1:2 or 1:3 lime sand mortar is

considered suitable for normal bricks work construction.

Lime mortar was once the principal material used for bedding and joining bricks, stones etc. it is

used less frequently now because it develops strength very slowly. If mixed by hand, the lime is

placed in heap, sprinkled with water and completely covered with the measured proportion of

sand. The lime expands and breaks in to small particles owing to the heat generated, this is

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 134
known as slaking or slacking the lime. The heap should be left for at least for 24 hours to ensure

thorough disintegration of the lime. Unslaked lime particles of the lime in mortar may cause

damage to walling. It is necessary to pass it through a screen to eliminate unslaked lime particles.

After slaking, the material is turned over with a shovel or a boarded platform. More water is

added and the mixing continued until the mortar is of the right consistency, neither too stiff not

too plastic.

If mixed in a pug mill, the lime and sand are thoroughly ground and mixed after about 20

minutes application of the rotating and grinding rollers.

The mortar should be used fresh and just sufficient amount should be mixed for each day‘s use.

Cement lime mortar (also known as compo mortars)

For other types of work, a strong mortar is both unnecessary and undesirable. Unfortunately, the

use much weaker cement mortars (i.e. low cement content) is not practicable because it results in

reducing workability (harshness), less cohesion, porous joints of reduced durability.

These deficiencies can be reduced by the inclusion of lime in the mortar thus explaining the

importance of cement: lime, sand mortars.

The lime increases the water retentively of the mortar, prevents excessive withdrawal of water

necessary for laying the units and for the hydration of the cement by units of high suction.

including lime, the ratio of sand to cement can be doubled i.e. twice that of a cement mortar.

Lime mortar is mixed as above and then gauge (add) to this mixture the necessary proportion of

Portland cement immediately before the mortar is required for use. Compo mortar is more open-

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 135
textured than cement mortar and is therefore better suited for bedding a joining bricks of

moderate or low strength. The proportions vary from 1 part cement to 2-3 parts to 6-9 parts sand.

MORTAR PLASTICISERS

Mortar plasticizers are liquids when added to water effervesce i.e. mixture becomes bubbly like

so water.

When used in small quantities, millions of minute bubbles form around the sand particles and so

making the mortar plastic and easy to spread.

Plasticity is increased so that there is no need to use lime. Plasterers do not adversely affect the

hardness and durability of the mortar. It controls shrinkage also.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 136
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 137
 CHAPTER SEVEN: PLASTERS
Plasters are materials made up of binders and fine aggregates mixed up with water. It is designed
to provide a durable, flat, smooth, easy to decorate finish to internal wall or ceiling‘s.

The application of interior and external finish to structure is usually the final phase in the
construction of buildings.

Functions of plaster

1) To cover up un even background

2) To provide smooth surface
3) To provide hygienic surface
4) To allow surface accept a decorative finish like painting

The following background characteristics should be considered when selecting a suitable

background plastering system.

1) Strength. The strength of plaster should be less than that of background so as to allow
bonding.
2) Porosity. Both affect the adhesion of the plaster system to the background and there for
it‘s ultimate strength.
3) Bond. The plaster must be able to key to the plaster. The key may be provided artificially
by raking out the mortar joints on brickwork or naturally by the background material
itself as in the case of more fine concrete.
4) Trueness of construction. Since plaster is to provide a smooth surface excessive filling
of surface undulation may require a number of coats or very thick layers of plaster which
will affect its adhesion characteristics of the wall and the condition the wall shall be
subjected to control moisture movement.

The objectives of plastering are:

1. To conceal defective workmanship.

2. To give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.
3. To give good appearance to structure.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 138
 4. To protect the wall from rain water and other atmospheric agencies.
5. To protect surfaces against vermin.

Requirement of good plaster are:

 It should adhere to the background easily.

 It should be hard and durable.
 It should prevent penetration by moisture.
 It should be cheap and economical.
 It should possess good workability.
 It should efficiently check entry or penetration of moisture from surface.

PLASTERING PROCESS
A maximum of 3 coats are used for plastering and each having its own function.

a) Rendering coat: To level the background(10mm thick)

b) Floating coat: To produce a flat surface of uniform section(12mm thick)
c) Finishing coat: To provide a smooth hard surface

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is
termed as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar and
lime cement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1: 3 or 1: 4. If
hydraulic lime is used mix proportion (lime: sand) is 1:2. Cement mortar of 1: 4 or 1: 6 mix
is very commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the
cost effectiveness of lime mortar and good quality of cement mortar many use lime-cement
mortar of proportion (cement: lime: sand) of 1: 1: 6 or 1:1:8 or 1:2:8.

Method of Plastering:

The plastering could be done on the surfaces either in one, two and three coats. The plastering‘s
for two coats are as follows:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 139
  The mortar joints are racked out to a depth of 20 mm and surface is cleaned and well
watered. If it is found that the surface to be plastered is very rough and uneven, a primary
coat is applied to fill up the hollows before the first coat of plaster is put on the surface.
 The first coat of plaster is now applied on the surface. The usual thickness of first coat for
brick masonry is 9 mm to 10 mm. In order to maintain uniform thickness, the screeds are
formed on the wall surface by fixing dots.
 The cement mortar is placed between successive screeds and surface is properly finished.
The second coat is applied after six hours and thickness of second coat is 3 mm to 2 mm.
The completed work is allowed to rest for 24 hours and then, the surface is kept well
watered for rest of week.
For plastering in three coats are similar to two coats. The thickness of first coat (rendering
coat) 9 to 10 mm, second coat (rendering coat) 9 to 10 mm, and third coat (setting coat)
thickness around 3 mm.

Defects in Plastering

The following defects may arise in plaster work.

1) Blistering of plastered surface: This is the formation of small patches of plaster

swelling out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late slaking of lime particles in
the plaster.
2) Cracking: Cracking consists of formation of cracks or fissures in the plaster work
resulting from the following reasons.
i. Imperfect preparation of background

ii. Structural defects in building

iii. Discontinuity of surface

iv. Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or rapid drying
v. Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion or shrinkage.

vi. Excessive shrinkage due to application of thick coat

vii. Faulty workmanship.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 140
 3) Efflorescence: It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the surface due
to presence of salts in plaster making materials as well as building materials like bricks,
sand, cement etc and even water. This gives a very bad appearance. It affects the
adhesion of paint with wall surface. Efflorescence can be removed to some extent by dry
brushing and washing the surface repeatedly.
4) Flaking: It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface, due to poor bond
between successive coats.
5) Peeling: It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface, resulting in
the formation of a patch. This also results from imperfect bond.
6) Popping: It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of
some particles which expand on setting.
7) Rust Stains: These are sometimes formed when plaster is applied on metal laths

8) Uneven surface: This is obtained purely due to poor workman ship.

Remedies for minimizing defects for plastering work:

 The brickwork and plastering should be carried out in the best workmanship manner.
 The bond of brickwork should be maintained properly.
 The efflorescence is removed by rubbing brushes on damaged surfaces. A solution of one
part of HCl or H2SO4, and five parts of clean water is prepared and it is applied with the
help of brushes on affected area. The surface is washed and cleaned with water.
 The bricks of superior nature should only be used for the brick work.
 The water free from salts should be used for brick work and plastering work.
 The surface to be plastered should be well watered so that it may not absorb water from
plaster.
 The damp- proof courses should be provided at convenient places in buildings.
 The overall construction should be such that the penetration of moisture is prevented.
 The fresh plastered surface should be protected from surplus quantity of water such as
rain and excessive heat such as sun.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 141
Precautions that should be taken during plastering process are as follows;

 Before plastering the wall must be evenly dampened to control suction.

 The first coat/scratch coat usually about 10mm thick should not be dashed on concrete or
masonry wall unless the wall is sufficiently rough to ensure an adequate bonding.
 The scratch coat must be trowelled to a clean dry masonry wall.
 The scratch coat should be cross hatched before it hardens to provide a bond for
browning coat (2nd coat).
 The browning coat should be approx. 12mm thick brought to true even surface and then
roughened with a wood float or cross hatched.
 The brown coat should be damp cured for at least two days and then allowed to dry.
 The finishing coat may require a slight finer aggregate but excessive finishing should be
avoided.

Materials for plastering:

Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or three
coats for the stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied
in two or three coats. For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement
mortar is applied. The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat
provides smooth surface. If three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The
average thickness of first coat is 10 to 15 mm. Middle coat thickness is 6–8 mm. The final
coat is just 2 to 3 mm thick. If single coat is used its thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm.
Such coats are used on concrete surfaces not exposed to rain. The mortar used for
plastering work can be classified into three categories:

1) Lime mortar: it consists of equal volume of lime and sand these two materials are
carefully ground in mortar mill. Flat lime is recommended for plastering work.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 142
 2) Cement mortar: the cement mortar consists of one part of cement to four part of clean,
coarse and angular river sand. The materials are thoroughly mixed in dry condition
before water is added to them. The mixing of materials is done on a watertight platform.
3) Water proof mortar: This mortar is water proof and it is prepared by mixing one part of
cement and two parts of sand and pulverized alum at the rate of 120 N per m3 sand.
4) Gypsum plaster: Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of Calcium sulfate
dihydrate (CaSO4.2H20). It is widely used as a fertilized, in mould, in sculptures and as
plaster material. Gypsum is a chalk like material and is very light in weight. It is
available in crystalline form in nature.
Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder occurring naturally as a soft crystalline rock or sand. Pure
gypsum is a white translucent crystalline mineral and is so soft that it can be scratched by a
finger nail. When heated to 205°C, pure gypsum loses its luster and its specific gravity is
increased from 2.3 to 2.95 due to the loss of water of crystallization. Gypsum has a unique
property of moulding. When heated it gives up combined water and easily turns into powder.
On adding water to the powder it can easily be shaped and moulded, and in a short time it
hardens again and becomes similar to what it was in its natural state. When water is added the
Gypsum forms interlocking crystals. As the gypsum hardens it is this crystallization that makes
it such an effective fire resisting material.
Gypsum occurs naturally in different forms i.e. Gypsum rock, Gypsite, Anhydrite, Selenite and
Alabaster.
There are two commercial varieties of crude gypsum, rock gypsum and gypsum or gypsite used
for the manufacture of gypsum binding material. These substances consist principally of a
hydrous sulphate of lime (CaSO4 + 2H2O) with varying percentages of silica, carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, and iron oxide. Building gypsum is an air-setting binder composed
mainly of semi hydrate gypsum and obtained by processing gypsum at temperatures 150°C–
160°C.
Chemical formula is CaSO4.2H2O
Chemical name is Calcium sulphate dihydrate.
Impurities are; Mgo, Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2, CaCO3, MgCO3.

PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM PLASTERS

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 143
 Gypsum items have a number of valuable properties like;
I. Relatively small bulk density.
II. Incombustibility.
III. Good sound absorbing capacity.
IV. Good fire resistance.
V. Rapid drying and hardening with negligible shrinkage.
VI. Superior surface finish.
VII. Resistance to insects and rodents.
VIII. Low energy input during burning to produce gypsum plaster.
The major shortcomings are its poor strength in wet state and high creep under load. Gypsum
plaster, e.g., Plaster of Paris, wall plaster stucco, and hard finish plaster are extensively used in
wall construction. Flooring plaster, made by calcining gypsum at a high temperature has been
considerably used. In all of these powders, gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the
essential element. Gypsum based items should be used only in dry state and in premises of not
more than 60 per cent relative air humidity.

CLASSIFICATION OF GYPSUM PLASTERS;

According to BS 1191 gypsum plasters are grouped in four classes which include;
I. Plaster of Paris: This is a form of hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) without any retarder of
set. It is manufactured in several grades for various industrial uses. Finely ground
gypsum is usually heated to about 150 – 1600C in shallow open vessels. 75% of its water
of crystallization is driven off. The product is known as plaster of paris. It is used for
patching and purposes where rapid hardening is required.
II. Retarded hemihydrate gypsum plaster: This contains an added retarder of set such as
0.1% keratin. This enables the setting time to be extended by an hour or more. It may be
used as a finishing coat for plaster boards or as an under coat on various surfaces e.g
concrete bricks breeze and slabs.
BS 1191 subdivides class B into two types;
a) Undercoat plasters (plaster for use with sand).
i) Browning plaster
ii) Metal lathing plaster
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 144
 b) Final coat plaster
i. Finish plaster
ii. Board finish plaster
On adding water, setting is at first delayed due to the protein retarder added, but then becomes
rapid, being converted to the dihydrate. Some typical trade names of class B plasters include;
Adamant, Beipite, Gothite, Cretestone, Battleaxe, Pytho, Thistle etc.
III. Anhydrous gypsum plaster: This is known as the moderately burnt anhydrous gypsum
plaster which is obtained by heating gypsum at 190 – 2200C to drive off all the water of
crystallization.
This anhydrous form (soluble anhydrate) is very hygroscopic, readily absorbing water vapour to
form the hemihydrate and adding water, setting is slow but continuous. It is suitable for finishing
work. Typical trade names of class C plasters include; cilastone, Sirapite, statite, victorite, xelite.

IV. Keene’s Plaster: This is the hard burnt or dead – burnt anhydrous gypsum plaster
obtained by heating gypsum to temperature of about 6000C to give relatively inert
product. An addition of 0.5 – 1.0% potash alum or potassium sulphate accelerator is
added to accelerate the rate of crystallization to produce setting when water is added. A
slow but continuous set occurs which makes it suitable for finishing only. Both classes C
and D plasters hydrate or set into the dehydrate form. Typical trade names of the class
include keene‘s cement, parian cement, superite.
However, if calcination of gypsum is carried out at a much higher temperature (e.g 1100
– 1200oC). Some decomposition into calcium oxide and sulphur trioxide occurs and solid
solution of CaO in CaSO4 if formed. This is the basis of the estrich gips, the germain
flooring, plaster which has a very slow set.

Advantages of Gypsum Plaster:

Some of the advantages of gypsum plaster are:
1) Ease of Application (Workability): Gypsum can be directly applied over brick/block
work without separate finishing. It is also very easy to apply and level gypsum plaster.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 145
 2) No Shrinkage Cracks: Gypsum reaction produces less heat as compared to cement
reaction with water. So there are fewer Shrinkage cracks in gypsum plaster as compared
to traditional cement plaster.
3) Quick Setting Time: Gypsum sets quickly (i.e., within 25-30 mins). So painting could
be started 72 hours after application of gypsum plaster. Plaster has to be dried up before
painting.
4) No curing time required: Unlike Traditional Cement Plaster, Gypsum plaster doesn‘t
need any curing saving water and time during construction.
5) High Productivity: Reduces time considerably when compared to conventional cement
plaster.
6) High Performance: Excellent high strength after drying, Durable and Light weight
(Reduces dead load on structure).
7) Smooth Finish: Perfectly lined, levelled, smooth walls and perfect right angled corners
8) Reduced Supervision: Careful quality checking is required for cement plaster as cement
and sand has to be properly proportioned. In contrast, gypsum plaster doesn‘t require
same amount of quality checks for application thus reducing supervision efforts.
9) Readily available raw materials: Gypsum is a ready available material.
10) Fire resistant: Gypsum plaster is highly resistant to fire.
11) Low thermal conductivity: Gypsum has low thermal conductivity. This saves electrical
cost for heating and cooling rooms in a building.
12) Decorative application: It can be easily applied to decorative purposes also and can be
mould into different shapes.

Disadvantages of Gypsum Plaster:

1) Gypsum plaster cannot be used for outside walls since they retain dampness.
2) Also gypsum plastering cannot be done in areas which are continuously damp such as
bathroom etc.
3) Gypsum plaster is costlier than traditional cement mortar plaster (cement and sand) for
same thickness of plaster. But in areas where natural/river sand is not available for
construction, cement mortar plastering would require a 6 mm gypsum layer to finish it
making cement plaster more costly.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 146
Storage of Gypsum Plaster at Site:
Exposure to water or moisture reduces the setting time and strength of gypsum plaster. So
gypsum has to be stored properly.
Gypsum Plaster (POP) bags have to be stored on elevated surface (dry platform) made of
bricks/timber/concrete at site.
The minimum shelf life of Gypsum Plaster 3-4 months from the date of manufacture. But if
properly stored gypsum can be used in excessive of 6 months subject to temperature and
humidity.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 147
 CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate, and cement. Often,
additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical
properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed together, they form a fluid
mass that is easily molded into shape. Over time, the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the
rest of the ingredients together into a durable stone-like material with many uses.

INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE:

Cement: The cement powder, when mixed with water, forms a paste. This paste acts like
glue and holds or bonds the aggregates together.

Aggregates: Aggregates are of two basic types: COARSE: crushed rock, gravel or
screenings. FINE: fine and coarse sands and crusher fines.

Water: Water is mixed with the cement powder to form a paste which holds the aggregates
together like glue. Water must be clean, fresh and free from any dirt, unwanted chemicals
or rubbish that may affect concrete.

Admixtures: Admixtures are mixed into the concrete to change or alter its properties, ie
the time concrete takes to set and harden, or its workability.

QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

Good concrete should have the following properties;

i. Strength. Concrete should be able to withstand the stresses that it is subjected to. It
is quite strong in compression but weak in tension.
ii. Durability. It should be able to withstand the weathering action such as of wind,
rain, frost and variations of temperature.
iii. Density. The concrete should be well compacted so that there are no voids or
hollows left.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 148
 iv. Water tightness. When used for the construction of water retaining structures such
as dams, elevated tanks and water reservoirs then this property of concrete becomes
very important.
v. Workability. It should be easily workable.
vi. Resistance to wear and tear. When used in floors and in the construction of roads
the concrete should be able to withstand abrasive forces well.

Advantages of Concrete
i. Ingredients of concrete are easily available in most of the places.
ii. Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.
iii. Concrete can be manufactured to the desired strength with an economy.
iv. The durability of concrete is very high.
v. It can be cast to any desired shape.
vi. The casting of concrete can be done in the working site which makes it economical.
vii. The maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.
viii. The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.
ix. Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its noncombustible nature.
x. Concrete can withstand high temperatures.
xi. Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm shelters.

Disadvantages of Concrete

i. Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low.
ii. Concrete is less ductile.
iii. The weight of concrete is high compared to its strength.
iv. Concrete may contain soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 149
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

In order to obtain good workable concrete the properties used are classified into two states
which include;

1. Properties of Plastic concrete or Fresh concrete or wet concrete

The following are the properties of concrete when it is in its plastic or wet state;

Workability:

It is defined as the ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported, placed and
compacted fully without any segregation and bleeding. It depends on the quality of water
grading of aggregates and the percentage of fine materials in the mix.

Segregation:

Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous
mixture. If a sample of concrete exhibits a tendency for separation of say, coarse aggregate from
the rest of the ingredients, then, that sample is said to be showing the tendency for segregation.
Such concrete is not only going to be weak; lack of homogeneity is also going to induce all
undesirable properties in the hardened concrete. There are considerable differences in the sizes
and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the
materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three forms;
i. Firstly, the coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix,
ii. Secondly, the paste or matrix separating away from coarse aggregate.
iii. Thirdly, water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest
specific gravity.
Segregation results in honey combing, decrease in density and ultimately loss of strength of
hardened concrete.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 150
Bleeding:
Bleeding is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in which
some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the lowest
specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in a
highly wet mix, due to excessive compaction, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed
concrete. In thin members like roof slab or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny
weather show excessive bleeding.
Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this
water, certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with
the trowel and floats, the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top
surface. This formation of cement paste at the surface of concrete is known as “Laitance”.
In such a case, the top surface of slabs and pavements will not have good wearing quality.
This laitance formed on roads produces dust in summer and mud in rainy season. Owing to the
fact that the top surface has a higher content of water and is also devoid of aggregate matter; it
also develops higher shrinkage cracks. If laitance is formed on a particular lift, a plane of
weakness would form and the bond with the next lift would be poor. This could be avoided by
removing the laitance fully before the next lift is poured.

2. Properties of hardened concrete

Fully cured, hardened concrete must be strong enough to withstand the structural and
service loads which will be applied to it and must be durable enough to withstand the
environmental exposure for which it is designed. If concrete is made with high-quality
materials and is properly proportioned, mixed, handled, placed and finished, it will be the
strongest and durable building material.

Strength: When we refer to concrete strength, we generally talk about the compressive
strength of concrete. Because concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak
in tension and bending. It mostly depends upon amount and type of cement used in concrete mix.
It is also affected by the water-cement ratio, mixing method, placing and curing.
Concrete tensile strength ranges from 7% to 12% of compressive strength. Both tensile strength
and bending strength can be increased by adding reinforcement.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 151
Creep: Deformation of a concrete structure under sustained load is defined as the concrete creep.
Long term pressure or stress on concrete can change its shape. This deformation usually occurs
in the direction the force is applied.

Durability: Durability might be defined as the ability to maintain satisfactory performance over
extended service life. Different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the
exposure environment and properties desired. Appropriate concrete ingredients, mix proportions,
finishes and curing practices can be adjusted on the basis of the required durability of concrete.

Shrinkage: Shrinkage is the volume decrease of concrete caused by drying and chemical
changes. In other words, the reduction of volume for the setting and hardening of concrete is
defined as shrinkage.

Modulus of Elasticity: The modulus of Elasticity of concrete depends on the Modulus of

Elasticity of the concrete ingredients and their mix proportions.

Water Tightness: Another property of concrete is water tightness. Sometimes, it‘s called
impermeability of concrete. Water tightness of concrete is directly related to the durability of
concrete. The lesser the permeability, the more the durability of concrete.

TYPES OF CONCRETE

1) Plain concrete

The plain concrete will have no reinforcement in it. The main constituents are the cement,
aggregates, and water. Most commonly used mix design is 1:2:4 which is the normal mix design.
The density of the plain concrete will vary between 2200 and 2500 Kg/meter cube. The
compressive strength is 200 to 500 kg/cm2. These types of concrete are mainly used in the
construction of the pavements and the buildings, especially in areas where there is less demand
of high tensile strength. The durability given by this type of concrete is satisfactory to high
extent.
2) Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C)

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 152
Plain cement concrete is quite strong in compression but weak in tension and shear. In the
construction of those members that are subjected to tension or shear the concrete is
strengthened by embedding steel bars in it.

This concrete wherein steel bars have been embedded to enable it take up tension/shear
stresses safely is known as reinforced cement concrete. It is used in the construction of all
sorts of buildings, bridges, arches, tanks and massive dams etc.

The reinforcement material for concrete should possess the following characteristics.

1. It should have high tensile strength, a high modulus of elasticity.

2. It should be cheap and easily available.
3. It should be able to develop perfect bond with concrete.
4. Be able to resist very harmful effect, if any produced by the concrete.
5. Easy to cut bend or weld.

Properties of reinforced concrete.

1. The coefficient of linear expansion of concrete and steel are almost the same. Therefore
no internal stresses are set up within reinforced concrete due to change in temperature.
2. The coating of cement on the surface of steel bars protects them from corrosion and
doesn‘t produce an adverse chemical effect.
3. The concrete while setting grips very first to the surface of steel bars. So the concrete is
able to transmit to the steel bars those stresses which cannot resist itself.

Types of reinforcement bars

1. Plain round bars (R)

2. Twisted bars (T)
3. Ribbed bars ( R)
4. Square plain bars.
5. Longitudinal mesh
6. High tensile bars (Y)
7. Expanded metal mesh

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 153
 8. Square mesh.

BAR NOTATIONS

Is the representation of reinforced bars using symbols in structural measurements e.g.

15R–16–01- 300 T/B, 8Y–18–450 L- R, 18T–20–900C/C and 16Y–18–0 – 460 C/C

Advantages of reinforced cement concrete.

 Is fire resistant.
 It doesn‘t rot or decay.
 It is impermeable.
 Does not develop cracks easily.
 It is durable.

Disadvantages of reinforced cement concrete.

 High initial cost.

 Heavier than steel construction.
 Skilled supervision and workshop required.
 Involves additional cost of form work.
3) Prestressed Concrete

It is manufactured with high grade controlled concrete having three to four times the
strength of concrete normally used in R.C.C. High tensile steel with breaking strength
nearly four times the strength of the normal mild steel used in R.C.C. is used in case of
prestressed cement concrete.

Prestressed concrete is produced in factory. This is concrete in which high tensile wires are
pulled between two anchors. The concrete is cast to the required shape around this wire. The
wires are released from the anchors after the concrete has gained its strength and this is called
PRE-TENSIONING. In other cases the concrete is cast in wires before stressing them but the
wives are stressed before the real setting of concrete after the concrete has gained strength the
anchors are pulled and this is called POST-TENSIONING. In either case the tendency of the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 154
wires to return to the original lengths sets up foundation in concrete which help the tension
stresses in bonding.

Prestressed beams, girders, flooring, roofing, bridge girders, railway sleepers, fencing posts
and number of other components are extensively used.

Advantages

 This type is 4 times stronger than any other type of concrete.

 It is more durable
 It is similar in section
 Stress weight compared to ordinary.

USES

Flooring, bridge work and making beams, roofs, girders etc.

Harsh mix. Have bigger or more coarse aggregates in the mix. Not easily workable.

Lean mix. Workable i.e. has proper sizes or rationing of materials.

Rich mix. Has right proportioning of ingredients.

Poor mix. Has poor proportions of ingredients sometimes used for binding

4) Aerated concrete

It is manufactured from calcareous and siliceous materials like cement, lime, pulverized
sand, fly-ash etc. Air cells are entrapped in it. Presence of air cells makes the material light,
impervious to water and a nice insulator. It can be produced in varying densities depending
upon the use to which it has to be put. It can be used from mere lining materials for cold
storages (because of its insulation properties) to load bearing slabs for roofs and floors. If
needed it could be reinforced like ordinary concrete.

5) Pre-packed concrete

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 155
In it cement sand mortar is injected under pressure so as to fill voids of already packed
coarse aggregate whose voids have been reduced to the minimum by compaction. It gives
very dense concrete whose shrinkage is much smaller.

6) Foam concrete

It is manufactured by incorporating minute air bubbles with preformed foam process in

cement and pulverized sand slurry which imparts lightness to the product thus formed.
These moulded blocks are then cured. This improves strength, reduces shrinkage and gives
the blocks greyish white or greyish colour depending upon the type of fine aggregate used.

This light weight concrete is being produced in various varieties, having different
properties each suited for a specific purpose and possesses excellent heat insulation
properties, especially in lighter forms. It is used for heat insulation over roofs etc; light
weight partition walls, light weight roofs for factories and for light weight false ceiling.

7) Precast Concrete
Various structural elements can be made and cast in the factory as per the specifications and
brought to the site at the time of assembly. Such concrete units are called as the precast concrete.
The examples of precast concrete units are concrete blocks, the staircase units, precast walls and
poles, concrete lintels and many other elements. These units have the advantage of acquiring
speedy construction as only assemblage is necessary. As the manufacturing is done at site,
quality is assured. The only precaution taken is for their transportation.

8) Ready Mix Concrete

The concrete that is mixed and batched in a central mixing plant is called ready-mix concrete.
The mixed concrete is brought to the site with the help of a truck-mounted transit mixer. This
once reached in the site can be used directly without any further treatment. The ready-mix
concrete is very precise and specialty concrete can be developed based on the specification with
utmost quality. The manufacture of these concrete will require a centralized mixing plant. These
plants will be located at an adjustable distance from the construction site. If the transportation is

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 156
too long then it will result in setting of concrete. Such issues of time delay are coping up with the
use of retarding agents that delays the setting.

9) Shotcrete Concrete
Here the concrete type differs in the way it is applied on the area to be cast. The concrete is shot
into the frame or the prepared structural formwork with the help of a nozzle. As the shooting is
carried out in a higher air pressure, the placing and the compaction process will be occurring at
the same time.

PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between
the cement and water. The stages of concrete production are: Batching or measurement of
materials, Mixing, Transporting, Placing, Compacting, Curing and Finishing.

1. Batching of materials

It is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by weight and
introducing them into the mixture. Batching can be done in two ways.

a) Volume batching
i. Batching of cement: It is always measured by weight mostly used in terms of bags each
weighing 50 kg and volume of 35 litres (0.035m3). Cement should be batched by volume
because its weight per volume varies.
ii. Batching of aggregates: A gauge box is used for batching fine and coarse aggregates by
volume. The box shouldn‘t be too shallow and should be completely filled and the top be
struck off.

When batching by volume is used, possible sources of error could lead to variation in the amount
of aggregate in a specific volume and errors in measured volume. These errors often lead to
variations in the fresh and hardened properties of concrete as against specified characteristics
properties.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 157
The volume of water required for mixing is not often specified. Sometime extra water is added to
make concrete workable. This makes concrete non uniform and reduces the strength.

NB. The moisture present in aggregates and the bulking of sand must be accounted for while
using volume batching

Example

A concrete mix is specified to be 1:2:4 by volume with water content ratio of 0.6 also if the
moisture cement in fine aggregates is 6% with 20% bulking and water in the coarse aggregates is
1.5% by volume. Fine the quantities of different materials required for one bag of cement.

Solution

Ratio = 1:2:4

1 – Cement

2 – Sand

4 – Coarse aggregates

1 bag of cement = 35 litres of water.

Fine aggregates = 35 x 2 = 70 litres

Coarse aggregates = 35 x 4 = 140 litres

Bulking of fine aggregates = = 14 litres

Total fine aggregates = 70 + 14 = 84 litres

Water

From water cement ratio =

But water content w/c = 0.6.

Weight of cement w.c = 50kg.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 158
0.6 =

Weight of water = 30 litres.

Water present in the fine aggregates

Water present in the coarse aggregates

1.5% =

Total water present in material =5.04 + 2.1 =7.14 litres

Net water to be added = 30 – 7.14

= 22.86 litres.

b) Weight batching

In weight batching the ingredients of concrete are measured by weight generally is used in
construction where quality of concrete is required. Weight batching is more accurate than
volume batching. Large weight batching plants have automatic weighing equipment‘s and this
are supervised by experienced engineers, batching of concrete is based on bag of cement or its
multiplies unless bulking cement is used and weighed separately.

Nominal mix is batched by weight using regularly maintained and well-calibrated equipment,
therefore high degree of uniformity in proportion of the fresh and hardened state concrete can be
achieved.

Water for mixing is weighed out precisely as a function of the weight of cement used for each
mix proportion. Hence uniform water-cement ratio can be maintained, which plays an important
role in achieving strength of concrete.

Precautions taken in weight batching;

1. Buckets used for weighing are cleaned before filling.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 159
 2. The weighing machine is leveled before weighing otherwise it will give wrong results.
3. The chart is prepared to indicate the weight of each material per batch for various
strength of concrete.
4. The surface water in aggregates is accounted and allowance made in weight of aggregates
and water.
2. Mixing of concrete

The mixing operation consists of rotation or stirring, the objective being to coat the surface
of all aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blind all the ingredients of the concrete
into a uniform mass; this uniformity must not be disturbed by the process of discharging
from the mixer. The mixing may done by hand mixing and by mechanical means like,
Batch mixer, Tilting drum mixer, Non tilting drum mixer, Pan type mixer, Dual drum
mixer or Continuous mixers.

There are no general rules on the order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer as this
depend on the properties of the mixer and mix. Usually a small quantity of water is fed
first, followed by all the solids materials. If possible greater part of the water should also be
fed during the same time, the remainder being added after the solids. However, when using
very dry mixes in drum mixers it is necessary to feed the coarse aggregate just after the
small initial water feed in order to ensure that the aggregate surface is sufficiently wetted.

Methods of mixing

1. Hand mixing. It is used for small works and where machine (mixer) is not available.

Procedure.

1. Construct a plat form depending on required volume of concrete.

2. Dry sand is laid uniformly on a platform over which cement is uniformly spread.
3. A uniform mix of sand and cement is obtained by turning over and over with shovel until
it is of uniform colour throughout.
4. Pour the coarse aggregates on top of the cement sand mixture.
5. A depression is made in the middle of the mix and required quantity of water is added.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 160
 6. The dry mix from the sides is moved and placed on the edges of the depression formed
till the water is completely absorbed by the mix.
7. The wet mix is then worked out with spades to give a uniform consistency to the
concrete.
2. Machine mixing

For quality works mixing is carried out by mixer. Mixers can be broadly classified as batch
mixers and continuous mixers. The batch mixers produce concrete batch by batch with time
interval, whereas continuous mixers produce concrete continuously till plant is working.
Continuous mixers are used for large size works, e.g., dams.

a). Batch mixers are used for small and medium size works. Batch mixer may be of pan type or
drum type. The drum type may be further classified as tilting (T), non-tilting (NT), or reversing
(R) type, based on the technique of discharging the mixed concrete.

i) The tilting mixers may be hand fed or loader (skip) fed. The mixer is generally bowl shaped
or doubles conical frustum type. It can be tilted into different positions for charging, mixing and
discharging concrete. Blades are fixed inside the drum. The revolving drum with the mixing
blades gives lifting and free fall to the mix, combes and agitates it. The mixed concrete is
discharged from the open top of the drum by tilting it downwards. The concrete tips out rapidly
under gravity in an unsegregated mass as soon as the drum is tilted. These mixers may be used to
their advantage for mixes of low workability and containing large size aggregate. The
disadvantage of these mixers lies in the fact that some mortar adheres to the drum and is left out
in the drum during discharging.

ii) Non – tilting mixer. It consists of a Non-tilting cylindrical drum with blades inside and two
circular openings at the two ends. The drum rotates about a horizontal axis. The ingredients are
fed from one opening and the mix discharged from the other opening at the other end by at
inclined chute. The drawback is the segregation that occurs owing to slow rate of discharge.

iii) Reversing Drum Mixer. These are also known as forced action type mixers and are used for

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 161
set of blades mixes the mix while drum is rotated in one direction. The second set of blades
discharges the mix when the drum is reversed.
iv) Transit mixer. Truck mounted mixers also known as transit mixers are very popular and
have replaced the dumpers and agitator cars used earlier to transport fresh concrete from the
batching plant to the site.

3. Transportation of concrete
Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss of
homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of mixing is
permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used for transporting
concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place during transportation and
placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete depend upon the size and importance
of the job, the distance of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature of the
terrain. Some of the methods of transporting concrete are as below:
1. Irons pans used for small works and limited access however it is tedious slow and
costly.
2. Wheel barrows. Used for major quantities of works and for moderate distances.
3. Truck mixer. Used in big or large construction sites and very long distances.
4. Belt conveyors. Used for continuous vertical transportation of concrete at higher
levels it is advisable to cover it with sheets of metal to safe guard concrete from rain.
5. Chutes. Used when concrete is to be placed below the ground level chutes may be
made of corrugated iron sheets or timber.
6. Crane / Hoist. Used in tall structures to lift the concrete to the required height.
7. Pumps. Used when large quantities of concrete is to be transported locally to
congested sites concrete can be pumped to a distance of 300m horizontally or about
40 m vertically.

4. Placing of concrete.

To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the homogeneity
achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in transporting. Research has shown

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 162
that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate compressive strength provided the
concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half to one hour is
allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold weather it may be several hours.
Concrete should be placed and compacted before setting if the thickness is big it should be
placed. Concrete should be kept in arbitrated conditions to avoid concrete from becoming stiff.

5. Compaction of concrete.

Compaction is the process that expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs
the aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of the concrete.

Purpose of concrete compaction;

Concrete shall be compacted during placing so that:

 A monolithic mass is created between the ends of the member, planned joints or both.
 The formwork is completely filled to the intended level.
 The entrapped air is expelled.
 All reinforcement, tendons, ducts, anchorages and embedment‘s are completely
surrounded.
 The specified finish to the formed surfaces of the member is provided.
 The required properties of the concrete can be achieved.

Methods of Compaction of Concrete

Following are the methods of compaction of concrete, which are given as follows;

a) Manual Compaction (Hand Compaction)

Manual compaction is also known as hand compaction, which is carried out by rodding ramming
Ramming can be carried out in unreinforced foundation concrete or in small works (ground floor
construction). Concrete should be rammed or puddled to force out the entrapped air bubbles at
the time of placing of concrete. Ramming of concrete depends upon the concrete slump. If the
slump of concrete (water-cement ratio) is high, the aggregates settle down at bottom and cement
slurry may appear at the top layer. It may result in poor strength of concrete that may lower the
service life of building.
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 163
 b) Mechanical Compaction
This is the most common and widely used method of compacting concrete for any structural
element. The vibrations imparted to the fresh concrete reduce the internal friction between the
particles of concrete by setting the particles in motion and thus produce a dense and compact
mass. The various types of vibrators in use are needle, formwork, table or platform, and surface
vibrators.
i) Needle vibrator; These are also knows as immersion, internal, or poker vibrator.
Needle vibrator can be used for any type of concrete work. This consists of a steel tube, called
poker, having an eccentric vibrating element inside it, a flexible shaft and a power unit. The
needle diameter varies from 20 to 75 mm and its length from 250 to 900 mm.
ii) Formwork vibrator; These are also known as external or shutter vibrators. These are
generally used under the following circumstances:
 Compaction of concrete is required to be done in a very thin or very densely congested
reinforced section.
 In addition to internal vibration, compaction is required to be done specially in the cover
area where at times needle or poker vibrator is unable to do satisfactory compaction.
 Compaction of very stiff concrete is required to be done because such concrete cannot be
compacted by internal vibrators.
iii) Surface vibrators; These are also known as screed board vibrators. Surface vibrators
are used for floor and roof slabs and pavement surfaces. These are effective only up
to a thickness of 150mm of concrete but can be used up to 250 mm. Surface vibrators
cause movement of fine particles to the top and hence aid the finishing operation. The
operating frequency is 4,000 cycles per minute.

6. Curing of Concrete

It is a process of keeping concrete wet to enable it to attain full strength. The process of keeping
concrete damp for this purpose is known as curing. The strength and hardness of concrete is due
to chemical reaction of cement and water. This reaction takes about 3 weeks, so curing should be
done for a period of 10 days – 3 weeks.
Reasons for curing concrete;

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 164
 1. To reduce loss of water from the concrete pores.
2. It improves wear resistance.
3. It reduces shrinkage in concrete
4. It increases impermeability.
5. It increases the durability in concrete.

Methods of curing concrete

There are many methods of keeping concrete wet until, it gains its maximum strength and these
methods depend on climate conditions, the nature of the work and the cost. This methods
include.

1. Shading concrete.
2. Covering the surface with water proof paper, sand saw dust etc.
3. Sprinkling water on concrete surface.
4. Coating the concrete surface with layer of water proofing compounds.
5. Ponding
6. Hot water steam.
7. Drip irrigation.

7. Finishing of concrete
Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the finish of the
Ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades efforts have been made to
develop surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete surfaces and are as follows.

Formwork finishes: Concrete takes up the shape of the form, A variety of looks can be had to
the architects imagination. By careful preparation of formwork, proper mix design and good
workmanship smooth surfaces can be achieved. Prefabrication units can be produced to a fine
finish.
FORMWORK;

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 165
Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which
fresh concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork
construction depend on formwork material and type of structural element.

A good formwork should satisfy the following essential requirements:

i. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
ii. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
iii. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
iv. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences
without damage to the concrete.
v. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for
reuse.
vi. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane
surface.
vii. It should be as light as possible.
viii. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.
ix. It should rest on firm base.
Surface treatments: The type of surface treatment depends upon the purpose for which the
concrete surface is to be used. For example a pavement surface should be plane but with
sufficient roughness to exhibit skid resistance. The concrete after leveling is rocked, broomed or
scratched to make the surface rough.
Applied finishes: The exterior surfaces of concrete elements can be modified to give a pleasant
look. The concrete surface is roughened, cleaned and wetted. Over this a cement mortar of ratio
1:3 is applied. This mortar rendering can be given a number of surface finishes such as sand
facing, rough cast finish, pebble dash etc.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 166
WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Workability of concrete is defined as the ease and homogeneity with which a freshly mixed
concrete or mortar can be mixed, placed, compacted and finished. Strictly, it is the amount
of useful internal work necessary to produce 100% compaction.

Factors affecting workability

Workable concrete shows very less internal friction between particles and overcomes the
frictional resistance with just the amount of compacting efforts provided. Workability of the
concrete depends on a number of interrelating factors. Water content, aggregate properties, use
of admixtures, fineness of cement are the factors affecting workability.

1. Water content: The increase in water content increases the fluidity of the concrete thus
providing greater lubrication. This helps to increase the workability of the concrete.
Increasing the water content should be the last resort to improve the workability in the
concrete as this will seriously affect the strength of the concrete.
2. Size of aggregates: The surface area of bigger aggregates is less and hence less amount
of water is required for lubricating the surface to reduce the friction. Thus the concrete
having large sized aggregate is more workable (of course, within certain limits).
3. Mix proportions: Aggregate/ cement ratio is the measure of how lean or rich the
concrete is. If aggregate/ cement ratio is higher, the concrete becomes leaner. In lean
concrete less paste is available for the lubrication of the aggregate, while in rich concrete
with low a/c ratio, more paste is available which makes the mix more cohesive and hence
provides better workability.
4. Shape of aggregates: Rounded aggregates have considerably less surface area and less
voids in comparison to angular or flaky aggregates which provide better possibility of
overcoming the frictional resistance. Further, angular and flaky aggregates make concrete
very harsh.
5. Surface texture of aggregates: The aggregates having smooth or glossy texture have
less surface area compared to rough textured aggregates. This provides better workability
as less amount of water is required for lubricating effect. But, taking into account the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 167
 poor interlocking action provided by the glossy textured aggregate, its use is generally
discouraged in high strength concrete.
6. Grading of aggregates: Well graded aggregate is the one with least amount of voids in a
given volume. If the grading of aggregate is good, the voids will be less and hence higher
the workability.
7. Use of admixtures: Use of admixtures in concrete is the major factor that affects the
workability. The use of plasticizers and super-plasticizers amply increase the workability
of the concrete. Air entraining agents produce air bubbles which act as rollers between
particles and provide better mobility thus improving the workability.
8. Time and temperature: Fresh concrete gets stiffened as the time flows. This is because
some of the water used to mix the concrete gets evaporated and some gets absorbed by
the aggregates. Thus the workability of concrete reduces with time. This loss of
workability with time is known as slump loss. The effect of temperature on workability
of concrete is noteworthy. As the temperature increases, the workability of the mix
reduces.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH IN CONCRETE

1. Water cement ratio

2. Method of batching
3. The material proportioning
4. Type and condition of cement
5. The quality and grade of aggregates used.
6. Curing process
7. Use of admixtures

MEASUREMENTS OF WORKABILITY

a. Slump test

It is the most common method for measuring the workability of freshly mixed concrete. It can be
performed both in lab and at site. Uniformity of the concrete regarding workability and quality

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 168
aspects can be assessed from batch to batch by observing the nature in which the concrete
slumps. It is not very suitable for very wet or very dry concrete.

A steel mould in the form of frustum of cone is used in slump test which has the top diameter of
100 mm, bottom diameter of 200 mm and the height is 300 mm. According to standard
specification, the maximum size of the aggregate in concrete that can be used to perform slump
test is restricted to 38 mm.

Apparatus
Iron pan to mix concrete, slump cone, spatula, trowels, tamping rod and graduated cylinder.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 169
Procedure;
i. Mix the dry constituents thoroughly to get a uniform colour and then add water
ii. Place the mixed concrete in the cleaned slump cone mould in 3 layers, each
approximately ¼ of the height of the mould. Tamp each layer 25 times with tamping rod
distributing the strokes in a uniform manner over the cross-section of the mould. For the
second and subsequent layers the tamping rod should penetrate in to the underlying layer.
iii. Strike off the top with a trowel or tamping rod so that the mould is exactly filled.
iv. Remove the cone immediately, raising it slowly and carefully in the vertical direction and
the concrete is allowed to subside. The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped
concrete is called slump and is measured to the nearest 5mm.
v. As soon as the concrete settlement comes to a stop, measure the subsidence of concrete in
mm which will give the slump.
 True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The
measurement is taken between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the
cone has been removed.
 Zero Slump – Zero slumps is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which
results in dry mixes. This type of concrete is generally used for road construction.
 Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e.
concrete mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump test is not
appropriate.
 Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to
be retested.

Recommended values of slump for different concrete structures is as follows:

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 170
 Works Slump (cm)
Mass concrete and road works 25 – 50 mm
Ordinary beams and slabs 50 – 100 mm
Columns and retaining wall 75 – 125 mm

b. Compacting factor test

This test is generally carried out in laboratory but can be used in site also. It is particularly useful
for concrete mixes of very low workability (or very dry concrete) as they are insensitive to slump
test. This test works on the principle of determining the degree of compaction achieved by a
standard amount of work done by allowing the concrete to fall through a standard height.

Top
Topdiameter
diameter Bottom
Bottom
Top diameter
diameter
diameter Bottom
Top diameter
diameter Bottom
Top diam
diam
Container (mm)
(mm) (mm)
(mm)
(mm) Height
Height
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)(mm) Height
(mm)
(mm)
(mm

Upper hopper 254 127 279

Lower hopper 229 127 229

Cylinder 152 152 305

Apparatus;

Two Hoppers, Cylinder, Tamping rod and Hanged flaps

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 171
Procedure

i. Keep the apparatus on the ground and apply grease on the inner surface of the
cylinders.
ii. Measure the mass by weighing the cylinder accurately and fix the cylinder on the
base in such a way that the central points of hoppers and cylinder lie on one vertical
line and cover the cylinder with a plate.
iii. For each 5 kg of aggregate mixes are to be prepared with water-cement ratio by
weight with 2.5 kg sand and 1.25 kg of cement and then add required amount of
water thoroughly until and unless concrete appears to be homogeneous.
iv. The concrete is placed in the upper hopper gently so that no effort is applied to produce
compaction.
v. The bottom door is opened so that the concrete falls on the lower hopper. Again the
bottom door of the lower hopper is opened and the concrete falls on the cylinder.
vi. After removing the excess concrete by the help of blades, the weight of the cylinder
(known volume) is taken to nearest 10 grams. This weight is known as ―weight of
partially compacted concrete‖.
vii. The cylinder is emptied and then filled with the same sample rammed heavily so as to
obtain full compaction. The cylinder is weighed to nearest 10 grams. This weight is
known as ―weight of fully compacted concrete‖.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 172
viii. Calculate compaction factor by using the formula:

Compacting factor = (weight of partially compacted concrete) / (weight of fully compacted

concrete)

Compaction factor Workability

0.85 Poor
0.92 Medium
0.95 Good

c. Vee-Bee Consistometer test

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 173
Apparatus;
 A vibrating table which is supported and mounted on elastic supports.
 A sheet metal slump cone,
 A weighing balance
 Cylindrical container
 A standard iron tamping rod
 Trowels.

Procedure

Step 1: Initially the sheet metal slump cone is placed inside the cylinder container that is placed

in the consistometer. The cone is filled with four layers of concrete. Each concrete layer is one

fourth the height of the cone. Each layer after pouring is subjected to twenty-five tamping with

the standard tamping rod. The tamping is done with the rounded end of the rod. The strokes are

distributed in uniform manner. This must be done in such a way that the strokes conducted for

the second and the subsequent layers of concrete must penetrate the bottom layers. Once the final

layer has been placed and compacted, the concrete is struck off to make it in level with the help

of a trowel. This makes the cone to be exactly filled.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 174
Step 2: After the preparation of the concrete cone, the glass disc attached to the swivel arm is
moved and is placed on the top of the slump cone placed inside the cylindrical container. The
glass disc has to be placed such that it touches the top of the concrete level and the reading is
measured from the graduated rod.
Step 3: Now the cylindrical cone is removed immediately by raising the cone slowly in the
vertical direction. The transparent disc on the top of the concrete is placed down to the new
position and the reading is determined.
Step 4: The difference in the values measured from step 3 and step 4 will give the slump.
Step 5: Now the electrical vibrator is switched on and at the same time we have to start the stop
watch. The concrete is allowed to spread out in the cylindrical container. Until the concrete is
remolded the vibration is continued. This stage is when the surface of the concrete becomes
horizontal and the concrete surface completely adheres uniformly to the transparent disc.
Step 6: The time required for complete remolding in seconds is recorded. This time in seconds
gives us the measurement of workability of the fresh concrete. This time is expressed in Vee-Bee
seconds.
OBSERVATION
Initial reading on the graduated rod (a)
Final reading on graduated rod (b)
Slump = (b – a) in cm
Time in complete remolding in seconds
STANDARD VALUES
Workability description Vee – bee time in seconds
Extremely dry 32 – 18
Very stiff 18 – 10
Stiff 10 – 15
Stiff plastic 5–3
Plastic 3–0
Flowing _

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 175
ADMIXTURES/ADDITIVES

These are materials other than water, cement and aggregates which are added to concrete mix to
provide special properties to concrete. Admixtures are added in small amounts before or during
the mixing stage of the concrete production. The purpose of the admixtures is to improve on
certain properties of freshly laid or hardened concrete.

Functions of admixtures

1. Speeds up the setting of cement in concrete

2. Retard the initial setting of cement
3. Improves the strength of concrete
4. Reduce heat of evolution
5. To improve workability
6. To increase colouring properties
7. To increase resistance to chemical attack.
8. To increase bond between old and new concrete.
9. To reduce segregation.

Types of Admixtures

i. Accelerators e.g Cacl2 and Hcl

This accelerates strength development in cold weather. Calcium chloride (Cacl2) increases rate of
heat liberation during the first few hours. It also accelerates setting, it however, may corrode
reinforcements when used and it also reduces resistance of concrete to sulphate attack.

Hydrochloric acid (Hcl) also reduces the resistance of the concrete to sulphate attack.

ii. Retarders:

Retarders generally slow down the hardening of the concrete paste. They are useful during
concreting in hot weather, when the normal setting time is shortened by higher temperatures
examples are sugar solute, zinc salt etc.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 176
 iii. Water reducing admixtures:

They are added as a means by which the water content of the concrete can be reduced without
suffering a loss in workability. Example hydroxylated carbonylic acid and their salts.

iv. Water repellant admixtures

These prevent the absorption of rain water into the concrete e.g in concrete flat roof. The used
materials are usually vegetable/mineral oils.

v. Pore fillers

These increase the cohesiveness of concrete, thereby improving on resistance to bleeding.

Bleeding is a form of segregation in which some of the water in the mix tends to rise up the
surface of freshly laid concrete, and is caused by inability of the constituents of the concrete mix
to hold all the mixing water when they settle down wards.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 177
 CHAPTER NINE: METALS

9.1 Introduction

Metals are a most important group of structural materials because:

They are the only bulk materials which have high strength in tension-even lead, the softest of the
metals commonly used in building has a tensile strength substantially in excess of that ordinary
concrete.

Their high strength is also matched by high stiffness (modules of elasticity – there is reasonable
correlation between strength and stiffness because both are related to metallic bond strength.

STEEL

The presence of carbon in iron leads to the formation of a non-metallic compound, iron carbide.
This is intensely hard and brittle and exists as very fine sheets interwoven with iron sheets to
form a compound called pearlite. Pearlite causes plastic flow or yield to occur much less readily
then in pure iron which contains no pealite. However, the presence of too much pearlite reduces
ductility, toughness and weld ability.

The amount of pearlite contained in steel depends on its carbon content.

Low carbon steels

Low carbon steels include steels referred to as mild steel and high yield steels. They form a very
large proportion of the steel used in construction. They have moderate strength, good toughness,
ductility and welding properties on account of the fairly low proportion of pearlite. Examples
include weldable structural steels, cold rolled steel sections.

In addition to containing some carbon, low carbon steel present as a result of other elements,
some present as a result of the manufacturing process and others included to benefit certain
properties of the steel.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 178
Common impurities are:

i) Sulphur and phosphorous These form precipitates of iron sulphites (FeS) and
phosphide (Fe3P) respectively, which cause embrittlement. These are therefore
restricted to about 0.05% in mild steel.
ii) Silicon when present in small quantities, it dissolves in the iron, increasing strength.
Large quantities cause embrittlement and hence silicon is normally restricted to about
0.2%.

Common alloying elements are:

Manganese- This is useful because it increase the yield strength and hardness of low carbon
steels. It also increases hardenability and may combine with sulphur to reduce brittleness caused
by the sulphur.

Mild steel contains about 0.5% manganese.

High yield steel contains about 1.5% manganese.

Nobium- this tends to produce smaller crystals (grains) resulting in increased yield stress
quantities may be up to 0.04%.

All metals used for engineering purposes are classified into 2 categories

I. Ferrous metals – where in iron is the main constituent.

II. Non- ferrous metals – where in iron is not the main constituent

Non Ferrous metals may be divided into

i) Aluminium
ii) Copper
iii) Zinc
iv) Lead
v) Tin etc

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 179
9.2 Occurrence of iron

Iron is never found pure in nature, it has to be extracted in the form of pig iron from the various
iron ores e.g.

i) Magnetite: Fe3O4 - contains 70-75% iron.

ii) Haematite: Fe2O3 – has about 65-70% iron.
iii) Iron pyrites FeS2 - contains 45-47% iron but is out preferred because of the higher
sulphur content which makes it brittle.
iv) Siderite – FeCO3 – contains 40-48% iron.

Pig iron is the crudest form of iron while wrought iron is the purest form of iron.

Pig iron forms the basic material for the manufacture of cast, iron, wrought iron and steel. It
contains 92-95% iron, 3-4% carbon and the remainders are impurities like sulphur, manganese,
phosphates etc.

9.3 Properties of pig iron

i) It is hard and brittle and as such is neither ductile nor malleable

ii) It is difficult to bend
iii) Melts easily
iv) It can be hardened but not tempered i.e. bring it to the required degree of hardness by
heating and then cooling.
v) It cannot be magnetized.
vi) Has high compressive strength but very weak in tension and shear.
vii) It does not rust.
viii) It cannot be welded on or riveted.

The main use is as base material for the manufacture of cast iron, wrought iron and mild steel by
refining. Pig iron is not used for structural purposes.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 180
9.4 Manufacture of pig iron

The manufacture of pig iron involves three distinct stages:

i. Dressing of iron ores

ii. Calcinations and roasting of ores
iii. Melting of ores

9.4.1 Dressing of iron ores

Iron ores obtained from mines in the form of boulders are broken up and crushed to pieces of
about 2.5cm. After crushing, ores are generally washed in a stream of water to remove impurities
like clay, loam and other materials called gangue materials.

Perforated trays may be kept to remove sand and pebbles. Magnetic separators may be used in
dry conditions to remove impurities.

9.4.2 Calcination and roasting

Dressed ores are heated in the presence of air. This is called calcinations and is done to oxidize
the iron ores. Water and carbon dioxide are driven out by this process.

Dressed ores may be roasted to make them hot dry. Roasting drives away sulphur and/or volatile
materials from the ore. If iron ores is an oxide, roasting may be avoided.

9.4.3 Melting of ores

Dressed and calcined ores are melted in a furnace known as blast furnace. The metal is separated
by melting from ores. This is known as smelting.

The blast furnace is a tall irregularly shaped vertical steel cylinder. The outer shell is steel plate
30-40mm thick and inside is lined with a lining of fire bricks. The height of cylinder is about
30m and diameter between 6-10m.

A mixture of dressed iron ores, fluxing material and fuel (coke) are prepared in required
proportions and fed into the blast furnace through the top and these descend through the cylinder.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 181
A blast of hot air is fed in near the bottom of the cylinder. The hot air promotes the combustion
of the coke and helps carry the gases upward.

The oxygen in the hot air blast combines with carbon in the coke fuel to form carbon dioxide
(C02) which under intense heat is further reduced to carbon monoxide (CO). both carbon and
carbon monoxide act as reducing agents and reduce the iron ore to metallic state. Reduction of
the ore starts at the top and continues as the charge descents further and as temperature in the ore
starts at the top and continues as the charge descents further and as temperature in the furnace
goes on increasing. By the time the charge reaches the bottom, reduction of the iron ore is almost
completed.

The following are the reactions that take place inside the furnace

3 Fe203+C 2Fe3O4 + CO

Fe3O4+4C 3Fe + 4 CO

3Fe2O3+CO 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4+2C 3Fe + 2 CO2

At the bottom of the furnace, a temperature of 15000C is maintained. The charge fed from the top
gets completely reduced by that time and molten iron is tapped from the bottom of the furnace.

Slag which is formed during reduction also collects at the bottom but floats over molten metal.
Slag is formed by reacting the fluxing material and impurities the ore.

Limestone is the fluxing material used and coke is widely used as fuel. Fluxing materials is the
material, which can easily be fused. It fuses with the impurities in the iron one to form slag.

Blast furnaces are usually connected to other steel works where the molten pig may be directly
fed for further processing/ purification to prepare other types of steels. Alternatively the pig iron
is poured into mould and allowed to cool and solidify.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 182
Pig iron contains 93-95% iron, 4-5% carbon and the rest impurities like sulphur, silicon,
manganese, phosphorous etc. Slag contains about 45% lime, 35% silica, 12% alumina and the
remainder magnesia, manganese oxide, CaSO4

Slag may be thrown away or used for:

i) Manufacture of slag cement

ii) Coarse aggregate

Alternative methods for the manufacture of pig iron are

Electric reduction process adopted when electricity is cheaply and amply available. Furnace is
heated by means of electricity.

Low shaft blast furnace. Blast of enriched oxygen is used instead of usual hot air. Reduction of
iron ore is achieved in comparatively short period and shorter stack height.

Sponge iron process. Iron is directly obtained from ore. Ore is reduced at temperature below the
melting point. The product is called sponge iron, which is a porous mass of reduced iron with
some slag in it.

9.5 Classification of pig iron

Pig iron classified mainly according to the percentage of carbon present in it. The carbon present
in the pig iron is in the form of combined carbon as well as free carbon.

Combined carbon makes the metal hard and gives it a fine crystalline structure. Free carbon also
termed as graphite or uncombined carbon makes the metal soft and gives it a coarse grained
structure.

9.6 CAST IRON

This iron is only for making casting and is known as cast iron.

It is obtained from pig iron, which is resmelted to secure proper grade and carbon content and is
casted or moulded into desired shape castings.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 183
8.6.1 Manufacturer of cast iron

A furnace named CUPOLA is used in the manufacture of cast iron

A cupola furnace is similar to a blast furnace but comparatively smaller in size.

It consist of a cylindrical shell, made of thick iron plate whose inside is lined with refractory
bricks and the inside diameter is about 1m and height varies from 4-7m.

This furnace does not work continuously. A charge is put in the furnace, which is melted and
discharged into moulds. This completes one cycle of operation in a cupola furnace.

The furnace is provided with a side door near the top for admitting fresh charge. Hot air is blown
into the furnace from near the bottom. The furnace is again cleaned thoroughly before a new
charge is admitted.

Separate tapping holes are provided at suitable heights from the bottom of the furnace for
draining out the slag and molten iron. Fuel used is mostly coke.

The furnace is filled with an intimate mixture of pig iron, scrap iron, limestone and coke in form
of alternate layers of coke and mixture of pig iron and scrap iron with limestone. Limestone is
used as a fluxing agent. Scrap iron is added to improve the quality of the resulting cast iron and
bring about economy in the cost of production.

The furnace is charged, it is fired and blast air is blown in near the bottom of the furnace under
pressure. The air is not preheated and the impurities in pig iron are removed by oxidation. Cold
air gets heated in the furnace as combustion of coke takes place in the furnace. High
temperatures cause pig iron to melt. Limestone acts as a flux to combine with impurities in the
pig iron and separate them as slag, which floats above the molten iron.

The impurities or pig iron ore are removed to some extent and relatively pure iron is obtained in
molten stage from the bottom of the furnace. Molten iron is led into moulds and cast. Iron
castings are obtained after its solidification. Slag is drained from the top of the molten iron at
regular intervals and disposed off as either waste or used in the manufacturer of slag cement.

9.6.2 Composition of cast iron

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 184
Cast iron contains 2-4% carbon together with impurities like manganese, phosphorous, sulphur
and silicon.

Sulphur renders Cast 1ron hard and brittle and causes rapid solidification. It also causes defects
like blow holes and sand holes. It should not exceed 0.1%

Phosphorous – increased amount of phosphorous increase fluidity and renders cast iron brittle.
When its amount exceeds 0.3%, the resulting cast iron loses toughness and workability. For very
delicate and thin castings, percentage can be varied between 1 to 1.5%.

Silicon combines with part of the iron and forms a solid mass. It also removes carbon to some
extent. If its amount is less than 2.5%, silicon ensures better casting decreased shrinkage and
makes Cast 1ron soft.

Manganese – it renders cast iron hard and brittle. Should be restricted to less than 0.75% or so.

9.6.4 Properties of Cast Iron

i. The structure if cast iron is coarse, crystalline and fibrous

ii. Freshly fractured surface has grey, white or mottled appearance in case of grey cast iron,
white cast iron and mottled cast iron respectively.
iii. It is brittle
iv. It cannot withstand shock or impact
v. It cannot be magnetized
vi. It cannot be welded or riveted
vii. It can be hardened but not tempered
viii. It is neither malleable nor ductile
ix. It does not rust
x. It becomes soft in saline water
xi. It is fairy hard and cannot be worked with a hard file
xii. It is strong in compression but weak in tension and shear
xiii. It lacks plasticity and as such is unsuitable for forging work
xiv. It‘s melting point is about 12000C and its S.G is 7.5

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 185
9.6.5 Uses of cast iron

Cast iron is used for castings, rainwater pipes, gutters, gratings, railings, cisterns, manhole covers
and balustrades. It is also used for supports of heavy machinery, carriage wheels and bedplates.

It is a basic material for the manufacturer of wrought iron and mild steel

9.7 WROUGHT IRON

Is considered one of the purest forms of iron. Contains about 0.05% of carbon and 2.32 – 2.45%
for the rest of impurities. It is obtained by (i) the pudding process and (ii) Ashton process.

9.7.1 Properties of wrought iron

i. Its structure is fibrous and has silky lustre.

ii. It is ductile and malleable.
iii. It is strong and can withstand shocks and impacts better than cast iron.
iv. It can neither be hardened nor tempered.
v. At 900OC, it becomes soft so that it can be joined by hammering. It melts at 15000C.
vi. It is less liable to corrosion because it contains some stag.
vii. It is unaffected by saline water.
viii. It forms temporary magnets but cannot be permanently magnetized.
ix. It is less liable to corrosion because it contains some stag.
x. It is unaffected by saline water
xi. It forms temporary magnets but cannot be permanently magnetized.
xii. It is nearly equally strong in tension, compression and shear.
xiii. It‘s S.G is about 7.25.

9.7.2 Uses of wrought iron

It is used for making roofing sheets, rods, gas and water pipes, boiler tubes, plain and ornamental
iron work such as grilles, gates and railings, window guard gratings and electro magnetism. It is
used for the manufacture of hardened steel. Use of wrought iron is being replaced by mild steel.

9.8 STEEL

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 186
Steel is an immediate form between cast iron and wrought iron. Cat iron contains the maximum
amount of carbon whereas wrought iron contains the least. Cast iron is very good in compression
and its use is limited to compressive members only. Wrought iron is a fibrous metal and is
suitable for tensile forces only. Steel is a very important basic material and has application in
practically all the spheres of engineering. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Pure iron without
any carbon is not very strong but when alloyed with carbon its strength can be increased
remarkably. Iron when alloyed with carbon is known as steel and when alloyed with non-ferrous
metals the result is called steel alloys.

9.8.1 Mild steel, medium steel and high carbon steel

Iron containing carbon varies in carbon content. From 2% to 4% it is known as cast iron, and that
containing 0.25% to 1.5% is known as steel.

By varying the carbon content, various types of steel can be produced.

Low carbon steel – carbon content is up to 0.25%

Medium carbon steel – carbon content varies from 0.25% to 0.7%

High carbon steel – carbon content varies from 0.7% to 1.5%

9.8.2 Manufacture of steel

There are seven processes or methods by which steel by which steel can be manufactured i.e.

Bessemer process

Open hearth process

Cementation process

Crucible process

Duplex process

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 187
Electrical process

L.D process

However, for structural steels, the following are accepted

i) The open hearth process

ii) The Bessemer process
iii) The electrical furnace process

9.8.3 Open hearth process

This process may be basis or acidic. Basic open hearth is mostly used

The hearth of this furnace is filled with molten pig iron received from cupola or blast furnace

9.8.4 Bessemer process

This process is named after the furnace used; the Bessemer Converter

Through the hearth, the mixture catches fire and because of the shape of the roof, it attacks the
molten mass on the hearth. This produce intense heat and impurities are oxidized. After this,
ferro–manganese and other substances are added to improve the quality. Aluminum is also added
to refine the grain of the molten metal and deoxidise it. The hearth is again for a few minutes.

9.8.5 Mechanical treatment of steel

Mechanical treatment is given to steel ingots to convert them into market or commercial forms.
The main object of mechanical treatment is to improve the quality of the metal by forcing its
particles closer. This may be through hot working hot working or cold working.

In cold working, the steel is shaped at room temperature and in hot working; the metal is heated
to a temperature above its re-crystallization temperature and then shaped.

Hot working is the most common method of working the steel. The following operations are
involved.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 188
 i) Drawing – cold drawing especially for wires. This is a process of producing wires by
pulling the steel.
ii) Forging – shaping hot metal by pressing or hammering. Joining metals by this method
is called forge welding.
iii) Pressing
iv) Rolling
v) Extrusion – the forming of sections (e.g. metal or plastic) through a die shaped to the
required section.

9.8.6 Properties of mild steel

Below are properties of mild steel

i. It S.G is 7.8 and melting point is 1400 degrees centigrade

ii. It is malleable and ductile
iii. It has fibrous structure and is not easily attacked by salt water
iv. It can be easily welded, forged and riveted
v. It can be given heat treatment easily
vi. It can be magnetized
vii. It ruts easily.
viii. It is harder, tougher and more elastic than wrought iron or cast iron.
ix. It is used for all types of structural steel.

9.8.7 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON STEEL

Essential difference between steel and cast iron is in the amount of carbon content. Steel gets
harder and tougher with the increase in carbon content. Up to 1.5% carbon content, all the carbon
gets into chemical combination with iron. Beyond that point, not all the carbon combines with
steel and the rest exists as graphite. At this stage metal falls into the category of cast iron. For a
material to be classified as steel, there should be no free graphite in it‘s composition.

Steel is classified as mild steel if carbon content is from 0.15-0.3%

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 189
Steels that owe their properties to carbon are called carbon steels while steels which owe their
properties to other elements other than carbon are termed alloy steels.

High carbon steel (0.55 – 1.5) % carbon

Properties of high carbon steel

- Structure is granular
- Tougher and more elastic than mild steels
- Easier to harden and to temper (heat steel to an appropriate temperature to toughen and
strengthen)
- More difficult to forge and weld
- Can be permanently magnetized
- Comparatively stronger in compression than in tension or in shear
- Withstand shocks and vibration better

Uses

- Manufacture of drills, files, chisels and high quality cutlery

- Manufacture of those parts that need a hard, tough and durable material capable of
withstanding shocks and vibrations.

High tension steel

- Essentially low carbon steel with carbon content less than 0.15% also termed as high
strength steel. Because of increased tensile strength, lesser weight of steel is used
compared to mild steel for the same jobs, the structure is thus lighter.

Properties

- Withstands atmospheric corrosion better

- Less ductile than mild steel

Uses

Extensively used in prestressed concrete

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 190
Reinforcing steel

- Mild steel or high tension steel is embedded as reinforcement in concrete to make good
that deficiency of the plain concrete.
- Round bars, deformed bars (twisted) or ribbed bars are extensively used for that purpose.

9.8.8 Corrosion of Ferrous metal

Conversion of metal into their oxides and other compounds by natural agencies is called
corrosion – corrosion is also referred to as rust.

Steels suffer from rusting difficulty to the maximum extent. Preventive measures for rusting are
cold tar painting, electroplating, enameling, tinplating etc.

Corrosion takes place due to the chemical or electro- chemical reactions by which the metal is
converted into an oxide, salt or some other compounds. The substance resulting out of corrosion
is known as rust. The corrosion indicates the deterioration resulting out of corrosion is known as
rust. The corrosion indicates the deterioration and loss of metal due to chemical attack. The
corrosion may be dry corrosion or wet corrosion.

Corrosion taking place in the absence of electrolytes is known as dry corrosion. Electrolyte is a
substance which dissociates into ions in solution or when substance which deteriorate into ions in
solution or when fused thus becoming electrically conducting. If the electrolyte causing
corrosion is an aqueous solution s of acid salt or alkali, it is known as wet corrosion.

9.8.9 Causes of corrosion

The following factors are responsible for causing corrosion

i. Exposure of the metallic surface to atmospheric agencies.

ii. Exposure to moist atmosphere.
iii. Presence of active gases in the surrounding environment.
iv. Presence of harmful salts in the surrounding environment.
v. Chemical composition of the metal itself together with its internal structure.

Rusting, corrosion and preservation of steel

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 191
Corrosion is slow but steady eating away of the metal and is a consequence of rusting.

Tarring – iron is dipped in hot coal or tar so that a thin film of it sticks to the surface protecting
it from rust and corrosion.

Painting – paints, usually lead paints are applied to the surface to be escorted

Enameling- Enamel consists of high grade bases like zinc oxide or lead oxide ground in oil or
varnish – they dry slowly leaving a hard tough and elastic film which is smooth and durable.
Surfaces are washable and not affected by acids, alkalis, gases or steam.

Galvanizing – Depositing a fire film of zinc on the iron/ steel surface is called galvanizing.
Surface to be galvanized is first cleaned of all foreign matter by washing in acid and then with
clean water.

Surface is dried and then dripped in molten zinc. The film of zinc deposited on the surface
protects it in the atmosphere. Removal of the zinc film by wear or scratches exposes the surface
again to rust and corrosion.

Sheradising – Surface to be treated is cleaned of all foreign matter by washing it with acid
solution then clean water. It is dried and then covered with zinc dust. It is enclosed in steel boxes
to be heated in a furnace under controlled temperature. Molten zinc spreads over the whole
surface and on cooling, forms a thin protective layer. Sheradising gives better protection than
galvanizing.

Tin plating- surface cleared with acid wash and them with clean water. Surface is dried and then
dipped in a bath of molten tin. A protective layer is left on drying.

Electroplating – By the process of electrolysis, a thin film of nickel, chromium, cadmium,

copper or zinc is deposited on the surface to be protected. The surface to be protected is made the
cathode and the metal to be deposited is made the anode.

Commercial forms of steel

1) Bars – round bars

- Square bars

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 192
 - Deformed bars – cold worked twisted or hot rolled ribbed

They are used in reinforced concrete, fabrication of grilles and railings

2) Flats – used in the fabrication of grilles and railings

3) Angle section – equal angles
- Unequal angles

Used in fabrication of roof trusses, steel frames

4) Tee sections – section profile resembles letter T

- Top horizontal is called the flange and the vertical portion meeting the flange is called the
web.
- Used for fabrication of steel roof trusses and other built up sections
5) I sections – resemble the letter. The top and bottom horizontal portion are called the
flange and the vertical portion is called the web.
- Used extensively for floor beams, columns and fabricating built up called stanchions.
6) Channels – these have 2 horizontal portions called flanges connected to other at the end
by a vertical portion called the web
- Used mainly to build up other sections
7) Plates – rolled to varying thickness, widths and lengths. Used for fabricating built up
structural section etc.
8) Corrugated sheets – iron sheets are strengthened by providing corrugations or other
geometrical profiles. They are made to different gauges. Used on roof coverings.
9) Welded wire fabrics – manufactured in sheets or rolls and are available in rectangular or
square mesh of steel wires. The wires are electrically welded, ensuring correct spacing of
cross wires and rigidity of welding. These are used is fencing, grilles and as
reinforcement.
10) Expanded metal- made from mild steel sheets or plates. Parallel cuts or slits a few
centimeters long are made in sheets. The sheets are then firmly gripped and pulled apart.
The material then opens out along the slits forming diamond shaped mesh. They are
manufactured in various mesh sizes and plate thickness.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 193
It is used as reinforcement in reinforced concrete, as lath (ground for plaster) in plaster for
ceilings, as grilles and for fencing.

11) Slotted angles

Angles with slots at regular intervals. Made to various sizes,. Punched steel straps are also
available for joints by tightening bolts and nuts.

These are good for assembly of structural components, scaffolds, benches or storage racks. Can
be used in combination with plywood, hardboards etc. they help in reducing cuttings costs and
time.

9.0 NON FERROUS METALS

Like iron, non- ferrous metals also carry an equal importance in the field of their application.

9.1 Aluminium

Aluminium does not occur in pure form but is extracted from bauxite (A1203H20)

The extraction process consists of two operations only. Purification of the bauxite ore and
Electrolysis of the purified bauxite to get aluminium at about 10000C. This is expensive process
rendering aluminium a very expensive material.

Aluminium obtained in the above process is 95 to 99.5% pure metal.

9.1.1 Properties of Aluminium

i. Pure aluminium is a very soft metal and has to be alloyed with other metals to make it
useful for structural purpose.
ii. It is highly ductile and malleable metal
iii. Its melting point is 6580C and S.G 2.7
iv. It is a very light metal and resists corrosion very effectively
v. It is very tough and has high tensile strength
vi. Its colour is silvery white with a high lustre
vii. It can be rolled into sheets

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 194
viii. It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity

9.1.2 Uses

i) When alloyed with other metals, it is used for making piston, cylinders in aeroplane
engines.
ii) Used for making electric cables
iii) Used for making automobile bodies, utensils etc
iv) Alumimium paints are made from it
v) Used as a protective coating to structural steel work
vi) Used for making show cases, high class doors and windows, furniture etc.
vii) Used for making structural members (profiles) for light construction work.

9.2 Copper

This is extracted from copper pyrite ores (CuFeS2). This ore contains about 30% copper

Extraction of copper involves a very complex process divided into 4 stages.

i. Roasting (ii) smelting (iii) converting (iv) Electrolytic refining

9.2.1 Properties

i. It is a soft and ductile metal

ii. It is be rolled and worked in cold and hot states but it cannot be welded
iii. it is reddish brown
iv. Its melting point is 1083OC and S.G is 8.90
v. It is not attacked by water or any temperature
vi. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
vii. Can be alloyed with other metals
viii. Can be made strong, hard and tough and malleable by suitable treatment
ix. Is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion. On exposure, forms self- protecting film of
oxide, which resist further corrosion of the metal even in a very polluted atmosphere.

9.2.2 Uses

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 195
 i. Used in electric goods and cables
ii. Household utensils
iii. Used as a damp proof course and flashings
iv. Used in the manufacture of thin sheets, water pipes, gutters, taps, tanks, hardware
fitting etc.

9.3 Lead

This metal does not occur in free state. It is extracted from an ore called galena (Pbs)

Galena contains about 86% lead

The extraction process includes:

Roasting

Smelting and

Re-smelting for further purification

9.3.1 Properties

i. It is a soft metal which can be cut with a knife

ii. Melting point is 320C and S.G is 11.36
iii. Forms black impression on paper
iv. Lustrous metal having bluish grey colour
v. Is not acted upon by atmosphere corrosion
vi. Slightly soluble in certain soft and acid type of drinking water and may lead to
lead poisoning.
vii. Resistant to the action of alkalies, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric aid
viii. It is malleable and can be rolled into thin sheets

9.3.2 Uses

Lead is mostly well in the form of oxide like white lead, red lead

i. Compound of lead are commonly used as pigments for paints

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 196
 ii. Used a lot in the chemical processing industry
iii. It is the only metal for making bullets, shots.
iv. Used for storage cells, sanitary fittings, cisterns, water proof and acid proof
chambers
v. Used for gas pipes, roof gutters, printing types, D.P.C, cable covering etc
vi. Used for making X –ray screens

9.4 Zinc

This metal does not occur in the Free State in nature but is obtained from calamine ore ZnCO3
and zinc blend ore.

The process of manufacture of zinc consists of reduction of the Zinc ores to the Oxide form. Zinc
oxide is then heated to 20000F in an electric furnace and pure zinc is liberated in the form of
vapour, which is then condensed. The condensed zinc is taken out of the chamber in liquid form,
skimmed and poured into moulds to form slabs or cast into ingots. The solidified zinc obtained is
called spelts. Zinc may also be obtained by electrolytic refining.

9.4.1 Properties

i. Its S.G is 6.86

ii. It is not affected by dry air
iii. Its colour is bluish white
iv. Its melting temperature is 419OC
v. It can be rolled in to sheets and drawn into wires between temperature range of
1000C to 1500C.
vi. When strongly heated in air, it burns with a greenish white flame
vii. It is brittle at ordinary temperature
viii. It is not attacked by pure water

9.4.2 Uses

i. It is used in electric cells and batteries

ii. Used to galvanize other metals

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 197
 iii. Used much in paints and alloys
iv. Used in die-casting, brass making, engraving etc.

9.5 Tin

It occurs in nature in form of oxide (SnO2) tinstone or cassterite

The process of extraction consists of crushing, roasting and then smelting the ore to a
temperature about 10000C in a blast or reverberatory furnace. The crude tin obtained is further
refined by heating or electrolysis.

9.5.1 Properties

i. When a tin bar is bent – a peculiar sound occurs which is also known as cry of tin
ii. Tin is a silvery – white, lustrous and malleable metal
iii. Melting temperature is 2320C
iv. It becomes brittle when heated to a temperature of about 2000C
v. It is not affected by dry air or pure water
vi. Its S.G is 7.30.

9.5.2 Uses

i. Used as an alloy with lead and other metals

ii. It is used in the form of protective and decorative coatings for metals like iron, copper,
brass, lead etc.
iii. It is used in the form of foil for wrapping various food products
iv. Used in the manufacture of collapsible tubes and pipes for toilet purposes.

9.6 Other Non – Ferrous Metals

These include

9.6.1 Gold (Au) – used in making coins, jewellery, and decoration of porcelain and in the
electrical field.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 198
9.6.2 Silver (Ag) – used in the production of photographic films and papers, used as a solder
where strong joints are required coinage jewellery and household wares, Silver alloys are used
for providing heavy duty bearings, used for electroplating, special alloy of silver called amalgam
used by dentist as a tooth filling material.

9.6.3 Platinum (pt) – generally used as an alloy with gold, iridium and iron to produce more
useful metals, used for making jewellery, pen-points, scientific instruments, surgical instruments,
standard weights and temperature recording devices.

9.6.4 Cobalt – used widely in the preparation of special alloy steels, ceramic products and TV
articles.

9.6.5 Chromium – used mostly in electroplating as an alloying element. It is considered one of

the most important alloying elements and it alloy with tungsten, nickel, molybdenum and iron
are particularly outstanding. Used also in the manufacture of stainless steel and electrical
resistance wires.

9.6.6 Cadmium – pure metal carries very little application in industry but is used mostly in
alloyed form only.

9.6.7 Nickel (NI) – used widely as a protective coating on other metals also used in coins of
small denomination. Used is a variety of extremely important ferrous as well as non-ferrous
alloys.

9.6.8 Magnesium (Mg) – used in flash light photography fireworks and signaling purpose in the
army. In its pure form cannot be used for any engineering purposes but its alloy with other metal
are quite important.

9.6.9 Manganese (Mn) – used extensively in the manufacture of steel to act as a reducing agent.
It is added as an alloying element in steel to improve its strength, toughness and heat treatment
characteristics. Practically all commercial grades of steel contain manganese. It is also used in
electric batteries, paints and varnishes, staining agent etc.

9.7 Joining metals

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 199
Metals are joined together by any one of the following methods;

9.7.1 Soldering – Parts of the metal to be joined are heated and an alloy (solder) (an alloy of lead
and tin) having its melting point lower than that of the parts to be soldered is applied over the
junction in the molten state.

9.7.2 Brazing – It adheres to the surfaces to be joined. It has poor tensile strength and serves
only to fill up the joint. Is similar to the operation of soldering but is done at a much higher
temperature (6000C – 11000C). It consists of a mixture of 1 part tin, 3 parts Zinc and 4 parts
copper. The blazing solder is applied to the joint in the presence of borax which acts as a flux.
The surface to be joined are held pressed firmly together until the brazing solder applied has
solidified. It is used in joining together iron, copper, brass etc.

9.7.3 Welding – is the process of joining metal to surfaces by the application of heat. The heat
for welding may be obtained by an electric ore, a gas flame or some chemical reaction.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 200
 CHAPTER TEN: PLASTICS

9.1 Introduction

Plastics are available in market in a variety of forms to suit varied requirements. It is findings
newer usages in building construction and is just replacing many constructional materials like
timber and steel. It is being used to make fittings and fixtures to meet aesthetic requirements and
structural components to withstand wear and tear.

Shortage of conventional construction materials during the 2nd World War gave impetus to the
use of plastics in electrical and sanitary fittings like electric points, switches, holders, insulators,
cistern floats, W.C seats and domestic furniture.

Plastics are generally taken to imply a group of organic materials that become plastic on heating,
that they could be moulded to required shapes and on cooling down to normal temperatures
become rigid.

The term organic traditionally refers to materials which are derived from living materials e.g
timber, leather, cotton, wool but the term has come to be used for a wider range of materials
which in common with the above have properties dependant to a large degree on the presence of
carbon in their structural, therefore plastics, paints, adhesives, mastics and bitumen fall into this
larger group.

While traditional organic materials in the construction industry continue to be used at a steady
rate others such as plastics have enjoyed a spectacular rise in application and this trend is likely
to continue.

Plastics offer the advantage of low density, good resistance to the environment compared with
competitive materials and many forms require no maintenance in the short term.

The major problem of plastics is low stiffness and virtually all forms are combustible if not
flammable.

In energy terms, plastics may look expensive and subject to uncertainties arising from oil prices
fluctuations however, when their low density is considered, they become much more attractive.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 201
The backbone of each of the plastics materials is normally the carbon atom, element number 6 in
the periodic table hence the low density of organic compounds especially when they incorporate
the lightest element, hydrogen with a valency of 4. Carbon is very largely covalent in character.
It easily combines with hydrogen, chlorine and fluorine (valency 1) oxygen (valency 2) and
nitrogen (valency 3). It easily combines with itself and other elements and forms complicated
compounds.

9.2 Origin of plastics

Plastics – are natural or synthetic in origin. Natural plastics are found in cellulose, starch
compounds, in rubber latex and in natural resins e.g. shellac, copal, and rosin.

Cellulose – is the substance which forms the main structure of the cell walls of plants and to a
pol of glucose. For commercial use, it is obtained from the cotton plant, which is the purest
source, wood and straw. It is chemically classified as a carbohydrate.

Starch – is based on the glucose monomer and is present in plants as a as source of nutrients.

Proteins – are a group of organic nitrogenous components in polymerized form which make up
the structure of all plant and animal tissue. They are based on monomers of certain amino acids
sources of proteins; important in the early days if the plastic industry are casein (from milk) and
the bean.

Rubber latex – is a tree extract based on the monomer isoprene.

Copal, rosin and rubber latex – are extracts of certain species of trees and Shellac is an
extractive certain insects.

All these naturally occurring polymers; cellulose, starch, proteins, rubber latex and resins have
which are called straight chain or linear molecular construction i.e the monomers are linked end
to end in a sit row. The polymer is simply made up of a series of these chains lying together with
their length parallel to a common axis but with their ends over lapping.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 202
9.3 Composition of Plastics

Plastics are organic substances prepared from natural or synthetic resins in which other materials
like fillers, solvents, plasticizers might have been added or not. In general terms, plastics may be
stated by compounds of carbon with other elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen. Other
ingredients apart from the monomer base, which can be incorporated during the manufacture of
plastics to serve as some specific purpose are;-

Solvents – These give the material more plasticity during the manufacturing stage, usually to
facilitate moulding to the desired shape e.g acetone and chloroform.

Plasticisers – These are usually non-volatile organic solvents of high boiling point, added to
reduce brittleness and increase flexibility of the finished plastic material.

Fillers – these are added to modify one or more properties of the finished plastics materials e.g
reinforcing agent like glass fibre to improve strength, or wood flour to improve toughness or
asbestos confer heat resistance. Others are finely divided materials like china clay, talc added to
reduce wear and cost.

Catalysts – e.g either are used to assist and accelerate hardening of the plastic. They help in
quick and complete polymerization.

Hardeners – these are used to increase hardness of the plastic materials.

Pigments – These impart the desired colour of the plastics besides acting as filler e.g Zinc oxide
barytes.

Stabilizer – these interfere with thermal oxidation and slow down the degradation of plastics
during processing and use.

Lubricant – these are used on the surface of moulds to prevent plastics materials sticking to the
mould e.g graphite paraffin wax, etc.

9.4 Classification of Plastics

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 203
Classification is based on behaviour with respect to heating. Plastics can be primarily divided
into two categories;-

i) Thermosetting plastics
ii) Thermoplastics.

9.4.1 Thermosetting plastics

These set into permanent shape when heat and pressure are applied to them. Once formed, they
can be re-softened by heat. These plastics have giant three dimensional molecules and cannot be
softened by heat. Therefore, the shape must be prepared prior to polymerization. The typical
molecules arrangement of the thermosetting plastic is with the monomers arranged to form a 2 or
3 dimension grid like structure with chains cross-linked.

Thermosetting plastics are soluble in alcohol and certain organic solvents when they are in the
thermosetting plastic stage. They have high strength and are insoluble in many organic solvents
such as benzene and acetone once formed. Examples are phenolformaldehyde,
ureaformaldehyde, polyester resins and epoxy resins. This property is utilized for making paints
and vanishes from these plastics. These plastics are strong, hard, durable and available in many
colours.

In general, thermosetting plastics are more heat stable and more resistant to solvent action than
thermoplastics.

9.4.2 Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics have long-chain molecules linked by weak electrostatic forces known as van der
weals forces. These forces weaken further on heating to softening as the distance between
molecules increase with small rises in temperatures hence the plastics exhibit substantial thermal
movement, e.g polyethylene (polythene), polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, acrylic resins, nylon
and polytetra fluo ethylene.

Thermoplastics become soft when heated and harden when cooled regardless of the number of
times the process is repeated. The process of softening and hardening may be repeated for an
indefinite number of times. These plastics are thermoplastic because they are sensitive to heat

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 204
and may therefore, be reshaped or remoulded. This can be a useful property in the manufacture
and working of the plastic materials. However, the heat applied should be so high as to cause
chemical decomposition.

9.5.4 Classification based on mechanical properties.

Plastics can be divided into the following four groups;-

(i) Rigid plastic – Have high modules of elasticity, maintain their shape under external
stress normal as well as increased temperatures.
(ii) Semi-rigid plastics – Have medium modules of elasticity. Elongation under pressure
completely disappears when pressure removed.
(iii) Soft plastics – These have low modules of elasticity. Elongation under pressure
disappears slowly on removal of pressure.
(iv) Elastomers – These have soft and plastic materials having very low modules of
elasticity. The deform considerably under load and return to the original shape on
removal of the load Elongation can range up to 10 times their original dimensions.

9.6 Present Day Sources

Majority of plastics in everyday use are made from derivatives of coal tar, mineral oil
(petroleum) and natural gasses.

9.7 Properties

Plastics with a wide range of different properties are available. In general, plastics are;-

i. Resistant to water and chemicals.

ii. Softened and expanded by organic solvents.
iii. Many thermoplastics have low softening points and high thermal expansion
coefficients.
iv. Are easily moulded to complex shapes in manufacturing e.g by casting, pressing,
extrusion, injection moulding.
v. Can be foamed or expanded to lightweight cellular form.
vi. Provide products which are clean, comparatively light, easy to fix and self-finished.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 205
 vii. Offer high resistance to weathering and corrosion.
viii. Are not attacked by insects of fungi.
ix. Have good electrical insulation properties.
x. Have good sound and heat absorption properties.

9.8 Fabrication of Plastics

To give suitable shapes to plastics, several methods of fabrication are used.

The method chosen depends upon the type of plastic i.e thermoplastics or thermosetting plastics
and shape of the finished product.

1. Blowing – Thermoplastic material is softened and then blown by air or steam into a
closed mould e.g jars, bottles, toys are casted by this method.
2. Casting – Molten plastic is poured into moulds which are normally made of lead. The
plastic cured at 700C for several days. During curing, low pressure may be applied if
necessary. The method is most suitable for cellulose plastics.
3. Calendering – Plastics material is made to pass through cylinders. 4 sets are kept heated
and last one kept cold. While passing through the first 3 sets, the plastic is turned into
thin sheets. Cooled while passing through the fourth cylinder. Some drums may be
provided with artistic des,,,, to reflect them on the finished product. If cloth is to be given
plastic coating, it is inserted along plastic material between the second and third heated
rollers.
4. Laminating – This processes is adopted in case of thermosetting plastics. Paper sheets,
asbestos are applied with this plastic to form plastic laminates. Thickness of sheets varies
from 0.12mm – 15mm. They possess excellent mechanical and electrical properties.
Due to the pleasing finished surface, they are used for ornamental and decorative
purposes.
5. Moulding – is the most common method for the fabrication of plastic articles. The
following are some of the commonly adopted moulding processes.
i. Compression moulding – This is the most widely used method of moulding and
is used for both thermosetting and thermoplastics. The moulds are preheated; the
plastic material is put in preheated moulds and the moulds are closed. 300 kg/cm.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 206
 On account of the heat and pressure, the plastic material gets the shape of the
mould. In case of thermoplastics; the moulds have to be cooled before articles are
taken out. In this case, moulds have to be heated and cooled alternatively. In the
case of thermosets, cooling of the moulds is not required as setting takes place
chemical action only.
ii. Cold moulding – the moulding is done by pressure only. In case of thermosets
resins, the article has to be cured in heated ovens.
iii. Injection moulding – this method is used for thermoplastics. The plastic
materials is heated and then injected into the mould and allowed to cool before
taking off the mould.
iv. Extrusion moulding – similar to injection moulding and is used for
thermoplastics only. The plastic material is forced by a screw drive into a heated
chamber where it softens and forced out through a die. The finished product
coming out from the die is cooled by blowing air or spraying water. It is used to
make continuous shapes like rods, tubes and sheets etc.
v. Jet moulding – In this process, the plastic is slightly heated and then allowed to
pass nozzle which is preheated to a high temperature. This method can be used for
both types of plastics.
vi. Transfer moulding – This method is used exclusively for thermosets and has
been developed to make compression moulding applicable to more complicated
shapes. The material is heated in a chamber to melt it and then forced into a hot
mould. The mould opened after the plastic has set.

9.9 Disadvantages of Plastics

(i) Most plastics cannot be used at higher temperatures. Thermoplastics generally cannot be
used above 1000C and thermosets above 1500C.
(ii) Most plastics possess low resistance.
(iii)They are not very hard.
(iv) Exhibit high creep.
(v) They have high coefficients of thermal expansion.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 207
 (vi) Plastics disintegrate gradually because of the effects of light, air and temperature. They
lose strength, become soft and dull as time passes.

9.10 Uses of Plastics in Building Construction;

(i) Flooring: - thermoplastics or polyvinyl (PVC or PVA) are used for flooring in form of
sheets and tiles. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is resistant to abrasion and is unaffected by
many chemicals.

(ii) Roofing: - corrugated sheets of phenolic-bonded paper laminates are manufactured in

dark shades and they provided light, strong and corrosion resistant opague roofing
materials. Corrugated plain or curved sheets in glass reinforced polyster resin or a crylic
resin and translucent and when used for roofing they provide ample day light.

(iii) Pipes:- plastic pipes are finding more and more usage in water supply, sanitation and
specialized industrial applications. Polythene and PVC pipes are the most extensively
used ones. Plastic pipes are excellent in use at low temperatures; they are ductile and can
be threaded.

(v) Concrete shuttering:- The moulds and forms of fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) give
concrete shapes of very high quality, very complicated concrete shapes can be moulded
in.

(vi) Other uses include doors and window frames, internal partitions and wall panelling,
structural sections, temporary shelters, water storage tanks, furniture items, polymer
membranes, polymers in civil engineering.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 208
 CHAPTER ELEVEN: PAINT AND PAINTING

General

Painting is the application of a thin coating of material in a liquid as plastic condition to a surface
as a decorative or protective measure. The applied coating is normally required to dry out or
harden to form a solid film.

The coating applied can vary widely in its composition and chemical and physical proportions
depending on the:

Nature of the surface being coated or painted

Method of application

Requirements in regard to decoration and protection for the surface

Materials used are of different classes such as paints, vanishes, stains, and preservatives.

The paint may be applied by brushing, spraying, dipping, or by roller.

In the early days of the craft, the painter mixed his own materials, the exact ingredients and their
proportions being to a certain extent trade secrets. Eventually, there appeared on the market the
ready mixed products made by specialist manufacturers to proprietary formulations or to the
larger customers specifications.

Simple classification of paints is difficult because of the range of products now available is so
vast. It is therefore important to take the manufacturer‘s instructions and recommendations
regarding selections, storage, preparation, application, subsequent treatment and maintenance of
their product seriously.

Functions of paints

Paints are required to:

 Provide a protective layer on the material covered by excluding the atmosphere moisture,
chemical, fungi, and insects.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 209
  Provide a decorative finish which is easily maintained.
 Fulfill special requirements e.g. light or heat reflecting qualities.
 To prevent decay of wooden members
 To prevent corrosion of metallic surfaces
 To provide smooth surface for easy cleaning

Paint must be satisfactory in both wet and hardened state.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGOOD PAINT

 It should be able to resist the atmospheric conditions to which it will be put.

 It should dry fairly quickly
 It should not crack on drying
 The film by the paint should be glossy and washable
 It should form a tough, elastic and durable film when dry
 It should be free from defects of chalking, cracking and blistering

PAINT SYSTEM

Adequate preparation of the surface to be painted is very essential for success. The surface
should be smooth (not shiny for this would not give an adequate key), clean, dry and stable.

The paint film is built up with more than one coat i.e. priming coat, undercoat and a finishing
coat. The selection of a suitable type of each of these coats depends on the material of the surface
and its location (internal or external)

Each coat must be dry, hard and rubbed down with fine abrasive paper before the next is added.

Priming coat-this is the first layer of paint. It must suit the background and adhere to it and it
must be compatible with subsequent layers.

The function of the primary paint or primer may be to:

i. Give protection against corrosion of metals or against dampness, especially of site stored
joinery.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 210
 ii. Adjust the suction of a surface (e.g. on new lime plaster, concrete or timber) by
penetrating the porous surface and sealing the bare surface.
iii. Provide good adhesion for subsequent coats.
iv. Act as a barrier coat to isolate one coat from a proceeding coat or seal off chemically
active surfaces(e.g. on new lime plaster and cement) to prevent them from disrupting
subsequent layers of paint.
v. Heat resistant.

There are different types of primers for metals; timber and cement/lime plaster surfaces.

Undercoats

The function of an undercoat is to:

i. Mainly obliterate the background by obscuring the primer.

ii. Bond the primer to subsequent coats.
iii. Build up an adequately thick paint film with a uniform dense tone and colour to assist the
finish.

Undercoats tend to be heavily pigmented and usually need to be sealed against the weather by a
finishing coat.

Finishing coat

The finishing coat

i. Gives the required characteristics to the painted surface (flat, eggshell or high gloss)
ii. Also gives the final colour
iii. In the case of exterior paints, finishing paints must also seal off the surface against the
weather and some elasticity may be desired

CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS;

The essential constituents of paint are;

I. Base

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 211
It provides abody to the paint and on it depends the nature of paints to a greater extent:

a) It is solid matter forming the main body of the paint.

b) It makes the paint film harder and more resistant to abrasion.
c) It forms an opaque layer to obscure the surface of material to be painted.
d) It reduces shrinkage cracks formed on drying.
II. Paint vehicle

The vehicle or medium is the liquid part of the paint. Its primary function is to:

a) Facilitate application by giving the paint mobility (ability to flow)

b) Serve as a binder for the pigments on drying
c) Give adhesion to the surface painted
d) Hold the solid ingredients of the paint in suspension
III. Pigments

Pigments are usually present in powder form in suspension in the vehicle; their function is to
provide the capacity (hiding power), colour of the paint film, to confer durability or corrosion
resistance to the surface painted or both. Pigments are in the main inert, white or coloured
powders e.g. metallic oxides or salts. They may sometimes have a chemical influence in the
hardening of the paint film. They are obtainable in powder form or are sometimes mixed with oil
or as a paste

 Natural white pigments are barytes (barium sulphate), whiting or Paris white (chalk),
china clay or kaolin, terra alba or gypsum(calcium sulphate).Artificial white pigment
includes white lead(carbonate and hydroxide of lead), titanium oxide, zinc white (zinc
oxide) and antimony white (antimony oxide). In general, artificial whites give better
opacity than the natural whites.
 Pigments of low opacity may be added to high opacity pigments to impart some other
desirable property e.g. make application easier, or assist suspension of the solid particles
in which case they are referred to as an extenders.
 Black pigments include, carbon black, lampblack, vegetable black and all forms of
carbon obtained by burning organic matter in a restricted supply of air or oxygen.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 212
  Coloured pigments include ochre, sienna (yellow) amber (brown)-venetian red and red
ochre are examples of earth pigments i.e. naturally occurring in the earth crust. They owe
their colour to the presence of iron compounds-some earth pigments are also made
artificially e.g. ultramarine blue.
 Other pigments are products or by product of chemical processes e.g. Prussian blue lake
pigments are pigments made by impregnating powder materials with organic dyes.
Adjustment of colour may involve the mixing of one or more colour pigments together
with a white.
 Pigments valuable for their corrosion inhibiting properties are red lead (for painting iron
and steel) zinc chromate (for painting iron and steel), calcium plumbate (for zinc, gal
vanish iron, iron and steel) in addition to the metallic powder lead, zinc and aluminium.
IV. Solvent or Thinner

The function of the thinners is to reduce consistency of the paint so that it can be easily applied
on the surface-it evaporates after the paint has been applied to the surface. It also helps the paint
to penetrate in to the surface to be painted.

A volatile solvent is a liquid which dissolves a substance (the film forming substance) but which
readily evaporates, leaving behind the dissolved substances unaltered chemically; these include
alcohols e.g. methylated spirit, naphthas and other coal far derivatives and other organic
chemicals.

A gum is a carbohydrate soluble in water, e.g. gum Arabic is a tree extract

A resin-is either a natural extract from certain trees e.g. copal or insects (shellac) or material
similar in character but synthetic in origin.

V. Driers

Are added in oil bound paints-these are usually oxides which will give out oxygen and thereby
increase the rate of oxidation of the binder and the rate of drying.

The other material included can be:

Plasticisers- added to make the hardened film more flexible.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 213
Light stabiliser-added to make the paint colour more stable under sunlight.

Fungicides and insecticides added to prevent attack by insects and to prevent formation of
moulds.

Oil vanish is a substantially transparent, pigment free composition of drying oils, natural or
synthetic resins and solvents.

Drying oil is an oil which has the property of hardening to a paint film when exposed to the
atmosphere wholly or partly by chemical action with absorbed oxygen. Dry oils may be natural
extract or synthetic and are mainly vegetable extracts such as linseed oil from the seed of the flux
plant, Tung oil from the seeds of certain trees and soya bean oil. These oils have to be processed
in such a way that their natural drying times are considerably reduced.

Extender-used to improve some of the properties of the paint, although they have little or no
pigmentary value and can be used to control amount of glows; addition of suitable filler can
considerably reduce cost and sometimes improve viscosity. Finish extenders can be up to 45%
and their particles are much larger than pigment particles.

TYPES OF PAINT

Paint can be classified in the following group:

a) Oil paints (or based paints)

These were traditionally based on white lead dispersed in linseed oil medium (obtained from flax
plants) or Tung oil (obtained from soya beans). Oil paints dry by evaporation of the solvent and
by oxidation. Once hardened, oil based paint behave as thermosetting plastics, being resistant to
solution in the oils from which they were formed. Such paints form films in the can unless a
protective coating of say white spirit is applied. These take a very long time to dry, 3-12 hours
depending on temperature and humidity.

They have now been replaced by synthetic paints

b) Synthetic paints

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 214
The medium for these is a chemical compound; one type being oil modified alkyd resin. These
are often based on linseed oil but contain a polymeric ester. They need a shorter drying time
about 3 hours though gloss paints need more. They have advantages over oil paints in that they
set more quickly and they offer greater durability where corrosion is a danger. They also have a
better flow and are easier to apply; drying is by evaporation of the solvent, by oxidation and
chemical change. Life times vary between 2-8 years depending on the environment. The biggest
cause of deterioration is embrittlement by sunlight.

c) Water paints

These are also known as distempers and are mainly used in internal walls and ceilings. There are
several kinds and are prepared on site by adding water to a paste. They have a dry oil or varnish
medium emulsified in water containing glue or other derivatives.

The cheapest type is known as soft or ceiling distemper which contains only glue vehicle and
tinted powder chalk. Can be removed by washing or brushing and so is only used for ceilings.

Oil bound distemper is a better quality having a mixture of linseed oil pigment and extender. It
will withstand limited careful washing. Emulsion paint has superseded water paint. Another
types are cement types, often used externally. They contain white or coloured Portland cement
with a waterproof, accelerator and extender.

d) Emulsion paints

Emulsion paint has the pigments and the medium dispersed as small globules in water. Oil,
synthetic resin and bitumen are common mediums. Among the different emulsion paints are
alkyd, bitumen, and polyvinyl acetate and styrene emulsions. They are mainly used on wall
surfaces. Oil bound distemper in (c) above is a type of emulsion paint.

Finishes are usually `matt` (dull), `silk, or satin, thought some gloss paints are now available.
Drying times vary according to conditions-could be as low as one hour in a warm dry well
ventilated enclosure. In cold, damp conditions, they may take a very long time to set or fail to set
at all

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 215
Advantages are:

 Hardened film is fairly permeable, hence the paints can be applied to slightly damp
materials (e.g. new plaster) permitting subsequent drying of the background.
 PVA emulsions are alkali resistant hence can be used on cement backgrounds subject to
some dampness.
 Can be used externally. Lifetime is 4-7 years depending on quality

e) Cellulose paints

These are synthetically produced from cellulose compounds and most of them have to be applied
as a spray for they dry quickly by evaporation of the solvent. For example nitrocellulose is
produced by the action of nitric acid and sulphuric acid on a form of cellulose such as wood
pulp. It is highly explosive and dampers are added. The volatile material will be 70-80% of the
total, consisting of about seven different hydrocarbons. It forms a rapid drying paint suited to
such applications as spraying of motorcars and other manufactured items. A part from some
kinds containing metal powders (aluminium and bronze) they are not satisfactory for general
building work.

f) Varnishes

These are of two kinds, oil varnish and spirit varnish. They are used to give a transparent film to
surface. Oil varnish contains linseed oil or other drying oils, driers, synthetic or natural resins
and solvents. They dry by evaporation of the solvent and oxidation of the oil.

Spirit varnishes are solutions of shellac and other spirit resins dissolved in commercial alcohol.

They are only suitable for internal surfaces like furniture.

g) Special paints

These include aluminium paint, anti-condensation paint, bituminous paint (the vehicle for this is
mainly bitumen and it provides a cheap method of protecting steel where appearance is
secondary) chlorinated rubber paint, fire resistance paints (these are used to increase the

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 216
resistance of fire of wood and certain building boards) heat resistant paints, fungicidal paints,
wood stains etc.

Painting specific materials

a. Ferrous metals
 The best time to paint steel is immediately after production though mill scale (iron oxide
produced during rolling) should be removed because it may lead to local corrosion and
may eventually flake off due to differential movement.
 Corrosion should be removed either by sand papering or grit blasting or pickling
(treatment with hydrochloric/phosphoric acid).
 Suitable primers, include red lead (lead oxide), zinc dust, zinc chromate and zinc
phosphate. On account of their toxicity, lead-based primers are not recommended for
used in domestic situations.
 Afterwards, a decorative finish may be applied. Undercoats may or may not be excluded.
Generally, the more aggressive the environment the more coats should be given.

b. Non Ferrous metal

c. Zinc and aluminium normally need surface treatment before painting can be
carried out.
 Zinc should be degreased with white spirit, followed by roughening of
unwealthered surfaces with empty paper (sand paper).
 Suitable primer should then be applied, followed by other coats.
d. Wood

Preliminary treatment includes;

 Stopping holes with filler

 Treatment of knots with shellac
 Sand papering to give a mechanical key

Suitable primer is then applied followed by other necessary coats

e. Plastics

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 217
Most plastics do not require painting. Paint coats once applied cannot be removed by normal
techniques. Paint on the other hand reduces the degradation rate of plastics.

The surface must be roughened first to give a mechanical key, and then afterwards painted.

PAINT FAILURE OR DEFECTS IN PAINTING

Paint failure or defects can be classified as:

Defects caused by dampness

 Any paint film applied to damp materials and which is not appreciably permeably will
likely fail by softening, blistering, peeling, or flaking.
 If the background is of an alkaline nature, the presence of moisture can cause bleaching
of certain pigments and softening of an oil bound film due to chemical action, with an
eventual break down. The softening action is known as alkali attack or saponification.
When an acid and an alkali react together, the result is a soap and water. This is known as
saponification. Lime mortars and plasters, Portland cement and asbestos cement develop
alkalis, especially when new. If such surfaces are coated with an oil-bound paint,
particularly in the presence of even small quantities of moisture, they will cause
saponification. The paint may blister in a mild attack or show yellow soapy runs in a
severe attack. The problem can be avoided by (i) allowing the background to dry
completely before printing (ii) by use of alkali resistant primers (iii) use of PVA emulsion
paints instead of oil based points.
 Where soluble salts are present in the background materials, dampness can lead to their
crystallisation beneath a paint film which is not substantially permeable and can cause
unsightly efflorescence on the surface of permeable films.
 Moulds can grow in damp conditions causing stains where a food source is available
such as carbohydrates (e.g. sapwood). These can be prevented by the use of antiseptic
solutions and eliminating the source of dampness.

(ii) Crazing or crocodiling

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 218
Use of too much oil, use of impure oil and insufficient drying of undercoat may cause hair cracks
in top coat. If these hair cracks enclose small areas then the defect is known as crazing, however,
if the areas enclosed are large then the defect is known a crocodiling.

This may be due to normal form of deterioration due to weathering or unsuitable paint
formulation, adulteration, wrong selection or application techniques or subsequent maltreatment.

(iv) Chalking

This describes erosion of paint film due to inadequate binder performance. It is caused by use of
paints containing either a poor quality binder or inadequate quantity of binder.

(iv) Bleaching

This result from the softening of a paint film due to an agency such as resinous or bituminous
matter acting as solvent on the binders. The solvent gradually penetrates the paint film and
causes staining and local break down (e.g. break down of an oil or resin film on timber due to
resin exuded from knots).

This can be prevented by the use of a suitable sealer as a barrier coat e.g. shellac` knotting`
applied to knots in timber or leafing aluminium paint on bitumen –coated surfaces.

(v) Sulphiding

This is the discolouration of certain paint films due to the conversion of compounds present to
the sulphide e.g. blackening of lead based paints due to lead sulphide formed by the action of
sulphurous fumes in an industrial atmosphere.

STORAGE OF PAINTS

Most paints are mixtures and their constituents are liable to separate out to form different layers
during storage. Thorough remixing should therefore be done before and during use.

Where skin form at the surface, it will usually re-dissolve on mixing in solvent paints. For non-
solvent paints, it should be removed by straining the paint through a fine –mesh fabric.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 219
Some paints need protection from excessive cold, while paints containing organic solvents
present a fire risk and can give off toxic vapours so necessary protections should be taken.

STANDARD TESTS OF PAINT

Paint can be tested for efficiency using the following methods;

 Hardness test
 Drying test
 Abrasion and alkalis resistance test

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 220
CHAPTER TWELVE: BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Bituminous materials are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of their
excellent binding characteristics, water proofing properties and relatively low cost. Bituminous
materials include: Bitumen, Asphalt and Tar.
Bituminous materials are being extensively used in damp proofing the basements, floors, roofs,
damp proof courses; painting timber and steel structural elements; as adhesives and caulking
compounds, and tars are used as binders in road works. When combined with aggregate these are
also used to provide floor surfaces. Bitumen is now more commonly used for building purposes
than is tar.
1) BITUMEN

It is the building materials in which it is obtained by the fractional distillation from crude
petroleum oils as an end product.
Bitumen is a noncrystalline solid or viscous material derived from petroleum, by natural or
refinery process and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide. It is asphalt in solid state and
mineral tar in semi fluid state. Bitumen is brown or black in colour.
The main constituent is petrolene a yellowish oily substance, an excess of which makes bitumen
to melt at low temperature and, asphaltene—hard black substance, an excess of which makes
bitumen brittle and non-plastic.
FORMS OF BITUMEN
Bitumen Emulsion is a liquid product containing bitumen to a great extent in an aqueous
medium. The bitumen which is in a very finely divided state (globules of about 2 micron
diameter) is kept suspended in the aqueous medium with the help of some suitable stabilizing
agents. Depending upon the stability of the protective coating of the emulsifying agent, the
emulsions are classed as rapid setting (RS), medium setting (MS) and slow setting (SS). These
emulsions are always stored in air tight drums.

Blown Bitumen is obtained by passing air under pressure at a higher temperature through
the bitumen. It can be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in the manufacture of pipe
asphalts and joint fillers, as heat insulating material, etc.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 221
Cut Back Bitumen is obtained by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in presence of some suitable
liquid distillates of coal tar or petroleum. It is mainly used in road construction and in soil
stabilization (2–4%). Cut-backs are commercially manufactured in the following three groups.
1. Rapid curing (RC) cut-backs containing naptha or gasoline.
2. Medium curing (MC) cut-backs containing kerosene.
3. Slow curing (SC) cut-backs containing light oils as fluxing agents.
Plastic Bitumen consists of bitumen, thinner and a suitable inert filler. The amount of inert
filler is about 40 to 45 per cent. It is used for filling cracks in masonry structures, for stopping
leakage, etc.
Straight run Bitumen is the bitumen being distilled to a definite viscosity or penetration
without further treatment.

CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMEN

(i) Based on source:

Bitumens are classed as natural and petroleum bitumens.

Natural Bitumen: Pure natural bitumen occurs rarely. Lime stones, sandstones and soils
impregnated with bitumen are frequently found. It originates from the accumulation of petroleum
in the top layers of earth crust through migration, filling pores and cavities of rocks, under the
action of high temperature and pressure. The natural bitumen is dark-brown in colour which on
heating gradually softens and passes to liquid state and on cooling solidifies. It is insoluble in
water but dissolves in carbon disulphide, chloroform, benzene and very little in gasoline. Natural
bitumen may be extracted from bituminous rocks by blowing in kettles or dissolving in organic
solvents (extraction).
Petroleum Bitumens are product of processing crude petroleum and its resinous residues.
These are classified as residual asphaltums, oxidized, cracked and extracted bitumens.
(ii) Based on consistency These are classified as solid, semi-solid and liquid bitumens.
(iii)Based on application Bitumens are classified as road construction bitumen, building
bitumen and roofing bitumen.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 222
USES OF BITUMEN
(i) Bitumen is used for manufacture of roofing and damp proofing felts.
(ii) It is used for roads and pavements.
(iii) Used for waterproof packing paper, pipe asphalt, joint filler, bituminous filling
compounds for cable boxes, for sealing accumulators and batteries.
(iv) It is also used for fixing of roofing felts, dam proofing felts and for heat insulation
materials for buildings, refrigeration and cold storage equipment.
(v) It is used in swimming pools, tanks and basements.
PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

The various properties are viscosity, ductility and softening point.

(i) Viscosity depends greatly on temperature. At lower temperature, bitumen has great
viscosity and acquires the properties of a solid body, while with increase in temperature
the viscosity of bitumen decreases and it passes into liquid state.
(ii) Ductility depends upon temperature, group composition and nature of structure. Viscous
bitumens, containing solid paraffin at low temperatures are very ductile.
(iii) Softening point is related to viscosity. Bitumen needs sufficient fluidity before specific
application.
(iv) Resilience Bitumen is resilient, non-rigid and as such it is capable of absorbing shocks
and accommodate itself to the movement in structure due to temperature, settlement or
shrinkage.

2) TAR

It is a dark (deep black) viscous liquid produced by destructive distillation of organic material
such as coal, oil, lignite and wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified as coal tar,
wood tar and mineral tar. Tar is restraint to petroleum-based solvents. It has very low bitumen
content.
Coal Tar: is obtained, as a byproduct in the destructive distillation of coal, or in the manufacture
of coal gas. It is heavy, strong smelling and black. These generally have high specific gravities
and viscosities, and good adhesive properties. On the further distillation of coal tar (from coal

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 223
gas) coal naphtha, creosote oil, dyes, etc. are obtained, coal tars for road works are obtained by
coking coal or melting together coal pitch with oils or dehydrated raw tar.
Uses; For coating of wooden poles, sleepers, iron-poles, latrine walls, etc.

Wood Tar is obtained by the destructive distillation of resinous wood (pine, etc.). It contains
creosote and as such is a very strong preservative. On further distillation wood tar produces
wood creosote. Compared to coal tar creosote, it is an inferior preservative for wood. The residue
left after the distillation is known as pitch. There are five grades of road tars:
RT-1: For surface painting under exceptionally cold weather conditions, hill roads at very high
elevations.
RT-2: For standard surface painting under normal climatic conditions.
RT-3: For surface painting and renewal coats and is also used for premixing chips in top courses.
RT-4: For premixing tar macadam (base course).
RT-5: For grouting.

Mineral Tar is obtained by the distillation of bituminous shales. Some examples are tarmac, tar
paving and tar macadam.
Tarmac is ironstone slag impregnated with tar oils. It is impervious to water and used in road
pavement.
Tar paving is a composition of limestone and coaltar. It is heated before use.
Tar Macadam is used for road pavement. Soft rock materials such as limestones blast furnance
cinder, etc. are heated in a furnace and then mixed with boiling coal tar, pitch and creosote oil.
The mix is applied in road soon after cooling and rolled.

PROPERTIES OF TAR
(i) It is more adhesive
(ii) It is less durable
(iii)It is harden quickly
(iv) Its setting time is more
(v) It contains high percentage of carbon

USES OF TAR
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Page 224
 (i) It is used in road constructions
(ii) It is also used for preserving woods/timbers
(iii)It is also used for filling leakages or cracks
(iv) It is also used for making paints

3) ASPHALT

Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter.
It is black or brownish black in colour. At temperature between 50–100°C it is in liquid state
whereas at temperature less than this it remains in solid state. Because it is a thermoplastic
material it softens as it is heated and hardens as it is cooled. It is the basic paving material in
use today.

Mastic Asphalt is also known as native asphalt. When obtained from lakes it is termed as lake
asphalt. It is used for making pavements, for water proofing of structure, stopping vibrations in
machine foundations, tunnels and subways, in manufacture of marine glue, and in lining
trenches.

Rock Asphalt. is a naturally occurring rock formation, usually limestone or sandstone

intimately impregnated throughout its mass with 6–14% bitumen.
Refined Asphalt is obtained by heating pitch to drive off the water and to draw off the mineral
matter by segregating the impurities.
Bitumen 52%
Inorganic matter 38%
Organic matter 10%
Mastic Asphalt is manufactured by adding pulverized natural rock gradually to molten
refined bitumen, agitating the mixture for about 5 hours (200–250°) and placing it into moulds
for cooling. The mass consolidates into hard elastic blocks which can be remelted when used
for pavements. It is tough, durable, nonabsorbent, damp proof, noninflammable, and noiseless.
When non-bituminous limestone is mixed with bitumen of residual type it is brown as
synthetic mastic asphalt.
Liquid Asphalt is the viscous residue obtained by the distillation of asphaltic base crude oil

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 225
to 425°C.
Cut back Asphalt is derived by distillation of asphalt in a volatile solvent. It contains about
80 per cent asphalt and remainder the solvents.
Artificial Asphalts the pitch residue obtained by evaporation of the volatile constituent of
coal tar. It is formed of an admixture of coal tar, pitch, ground iron slag, sawdust, chalk, etc.
Bitumen 12%
Minerals and sand 87%
Organic matter 1%
Asphaltic Asphalt is prepared by oxidizing asphalt at a high temperature the lighter oils
vapourize and are drawn off at their condensation temperature, leaving a residual material–
asphaltic cement. It is used for flooring and water proofing and in expansion joints in concrete.

PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
(i) It is water proof and easily cleaned
(ii) It is durable and tough material
(iii)It is resilient and elastic in nature
(iv) It is good insulator of electricity, heat and sound
(v) It is good water resistance
(vi) It is not affected by certain chemicals
(vii) It is corrosion resistance

USES OF ASPHALT

(i) It is used as damp proofing

(ii) It is also used for roads and pavements
(iii) It is used in swimming pools, tanks and basements
(iv) It is also used for making paints and roofing felts

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 226
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BITUMEN AND TAR

S/NO Bitumen Tar

1. Bitumen is found in black to brown in Tar is usually found in brown colour
colour.
2. Bitumen is obtained from fractional Tar is obtained by destructive distillation of
distillation of crude oil coal or wood
3. Bitumen is soluble in carbon disulphide Tar is soluble in toluene
and carbon tetra chloride
4. Molecular weight range for road bitumen is Molecular weight range for road tar is 150 to
400 to 5000 3000
5. Bitumen consists of large amount of Tar consist of large amount of oily matter with
aromatic hydrocarbon lower molecular weight
6. Bitumen show resistance to coating road Tar coats more easily and retain it better in
aggregate and also does not retain in presence of water
presence of water
7. Free carbon content is less Free carbon content is more
8. It shows more resistance to weathering It shows less resistance to weathering action
action
9. Less temperature susceptibility More temperature susceptibility

The advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows:

1. Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
2. Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
3. Better age resistance properties
4. Higher fatigue life for mixes
5. Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
6. Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 227
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN: GLASS

13.1 General

Glass as a glazing material has remained unchallenged and seems likely to dominate this
field into the foreseable future because;-

(i) Raw materials are cheap and plenty.

(ii) Glass has unrivalled.
 Abrasion resistance.
 Light transition properties.
 And resistance to weathering and/or chemical attach.

Ordinary glass is based on silica (silicon dioxide) which is crystalline form, exists in a tetrahedral
array. If molten silica is cooled at normal rates from the liquid, an amorphous structure results,
which may be regarded as a heavily and randomly distorted form of the crystalline structure.

Silica, though forming the basis network of glass, is not used in the pure form because its
melting point is too high (about 17000C). Therefore, silica is modified by compounds such as
sodium carbonate. At high temperatures, sodium carbonate decomposes into sodium oxide, and
combines with some of the silica to form sodium disilicate. These chemical reactions disrupt
some of the rigid silicon-oxygen links. ‗Soda-glass‘ as the material is known, melts at a much
lower temperature, about 8000C. Soda glass is water soluble therefore, calcium carbonate is
added to stabilize the glass. Approximate composition of raw materials for typical soda – lime
glass is;-

i. Silicon dioxide (SiO) - 75%

ii. Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) - 15%
iii. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) - 10%

Smaller amounts of the following compounds may also be added:

iv. Manganese dioxide – to remove colouration due to iron in the sand.

v. Lead – to improve surface lustre; in larger quantities to produce high density glass
resistant to x-rays.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 228
 vi. Borax - to produce glass having very low thermal movement – such glasses are highly
resistant to thermal shock.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS

Glass is obtained by fusion of silica, chalk (lime), potash, soda at over 1000oC. Functions of
the various important constituents of glass are;

1) Silica. It is the main constituent of all kinds of glass. Since it fuses at very high
temperatures some alkaline admixture like sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate
is added to it so as to make it fuse at lower temperatures.
2) Potash. This renders glass infusible and gives fire resisting properties to it.
3) Soda. It quickens fusion of glass and as such excess of it is harmful.
4) Lime. It imparts durability and toughness to glass
5) Lead oxide. It gives colour to glass and therefore its presence in glass is not much
desirable
6) Cullet. It is broken glass of the type desired to be manufactured that I added to the
raw materials to bring down the cost of production.

13.2 MANUFACTURE OF GLASS.

The manufacture of all glass products is based on four fundamental stages;-

(i) Melting
(ii) Forming
(iii) Cooling
(iv) Finishing.

Raw materials are weighed and mixed in the correct proportions producing a mixture known as
frit. Waste broken glass ‗cullet‘ is recycled along with frit, usually the proportions of 80% frit
and 20% cullet. The mixture is heated to about 1500oC. The cullet melts first and permits
reaction and fusion of the remaining ingredients at temperature below melting point of pure
silica. The liquid is then cooled to a temperature of 10000C – 12000C where its viscosity is
sufficiently high for forming.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 229
The method of manufacture is such that cooling to the hardened state is fairly rapid and the glass
passes through a viscous stage when it can be worked to the required shape. The rapid cooling is
necessary to prevent the glass from undergoing crystallization or devitrification with loss of
transparency and strength.

The final cooling shape after hardening must be gradual to prevent cracking and is referred to as
annealing.

Variations in the detailed procedure of manufacture and inclusion of special ingredients results in
different types of glass.

Classification of Glass

Glass is classified in to three categories;

1) Soda lime glass

It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, lime, soda and alumina. Powdered glass too
may be added. This glass is also termed as soda ash glass, soda glass or soft glass.

It is used for glazing doors, windows and for making ordinary glass wares.

2) Lead glass

It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, lead and potash. Powdered glass too may be
added. This glass is also termed as flint glass.

Lead glass has highly shining appearance and takes good polish.

It is not affected by temperature. Cut glass work, electric bulbs and optical glass are made from
it.

3) Boro-silicate glass

It is obtained from the fusion of silica borax, lime and feldspar. Powdered glass too may be
added. This glass withstands high temperatures and as such laboratory equipment and cooking
utensils are made out of it.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 230
13.3 COMMERCIAL FORMS OF GLASS

Glass is marketed in various commercial forms to suit varying field requirements. Some
important commercial forms of glass are discussed below;

13.3.1 Float glass

As the name suggests, this is made using the float process. The width is usually up to 1m and
length is limited only by handling considerations.

Molten glass is floated onto the surface of molten tin, and then allowed to cool. This produces
glass having flat parallel surfaces and the fire-finish associated with drawn sheet glass. This glass
is now used for general glazing purposes as well as mirrors, shop windows and in situation
where clear, undistorted vision is essential.

13.3.2 Flat Drawn Sheet Glass

This type is dying out and is being replaced by float glass as new plants come on stream. The
surface is more variable than that of float glass. Normally graded into the following;-

OQ - Ordinary Quality

SQ - Selected Glazing Quality

SSQ - Special Selected Quality

Viscous liquid glass at around 1000 – 12000C is drawn vertically to form a continuous sheet
passing through asbestos covered rollers (to prevent wasting) by iron grille bait dipped into the
molten glass and then slowly raised.

The sheet rises up to 9m, passing through a tower of water cooled chambers where it is annealed.
In emerging at the top, it is cut to the required length and trimmed. The surfaces of the glass are
never perfectly flat, resulting in slight distortion of vision but have a characteristic brilliance
known as a ‗fire finish‘.

The glass was formerly used in domestic dwelling, offices and factories.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 231
13.3.3 Rolled Glass

This covers all glasses which are passed between rollers to give a specific surface finish whether
regular pattern or random diffusing surface. They are usually used where privacy or diffusion is
required or where specific decoration effects are required.

This method is principally used in the production of figured glass – that is where one or both
surfaces are textured or impressed with a pattern, which prevents clear vision through the glass.
In the original process, molten glass was poured a sheet of the required thickness. Any pattern on
the roller is impressed in the surface of the glass. The more recent system is to draw a sheet
horizontally between double rollers. Types of glass made by this method includes those known
as rolled, figured rolled, rough cast, cathedral and wired.

13.3.4 Wired Glass

Though not specifically classified as a true safety glass, the presence of wires hold the glass
fragments together when breakage occurs in the event of bodily impact. However, the main use
of wired glass is to create fire resistant glazing systems.

13.3.5 Body coloured/tinted glass

Body coloured and tinted glass are produced by varying the constituents in the melting furnace.
The colour is present throughout the thickness of the glass. Different thickness of the same mix
will have different light and solar energy transmissions. Thicker glass will appear more strongly
coloured.

Body coloured/tinted glass are used either as solar control glasses where changes to the glass
composition increase the absorption, thus reducing the amount of light and total solar energy
transmitted. So called tinted glasses are used partly for decorative purposes.

13.3.6 Surface modified glass

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 232
These are usually produced on the float line as a continuous process and are achieved by
modifying the surface of the basic clear float glasses. These are normally used for solar control
for applications where low transmission of light is required.

13.3.7 Processed glasses

(i) Coated glass – thin coatings are applied to large areas of flat glass. Coatings are applied
to alter the performance of the basic float glass that is light and radiant heat transmission,
light and radiant heat reflections and surface emissivity coatings have been developed to
have high transparency but high reflectivity of long wave radiation (low emissivity
coatings) to improve the thermal insulation properties of the treated glass.

More than one coating can be applied to the glass surface to give particular properties.

Coatings can be divided into metallic coatings or metallic oxide coatings.

(ii) Toughened glass – The technique creates a state of high compressions in the outer
surfaces of the glass. Although most other characteristics remain unchanged, the tensile
strength is usually increased by 4-5 times that of annealed glass.

When broken, the toughened glass fractures into relatively small pieces usually in the form of
small cubes. The lengths of the cubes are normally the same as the thickness of the glass. These
cubes do not have the sharp blade-like edges and dagger points of broken annealed glass. Hence
it is regarded as a safety glazing material in the various codes of practice and standards.
All float and sheet glasses can be toughened. Wired glass cannot be satisfactorily toughened.

The glasses which are toughened must be cut to size; otherwise any attempt to work the glass
after toughening will cause the glass to shatter.
Toughened glass is usually used there a safe breaking pattern is required rather than for
additional strength.
(iii) Laminated glass

This is produced by bonding two glasses together with a plastic material or a resin. The layer,
which is usually polyvinyl butyral, can be either clear or tinted. The bonding is achieved by
heating the glass/interlayer sandwich and applying pressure.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 233
When a resin is used as the bonding medium, a self-curing resin is usually poured between the 2
pieces at the current separation whilst pouring and curing takes place.
Lamination can incorporate several thickness and combination of glasses. Several thickness of
interlayer can be specified to give a selection of products with a wide range of properties and
application.
Laminated glass can be used as safety glazing, bullet resistant glazing, glazing for sound
attenuation, solar control, solar control, vandal resistant and for overhead applications.
(v) Silvered glass

Silvering is a chemical process normally used to create mirrors by depositing a layer of metallic
silver onto the surface of a piece of clear glass. The silver deposit usually protected by a layer of
copper which in turn is protected by a special paint coating. The silver surface is viewed through
the glass.
For special surfaces, front silvered mirrors can be produced. These have the reflective material
on the front surface of the glass.
13.3.8 Bent glass

This can be produced by heating most basic glasses to the point where they soften until they can
either be pressed or sag bent over suitable formers. Bent can be created in two planes.

13.3.9 Insulating glass

This incorporates two or more glasses separated by spaces to create a cavity between successive
panes to form a unit. These are attached by suitable adhensive. Cavities range from 5-20mm.

13.3.10 Glass blocks

These are made in a variety of patterns, sizes, colours and degrees of transparency. These units
are laid in a manner similar to that for normal building bricks using fine sand, lime; cement
mortar.

13.3.11 Fire resistant glasses

These can provide up to 60 min of stability/integrity when correctly formed. The following
approaches are relevant to increasing fire resistant;-

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 234
 i. Wired glass.
ii. Laminated float glass with get interlayer.
iii. Prestressed borosilicate glass.
iv. Toughened calcium/silica float glass.
v. Glass block

13.4 STRUCTURAL GLAZING

Glazing used in a structural manner must have the appropriate specifications, thickness and
bedding techniques to resist the applied forces. Loads to be resisted can be obtained from BS
6395: Loading for Building part 2: Code of Practice for Wing Loading.

Systems have been designed in such a way as to allow toughened glass plates to be assembled to
create continuous glass facades without the use of mullions and transoms.

The plates are usually bolted together using special metal patch fitting at their corners.

13.4.4 Cutting of glass

Cutting of up to 10mm thickness is normally achieved by using a diamond or tungsten carbide

point or wheel followed by snapping along the cutting line. For thicker glass, it may be necessary
to use diamond-tipped saw.

Edge finishes (flat ground, round beveled or bull nosed) may be achieved by grinding and
polishing.

Water jet cutters may be used to achieve holes and irregular shapes.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS & CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Page 235