Chapter 7

COMMUNITY AND ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Describe the major terrestrial biomes and the types of plants and
animals occurring there.
2. Relate the effect of increasing altitude as one goes up a mountain
to biome changes seen as one moves north of the equator toward
the polar regions.
3. Distinguish the different regions within the marine ecosystems.
4. React on the identified environmental news or issues.

Community Defined

A community is the set of all populations that inhabit a certain area.

Communities can have different sizes and boundaries. These are often
identified with some difficulty.

An ecosystem is a higher level of organization the community plus its

physical environment. Ecosystems include both the biological and physical
components affecting the community/ecosystem. We can study ecosystems
from a structural view of population distribution or from a functional view of
energy flow and other processes.

Community Structure

Ecologists find that within a community many populations are not

randomly distributed. This recognition that there was a pattern and process of
spatial distribution of species was a major accomplishment of ecology. Two
of the most important patterns are open community structure and the relative
rarity of species within a community.

Do species within a community have similar geographic range and

density peaks? If they do, the community is said to be a closed community, a
discrete unit with sharp boundaries known as ecotones. An open community,
however, has its populations without ecotones and distributed more or less
randomly.
 In a forest, where we find an open community structure, there is a
gradient of soil moisture. Plants have different tolerances to this gradient and
occur at different places along the continuum. Where the physical
environment has abrupt transitions, we find sharp boundaries developing
between populations. For example, an ecotone develops at a beach separating
water and land.

Open structure provides some protection for the community. Lacking

boundaries, it is harder for a community to be destroyed in an all or nothing
fashion. Species can come and go within communities over time, yet the
community as a whole persists. In general, communities are less fragile and
more flexible than some earlier concepts would suggest.

Most species in a community are far less abundant than the dominant
species that provide a community its name: for example oak-hickory, pine,
etc. Populations of just a few species are dominant within a community, no
matter what community we examine. Resource partitioning is thought to be
the main cause for this distribution.

Classification of Communities

There are two basic categories of communities: terrestrial (land) and

aquatic (water). These two basic types of community contain eight smaller
units known as biomes. A biome is a large-scale category containing many
communities of a similar nature, whose distribution is largely controlled by
climate

 Terrestrial Biomes: tundra, grassland, desert, taiga, temperate forest,

tropical forest. Terrestrial biome distribution is shown in Figure 1.
 Aquatic Biomes: marine, freshwater.

Terrestrial Biomes

Tundra and Desert

The tundra and desert biomes occupy the most extreme

environments, with little or no moisture and extremes of temperature acting
as harsh selective agents on organisms that occupy these areas. These two
biomes have the fewest numbers of species due to the stringent
environmental conditions. In other words, not everyone can live there due to
the specialized adaptations required by the environment.
 Tropical Rain Forests

Tropical rain forests occur in regions near the equator. The climate is
always warm (between 20° and 25° C) with plenty of rainfall (at least 190
cm/year). The rain forest is probably the richest biome, both in diversity and
in total biomass. The tropical rain forest has a complex structure, with many
levels of life. More than half of all terrestrial species live in this biome.
While diversity is high, dominance by a particular species is low.

While some animals live on the ground, most rain forest animals live
in the trees. Many of these animals spend their entire life in the forest
canopy. Insects are so abundant in tropical rain forests that the majority have
not yet been identified. Charles Darwin noted the number of species found
on a single tree, and suggested the richness of the rain forest would stagger
the future systematist with the size of the catalogue of animal species found
there. Termites are critical in the decomposition and nutrient cycling of
wood. Birds tend to be brightly colored, often making them sought after as
exotic pets. Amphibians and reptiles are well represented. Monkeys feed on
fruits in tropical rain forest trees. Encroachment and destruction of habitat
put all these animals and plants at risk.

Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants. These epiphytes have
their own roots to absorb moisture and minerals, and use the other plant more
as an aid to grow taller. Some tropical forests are seasonal and have trees that
shed leaves in dry season. The warm, moist climate supports high
productivity as well as rapid decomposition of detritus.

With its yearlong growing season, tropical forests have a rapid

cycling of nutrients. Soils in tropical rain forests tend to have very little
organic matter since most of the organic carbon is tied up in the standing
biomass of the plants. These tropical soils, termed laterites, make poor
agricultural soils after the forest has been cleared.

About 17 million hectares of rain forest are destroyed each year.

Estimates indicate the forests will be destroyed (along with a great part of the
Earth's diversity) within 100 years. Rainfall and climate patterns could
change as a result.

Shrubland

The shrubland biome is dominated by shrubs with small but thick

evergreen leaves that are often coated with a thick, waxy cuticle, and with
thick underground stems that survive the dry summers and frequent fires.
 Grasslands

Grasslands occur in temperate and tropical areas with reduced rainfall

(10-30 inches per year) or prolonged dry seasons. Soils in this region are
deep and rich and are excellent for agriculture. Grasslands are almost entirely
devoid of trees, and can support large herds of grazing animals. Natural
grasslands once covered over 40 percent of the earth's land surface. In
temperate areas where rainfall is between 10 and 30 inches a year, grassland
is the climax community because it is too wet for desert and too dry for
forests.

Most grasslands have now been utilized to grow crops, especially

wheat and corn. Grasses are the dominant plants, while grazing and
burrowing species are the dominant animals. The extensive root systems of
grasses allows them to recover quickly from grazing, flooding, drought, and
sometimes fire.

Deserts

Deserts are characterized by dry conditions and a wide temperature

range. The dry air leads to wide daily temperature fluctuations from freezing
at night to over 120 degrees during the day. Most deserts occur at latitudes of
30o N or S where descending air masses are dry. Some deserts occur in the
rainshadow of tall mountain ranges or in coastal areas near cold offshore
currents. Plants in this biome have developed a series of adaptations (such as
succulent stems, and small, spiny, or absent leaves) to conserve water and
deal with these temperature extremes.

The Sahara and a few other deserts have almost no vegetation. Most
deserts, however, are home to a variety of plants, all adapted to heat and lack
of abundant water (succulents and cacti).

Aquatic Biomes

Conditions in water are generally less harsh than those on land.

Aquatic organisms are buoyed by water support, and do not usually have to
deal with drought. Despite covering 71% of the Earth's surface, areas of the
open ocean are a vast aquatic desert containing few nutrients and very little
life. Clearcut biome distinctions in water, like those on land, are difficult to
make. Dissolved nutrients controls many local aquatic distributions. Aquatic
communities are classified into: freshwater (inland) communities and marine
(saltwater) communities.
 The Marine Biome

The marine biome contains more dissolved minerals than the

freshwater biome. Over 70% of the Earth's surface is covered in water, by far
the vast majority of that being saltwater. There are two basic categories to
this biome: benthic and pelagic. Benthic communities (bottom dwellers) are
subdivided by depth: the shore/shelf and deep sea. Pelagic communities
(swimmers or floaters suspended in the water column) include planktonic
(floating) and nektonic (swimming) organisms. The upper 200 meters of the
water column is the euphotic zone to which light can penetrate.

Coastal Communities

Estuaries are bays where rivers empty into the sea. Erosion brings
down nutrients and tides wash in salt water; forms nutrient trap. Estuaries
have high production for organisms that can tolerate changing salinity.
Estuaries are called "nurseries of the sea" because many young marine fish
develop in this protected environment before moving as adults into the wide
open seas.

Seashores

Rocky shorelines offer anchorage for sessile organisms. Seaweeds

are main photosynthesizers and use holdfasts to anchor. Barnacles glue
themselves to stone. Oysters and mussels attach themselves by threads.
Limpets and periwinkles either hide in crevices or fasten flat to rocks.

Sandy beaches and shores are shifting strata. Permanent residents

therefore burrow underground. Worms live permanently in tubes.
Amphipods and ghost crabs burrow above high tide and feed at night.

Coral Reefs

Areas of biological abundance in shallow, warm tropical waters.

Stony corals have calcium carbonate exoskeleton and may include algae.
Most form colonies; may associate with zooxanthellae dinoflagellates. Reef
is densely populated with animal life. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia
suffers from heavy predation by crown-of-thorns sea star, perhaps because
humans have harvested its predator, the giant triton.

Oceans

Oceans cover about three-quarters of the Earth's surface. Oceanic

organisms are placed in either pelagic (open water) or benthic (ocean floor)
categories. Pelagic division is divided into neritic and three levels of pelagic
provinces. Neritic province has greater concentration of organisms because
sunlight penetrates; nutrients are found here. Epipelagic zone is brightly lit,
has much photosynthetic phytoplankton, that support zooplankton that are
food for fish, squid, dolphins, and whales. Mesopelagic zone is semi-dark
and contains carnivores; adapted organisms tend to be translucent, red
colored, or luminescent; for example: shrimps, squids, lantern and hatchet
fishes. The bathypelagic zone is completely dark and largest in size; it has
strange-looking fish. Benthic division includes organisms on continental
shelf (sublittoral), continental slope (bathyal), and the abyssal plain.

The Freshwater Biome

The freshwater biome is subdivided into two zones: running waters

and standing waters. Larger bodies of freshwater are less prone to
stratification (where oxygen decreases with depth). The upper layers have
abundant oxygen, the lowermost layers are oxygen-poor. Mixing between
upper and lower layers in a pond or lake occurs during seasonal changes
known as spring and fall overturn.

Lakes are larger than ponds, and are stratified in summer and winter.
The epilimnion is the upper surface layer. It is warm in summer. The
hypolimnion is the cold lower layer. A sudden drop in temperature occurs at
the middle of the thermocline. Layering prevents mixing between the lower
hypolimnion (rich in nutrients) and the upper epilimnion (which has oxygen
absorbed from its surface). The epilimnion warms in spring and cools in fall,
causing a temporary mixing. As a consequence, phytoplankton become more
abundant due to the increased amounts of nutrients.

Life zones also exist in lakes and ponds. The littoral zone is closest to
shore. The limnetic zone is the sunlit body of the lake. Below the level of
sunlight penetration is the dark profundal zone. At the soil-water interface
we find the benthic zone. The term benthos is applied to animals and other
organisms that live on or in the benthic zone.

Rapidly flowing, bubbling streams have insects and fish adapted to

oxygen-rich water. Slow moving streams have aquatic life more similar to
lake and pond life.

Community Density and Stability

Communities are made up of species adapted to the conditions of that

community. Diversity and stability help define a community and are
important in environmental studies. Species diversity decreases as we move
away from the tropics. Species diversity is a measure of the different types of
organisms in a community (also referred to as species richness). Latitudinal
diversity gradient refers to species richness decreasing steadily going away
from the equator. A hectare of tropical rain forest contains 40-100 tree
species, while a hectare of temperate zone forest contains 10-30 tree species.
In marked contrast, a hectare of taiga contains only a paltry 1-5 species.
Habitat destruction in tropical countries will cause many more extinctions
per hectare than it would in higher latitudes.

Environmental stability is greater in tropical areas, where a relatively

stable/constant environment allows more different kinds of species to thrive.
Equatorial communities are older because they have been less disturbed by
glaciers and other climate changes, allowing time for new species to evolve.
Equatorial areas also have a longer growing season.

The depth diversity gradient is found in aquatic communities.

Increasing species richness with increasing water depth. This gradient is
established by environmental stability and the increasing availability of
nutrients.

Community stability refers to the ability of communities to remain

unchanged over time. During the 1950s and 1960s, stability was equated to
diversity: diverse communities were also stable communities. Mathematical
modeling during the 1970s showed that increased diversity can actually
increase interdependence among species and lead to a cascade effect when a
keystone species is removed. Thus, the relation is more complex than
previously thought.

Change in Communities Over Time

Biological communities, like the organisms that comprise them, can

and do change over time. Ecological time focuses on community events that
occur over decades or centuries. Geological time focuses on events lasting
thousands of years or more.

Community succession is the sequential replacement of species by

immigration of new species and local extinction of older ones following a
disturbance that creates unoccupied habitats for colonization. The initial
rapid colonizer species are the pioneer community. Eventually a climax
community of more or less stable but slower growing species eventually
develops.

During succession productivity declines and diversity increases.

These trends tend to increase the biomass (total weight of living tissue) in a
community. Succession occurs because each community stage prepares the
environment for the stage following it.

Primary succession begins with bare rock and takes a very long time
to occur. Weathering by wind and rain plus the actions of pioneer species
such as lichens and mosses begin the buildup of soil. Herbaceous plants,
including the grasses, grow on deeper soil and shade out shorter pioneer
species. Pine trees or deciduous trees eventually take root and in most
biomes will form a climax community of plants that are stabile in the
environment. The young produced by climax species can live in that
environment, unlike the young produced by successional species.

Secondary succession occurs when an environment has been

disturbed, such as by fire, geological activity, or human intervention
(farming or deforestation in most cases). This form of succession often
begins in an abandoned field with soil layers already in place. Compared to
primary succession, which must take long periods of time to build or
accumulate soil, secondary succession occurs rapidly. The herbaceous
pioneering plants give way to pines, which in turn may give way to a
hardwood deciduous forest (in the classical old field succession models
developed in the eastern deciduous forest biome).
Early researchers assumed climax communities were determined for each
environment. Today we recognize the outcome of competition among
whatever species are present as establishing the climax community.

Climax communities tend to be more stable than successional

communities. Early stages of succession show the most growth and are most
productive. Pioneer communities lack diversity, make poor use of inputs, and
lose heat and nutrients. As succession proceeds, species variety increases and
nutrients are recycled more. Climax communities make fuller use of inputs
and maintain themselves, thus, they are more stable. Human activity (such as
clearing a climax forest community to establish a farm field consisting of a
cultivated pioneering species, say corn or wheat) replaces climax
communities with simpler communities.

Communities are composed of species that evolve, so the community

must also evolve. Comparing marine communities of 500 million years ago
with modern communities shows modern communities composed of quite
different organisms. Modern communities also tend to be more complex,
although this may be a reflection of the nature of the fossil record as well as
differences between biological and fossil species.

Disturbance of a Community

The basic effect of human activity on communities is community

simplification, an overall reduction of species diversity. Agriculture is a
purposeful human intervention in which we create a monoculture of a single
favored (crop) species such as corn. Most of the agricultural species are
derived from pioneering communities.
 Inadvertent human intervention can simplify communities and
produce stressed communities that have fewer species as well as a
superabundance of some species. Disturbances favor early successional
(pioneer) species that can grow and reproduce rapidly.

Ecosystems and Communities

Ecosystems include both living and nonliving components. These

living, or biotic, components include habitats and niches occupied by
organisms. Nonliving, or abiotic, components include soil, water, light,
inorganic nutrients, and weather. An organism's place of residence, where it
can be found, is its habitat. A niche is is often viewed as the role of that
organism in the community, factors limiting its life, and how it acquires
food.

Producers, a major niche in all ecosystems, are autotrophic, usually

photosynthetic, organisms. In terrestrial ecosystems, producers are usually
green plants. Freshwater and marine ecosystems frequently have algae as the
dominant producers.

Consumers are heterotrophic organisms that eat food produced by

another organism. Herbivores are a type of consumer that feeds directly on
green plants (or another type of autotroph). Since herbivores take their food
directly from the producer level, we refer to them as primary consumers.
Carnivores feed on other animals (or another type of consumer) and are
secondary or tertiary consumers. Omnivores, the feeding method used by
humans, feed on both plants and animals. Decomposers are organisms,
mostly bacteria and fungi that recycle nutrients from decaying organic
material. Decomposers break down detritus, nonliving organic matter, into
inorganic matter. Small soil organisms are critical in helping bacteria and
fungi shred leaf litter and form rich soil.

Even if communities do differ in structure, they have some common

uniting processes such as energy flow and matter cycling, shown in Figure
17. Energy flows move through feeding relationships. The term ecological
niche refers to how an organism functions in an ecosystem. Food webs, food
chains, and food pyramids are three ways of representing energy flow.

Producers absorb solar energy and convert it to chemical bonds from

inorganic nutrients taken from environment. Energy content of organic food
passes up food chain; eventually all energy is lost as heat, therefore requiring
continual input. Original inorganic elements are mostly returned to soil and
producers; can be used again by producers and no new input is required.
 Worksheet # 07

Name: Meiji Don S. Icban Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1 Professor: _

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Desert is designed to be characterized by a large temperature range and arid

circumstances. Most deserts are found in 30⁰ N or S latitudes, when descending
air masses are dry.
2. Community is intended to be the collection of all people who live in a certain
location. The size and borders of communities can vary. These are frequently
difficult to identify.

3. Laterites tend to have very little organic matter since most of the organic carbon
is tied up in the standing biomass of the plants. After the forest has been
removed, these produce inferior agricultural soils.

4. Tundra is a frigid, treeless area located largely north of the Arctic Circle or
above the timberline on mountains, with no trees.

5. Biome is a large-scale category that includes several communities of a similar

character, the distribution of which is heavily influenced by climate.

6. Shrublands are shrubs with tiny but thick evergreen leaves, frequently covered
with a thick, waxy cuticle, and robust subterranean stems that survive the dry
summers and frequent fires dominate the shrubland biome.

7. Grasslands can be found in temperate and tropical climates with little rainfall or
lengthy dry seasons. The soils in this area are deep and rich, making it ideal for
agriculture.

8. Plankton is a term used to describe a wide range of creatures, including algae,

bacteria, protozoans, crustaceans, mollusks, and coelenterates, as well as
representatives from nearly every other animal phylum.

9. Terrestrial Biome is a biome that may be found on land.

10. Aquatic Biome is a kind of biome prevalent in watery environments

II. Completion.

1. Original inorganic elements are mostly returned to soil and

producers; can be used again by producers and no new input is
required.
2. Ecosystem include both the biological and physical
components affecting the community/ecosystem
3. In a forest, where we find an open community structure, there is a
gradient of soil moisture . Plants have different tolerances
to this gradient and occur at different places along the continuum.
4. The tundra and desert biomes occupy the most extreme
environments, with little or no moisture and extremes of temperature
acting as harsh selective agents on organisms that occupy these areas.
5. The marine biome contains more dissolved minerals than
the freshwater biome. Over 70% of the Earth's surface is covered in
water, by far the vast majority of that being saltwater.
6. The shrubland biome is dominated by shrubs with small but
thick evergreen leaves that are often coated with a thick, waxy
cuticle, and with thick underground stems that survive the dry
summers and frequent fires.
7. Environmental stability is greater in tropical areas, where a
relatively stable/constant environment allows more different kinds of
species to thrive.
8. The rainforest is probably the richest biome, both in
diversity and in total biomass. The tropical rain forest has a complex
structure, with many levels of life.
9. The freshwater biome is subdivided into two zones: running
waters and standing waters. Larger bodies of freshwater are less
prone to stratification (where oxygen decreases with depth).
10. Community succession is the sequential replacement of
species by immigration of new species and local extinction of older
ones following a disturbance that creates unoccupied habitats for
colonization.
III. Discussions

1. Briefly discuss the following:

1.1 Climax communities.

A peak community is a population that has progressed beyond the

stable stage. Because it is huge and well-established, the climax
community is referred to as a biome. Examples include tundra,
grassland, desert, and deciduous, coniferous, and tropical rain forests.
The succession mechanism provides stability by replacing relatively
simple groupings with more intricate ones.

1.2 Secondary succession.

When an environment has been disrupted, such as by fire,

geological action, or human action, secondary succession develops.
This happens quickly in comparison to primary succession, which
takes a long time to create and collect soil. Secondary succession
differs from primary succession in that it occurs when a biological
population arises from the absence of life.
1.3 Community Density.

Community density is critical in defining a community and its value

to the ecosystem in each location. The measure of diverse sorts of
creatures in a community is called species diversity, and it declines as
we travel away from the tropics.

1.4 Aquatic Biomes.

Aquatic biomes are communities that live in or near water. The

hydrosphere covers the biggest area on the planet, yet it is devoid of
life and nutrition. It is divided into two types of communities:
freshwater and saltwater. The marine biome of saltwater includes more
soluble minerals than freshwater. Freshwater, on the other hand, tends
to stratify less.
 Chapter 8

THE BIOSPHERE AND MASS EXTINCTIONS

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the composition of the biosphere.

2. Relate industrialization and environmental disruption.
3. Identify the relationship of temperature, greenhouse, and climate
change.
4. Describe mass extinction.
5. React critically on the identified environmental issue.

The Biosphere

The biosphere is the sum of all living matter on the Earth. Highly
specialized organisms have adapted to the extreme boundaries of the
uppermost atmosphere and lowermost ocean depths. The biosphere is
interconnected with three other spheres of the physical environment: the
lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.

The lithosphere is the solid outer layer of the Earth's crust, including
rocks, sand, and soil. The Earth's lithosphere is a dynamic area, with
processes such as erosion, earthquakes, and plate tectonics constantly
altering and forming/destroying the surface. The tectonic cycle describes the
formation of new crust in some areas and its destruction in others.

Plate tectonics is the geological theory that proposes the lithosphere

is composed of tectonic plates that are in constant motion relative to each
other. New oceanic crust forms at divergent plate boundaries, which are
expressed on the Earth's surface as midocean ridges (undersea) or rift valleys
(on land). The mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East African Rift are examples of
these features. Old crust is subducted and remelted at convergent plate
boundaries, which are expressed on the Earth's surface as deep ocean
trenches. The Marianas Trench and other trenches are examples of this type
of boundary.

Tectonic processes have formed new continents, mountain ranges and

moved existing continents across the surface of the Earth, causing the
evolution and extinction of species from resulting climate and environmental
changes.
 The hydrosphere includes all water at or near the Earth's surface.
Water is very important to a number of biological and geological processes.
The hydrologic cycle is the continuous recycling of water between the
oceans and atmosphere. Evaporation is the movement of water from an
ocean or a lake to the atmosphere. Transpiration by plants contributes to
atmospheric water content. Precipitation (rainfall or snow) is the movement
of water from the atmosphere to the land or ocean. Water on land can be
either surface runoff or filter through soil to become groundwater.

The atmosphere is the envelope of gas that surrounds the Earth.

Nitrogen and oxygen compose 99% of the modern atmosphere. The
atmosphere becomes progressively thinner with increasing altitude.

Disruption of the Biosphere

Human technology and population growth can directly and indirectly

disturb the biosphere. They key question now is: can humans cause global
climate change? The human population has experienced phenomenal
exponential growth since the Industrial Revolution. Modern agriculture and
medicine have increased growth rates for our population, resulting in over 90
million people added each year.

Human populations are in a growth phase. Since evolving around

200,000 years ago, our species has proliferated and spread over the Earth.
Beginning in 1650, the slow population increases of our species
exponentially increased. New technologies for hunting and farming have
facilitated this expansion. It took 1800 years to reach a total population of 1
billion, but only 130 years to reach 2 billion, and a mere 45 years to reach 4
billion.

Industrialization and Environmental Disruption

The developed countries are those that industrialized first, such as the
United States, Canada, Japan, Russia, Australia, New Zealand, and all of
Europe. These countries have twenty-two percent of the world's population,
but consume nearly eighty percent of the energy and resources. Waste and
pollution are also greater in proportion to use of resources.

The developing countries have seventy-eight percent of the

population, but use only twenty percent of the Earth's resources. These
countries include most of Africa, South America, India, and China. Most
people in these countries have a lifestyle far below that of the inhabitants of
the developed countries. As developing countries expand their economies,
their people will strive to achieve the lifestyle of consumption and waste that
we in developed countries take for granted. For instance, in China the
bicycle remains the method of transportation for most people, but more and
more motorcycles and cars are owned by the increasing affluent
entrepreneurs and government officials.

Industrialization is driven by energy consumption from coal,

petroleum, and natural gas, otherwise known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels
formed by decomposition and alteration of the remains of plants, protists,
and animals over a time span of several million years. These sources are
considered nonrenewable since they are in limited supply in terms of human-
scale time. Oil (petroleum) is the fuel most widely used, both as starting
material for making gasoline and for other products. Historically coal was
the first fossil fuel used in the European/American Industrial Revolution of
the 1800s. Petroleum soon replaced coal, and has remained the mainstay of
the energy fix needed by industrialized societies.

Pollution is any environmental change that adversely affects the lives

and health of living things. Burning fossil fuels results in hydrocarbons,
carbon, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and particulates. Automobiles consume
one-third of the world's production of oil and are the chief source of air
pollution. Some scientists estimate there will be four times more automobiles
in the world by 2025. Industrially produced halogens and the use of nitrogen
fertilizers also influence the atmosphere in a negative manner.

Sources of energy that are relatively nonpolluting exist. However,

these nonpolluting energy sources are not as commonly used as fossil fuels.
Solar energy does not add additional heat to the atmosphere, although the
production of solar panels may contribute to pollution. Solar panels, often
mounted on rooftops, absorb and move rooftop heat into water circulating
within the panels. Photovoltaic (solar) cells produce energy directly from
sunlight, although the cost of this energy is several times what conventional
(fossil) fuel-generated electricity costs.

Falling water is used to produce electricity in hydroelectric dams.

However, most dams would not be compliant with newer, more strict
environmental regulations. The damming of rivers to generate power (and
hold water for irrigation and other purposes) can lead to local extinctions or
declines in native fish populations. Water that id dammed up no longer freely
flows, placing wetland habitats downstream from the dam at risk.

Geothermal energy is derived from heat in the earth's core heats

water to heat buildings and generate electricity. This source of energy is
usually not located near enough to population centers to be economically
feasible to exploit. One notable exception is in Iceland, which sits astride the
midAtlantic Ridge, where the capitol city is heated exclusively by
geothermal power.
 Wind power can pump water or generate electricity. Windmills have
for long times been used for water pumping or t he grinding of corn or other
grains. One problem with wind power is that in most places the winds do not
blow at the same velocity all year round, and the power generated when the
wind does blow is not effectively stored in batteries. That aside, there are
several places in California where wind power is cost-effective.

Solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power are all considered

renewable sources of energy since they are replenished by physical means.
However, none of them have replaced fossil fuel in widespread use in the
industrialized countries. Generally, European countries make better use of
these forms of energy.

Atmospheric Pollution

The one percent of the atmosphere (trace gases) that is neither

nitrogen or oxygen, plays an important role in global climate and in shielding
the Earth's surface from solar radiation. Agricultural and industrial gases
may affect the atmosphere's ability to protect as well as alter the world's
climate.

Carbon dioxide has many sources (cellular respiration, and the

burning of wood or fossil fuels such as coal or petroleum). There are two
main sinks for carbon dioxide: plants and the oceans. Plants convert carbon
dioxide into organic molecules by photosynthesis. Oceans form calcium
carbonate and over long periods of time, store it as limestone. Since the
Industrial Revolution, carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere have
increased. This increase has rapidly accelerated during the past forty years.

Carbon dioxide and other gases allow light to pass, but trap reradiated
heat from the Earth in the atmosphere much like glass in a greenhouse traps
heat. Increased carbon dioxide levels lead to more and more heat trapped.
This greenhouse effect is thought to be responsible for global warming, a
phenomenon that has been going on for the past 10,000 years (Figure 12),
but which seems to have accelerated during the past 150 years. Carbon
dioxide is not the only gas that can cause a greenhouse effect. Carbon
dioxide contributes to only 56% of greenhouse heating. Methane (CH 4) is
expelled in great quantities by cows, and as cattle production has increased
so has their methane production (at a rate of about 1% per year).

Temperatures, Greenhouses, and Climate Changes

The average temperature of the Earth has risen by 0.5 degrees C over
the past one hundred years. Although a long-term rise of two degrees would
seem minor, this is thought sufficient to completely melt the glacial ice caps
in Antarctica and Greenland, causing global sea-levels to rise 100 meters.
This can alter climate patterns such as rainfall, ocean currents, and climate
zones. Climate changes can have biological (such as causing migrations) as
well as geopolitical and economic consequences.

Earth's climate fluctuates on both short-term and long-term time

scales. There have been periods of Earth history with higher average annual
temperatures than we have today, as well as the reverse condition, when
glaciers covered extensive expanses of the Northern and/or Southern
hemispheres. We are currently between ice ages, the last of which ended
nearly 10,000 years ago. Climate fluctuations have left evidence in the
distribution of fossils, living forms and their close relatives, and locations of
certain types of sedimentary rocks. Studies of fossils and the sedimentary
rocks they occur in have led to estimates of temperature. Paleoecology is the
branch of science that deals with such data in an attempt to reconstruct the
environments of the distant (and not so distant) past.

Some scientists are concerned that global climate will warm at a rate
ten times faster than it has in the past. Composition of the minor components
of the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, provide clues about the possible
rapidity of climatic changes. In 1850, atmospheric carbon dioxide was
approximately 280 parts per million (ppm). Today, it is about 350 ppm. This
increase is due largely to burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.
Oceans (and photosynthetic organisms) currently absorb half of the carbon
dioxide emitted. Methane is another atmospheric pollutant produced by oil
and gas wells, rice paddies, cows, etc. This gas is increasing by one percent
per year.

The greenhouse effect is a warming of the lower atmosphere caused

by accumulation of certain greenhouse gases (notably carbon dioxide and
methane) that allow rays of the sun to pass through, but then reflect or
reradiate heat to the Earth. In this way heat is trapped on Earth much the
same way heat is trapped behind the glass panels of a greenhouse.

Greenhouse gases include a diverse variety of atmospheric gases.

Carbon dioxide is a product of burning fossil fuel and wood. Nitrous oxide
(NO2), produced by fertilizer use and released from decomposition of animal
wastes is another prominent greenhouse gas. Methane (CH 4) is produced by
bacteria (especially in animal intestines), sediments, swamps, certain types of
landfills, and in flooded rice paddies. In some cases methane can be collected
and used to generate a small amount of electricity. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), in particular Freon (a refrigerant) are greenhouse gases thought
responsible to depletion of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere. Halons,
such as halocarbons; CxFxBrx), are released from fire extinguishers. Water
vapor is a greenhouse gas since clouds reradiate heat back to Earth.
 The ecological effects of such a sudden rise in global temperature
would be noticeable. From studies of fossils we can estimate how long it
would naturally take for such rises in temperature. The effects of human
activity on the atmosphere will accelerate this rise from a span of centuries to
just a few decades. As oceans warm, temperatures in polar regions would
likely rise to a greater degree than other areas. Glaciers would melt and sea
levels would rise due to melting and expansion of warm water. Water
evaporation would increase with increased rainfall along coasts and dry
conditions inland. Droughts would reduce agricultural productivity and trees
would die off. Expansion of forests into Arctic areas would not likely offset
loss of forests in temperate zones. Many of these areas would be flooded by
rising sea levels.

The Ozone Layer

Earth's atmosphere consists of a number of different layers. The

troposphere is the lower atmospheric layer. It surrounds us at ground level.
The stratosphere is often referred to as the upper atmosphere. The
stratosphere contains the ozone shield, a layer of ozone (O 3) in the
stratosphere, 50 km above the ground. Ozone is produced in the upper
atmosphere when sunlight strikes oxygen atoms and causes them to
temporarily combine. Stratospheric ozone helps filter most of the high-
energy ultraviolet radiation that causes cancer and mutations.

The development of atmospheric ozone shield is one of the

necessary events in the history of life that permitted life to exist on land.
Aquatic organisms, including all known early life forms, are shielded by
water. Known hazards of UV radiation include increased mutation rate,
which can lead to skin cancer and cataracts, depression of the immune
system, impaired crop and tree growth, and the death of plankton. Each 1%
drop in ozone is thought to increase human skin cancer rates by 4-6%. The
United Nations Environment Program predicts a 26 percent rise in cataracts
and skin cancers for every 10% drop in ozone. This translates to 1.75 million
cases of cataracts and 300,000 more cases of skin cancer every year.

During the 1980s scientists discovered a "hole" in the ozone over

Antarctica, and that some depletion of worldwide ozone had taken place. By
the 1990s atmospheric scientists had detected an annual loss of 40-50% of
the ozone above Antarctica, which produced an ozone hole every spring. The
development of ozone holes depends on complex atmospheric conditions.

Ozone is being destroyed by the release of gases, such as

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), containing chlorine (Cl -) atoms in the
stratosphere. CFCs are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and solvents.
Chlorine atoms come from breakdown of CFCs, which were in heavy human
use from 1950 to 1990. One CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone
molecules. International agreements were developed to phase out the use of
CFCs by the year 2000. However, since it takes 20-30 years for CFCs to rise
to the upper atmosphere, and another 100 years for their destruction, ozone
destruction will continue for some time to come.

Acid Deposition

Humans also alter their local atmosphere by pollution and acid rain.
Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and nitrogen and sulfur
oxides. Sulfur combines with atmospheric water vapor to form sulfuric acid.
Forests and lakes suffer from the pH and soil acidity changes resulting from
acid rain.

Pure water has a pH of 7, neutral on the pH scale. In such a solution,

the dissociation of H2O produces equal numbers of H+ and OH- ions.
Atmospheric CO2 combines with water to produce a weak carbonic acid
(H2CO3) and an increased number of H+ ions. Rainwater normally has a pH
of 5.6 rather than 7.0. However, near industrialized or urban areas, rainfall
pH is nearer 4.0 and some fog clouds drop to a pH as acidic as 1.7. Living
vegetation and limestone used for monuments and buildings rapidly
deteriorate under such "acid rains."

Coal and oil routinely burned by power plants emit sulfur dioxide
(SO2) into the air. Oil from Kuwait has a naturally high sulfur content. Oil
well fires, some set on purpose during the Gulf War of the early 1990s,
released much sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Most of the commercially
exploitable coals in the US have high sulfur content. Automobile exhaust
contributes nitrogen oxides to the air. Both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides are converted to acids when they combine with water vapor in the air.
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are emitted in one locale while deposition occurs
in another location across boundaries.

Acid deposition is responsible for the following:

 sterilization of lakes and forests;

 reducing the populations of small invertebrates and decomposers,
threatening the ecosystem;
 reducing agricultural yields;
 causing extensive structural damage by corroding marble, metal, and
stonework;
 degrading water supplies by leaching heavy metals from the soil into
drinking-water supplies; and
 statistically is implicated in increases in lung cancer and colon
cancer.
Smog

Smog is an urban problem caused by combustion of fuels. Pollutants

react with sunlight to cause more than 100 secondary pollutants that can
cause respiratory problems (asthma and such) in humans. Most problems
with acid rain and smog are caused by the use of fossil fuels. Conservation
measures, more fuel efficient vehicles, mass transit, and alternative energy
sources are possible measures to be taken. World supplies of petroleum are
estimated to run out in 50-100 years.

Photochemical smog is air pollution that contains nitrogen oxides

(NOx) [where the x is a 2 or 3] and hydrocarbons (HC), that react together in
the presence of sunlight to produce ozone (O3) and peroxylacetyl nitrate
(PAN). Both NOx and hydrocarbons result from the burning (or combustion)
of fossil fuel. Additional hydrocarbons come from various other sources as
well, including paint solvents and pesticides.

Breathing O3 affects both the respiratory and nervous systems,

resulting in respiratory distress, headache, and exhaustion. Ozone is
damaging to plants, resulting in leaf mottling and reduced growth.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a gas that comes from burning of fossil

fuels in the industrial regions. High levels of CO increase the formation of
ozone (O3). CO combines preferentially with hemoglobin and prevents
hemoglobin from carrying oxygen. The amount of CO over the Southern
Hemisphere, produced by the burning of tropical forests, is equal to that over
the Northern Hemisphere, produced by industrial activity.

Thermal inversions are local occurrences of polluted air being trapped

close to the surface. This is a major problem in cities located in a valley, like
the Phoenix (Arizona) metropolitan area. Warm air near the ground usually
rises and dissipates into the upper atmosphere. Air pollutants, including
smog and soot, can be trapped near ground due to a thermal inversion. A
thermal inversion occurs when a layer of dense cold air is trapped under a
layer of warm air. Areas around hills are susceptible because air stagnates,
with little mixing. At certain times of the year, usually in winter, thermal
inversions in Phoenix can cause difficulty in breating for some individuals
who has asthma and other respiratory diseases.

Water Pollution Is Altering the Hydrosphere

Air pollutants will eventually precipitate into the hydrosphere.

During cooler periods, ice acts as a water reservoir, forming glaciers that
lower sea-level and affect climate. Global warming will melt this reservoir,
raising sea level (or sinking coastlines). The hydrosphere can be directly
altered by water polluted by human wastes. There are three basic sources of
water pollutants: municipal sewage, industrial discharges, and
agriculture/mining/logging discharges of sediment.

Freshwater is required for domestic purposes, including drinking,

crop irrigation, industrial use, and energy production. Freshwater resources
include surface water from lakes and rivers, and underground aquifers.
Pollution contributes to the shortage of freshwater. Solid wastes include
household trash, sewage sludge, agricultural residue, mining refuse, and
industrial waste. Pollution comes from either a point source, an identifiable
source of the pollution, or a nonpoint source, a broad area of pollution with
no single idetifiable source, such as runoff. Recycling may save industry
money, extend the life of increasingly scarce resources, and
prevent or lessen pollution.

Sewage treatment plants degrade organic wastes, which would

otherwise cause oxygen depletion in lakes. Human feces contain pathogens
(viruses, bacteria) that cause cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery. Sewage
treatment plants use bacteria to break down organic matter into inorganic
nutrients. The treated water can then be used for various purposes, depending
on state and local laws governing sewage treated water.

Agricultural and industrial wastes present a number of water

pollution problems. Intensive animal farming or the presence of many septic
tanks releases ammonium (NH4+) from wastes. This ammonium is converted
by bacteria to soluble nitrate that moves through the soil to water supplies.
Industrial wastes include heavy metals and organochlorides, such as some
pesticides. These are not degraded in nature or in normal sewage treatment,
and accumulate in deltas. When these wastes enter water, they are subject to
biological magnification. Decomposers are unable to break down these
wastes, and they are not excreted. The molecules, therefore, remain in tissues
and are passed up the food chain to the next consumer. They become more
concentrated at each level in the food chain. Since aquatic food chains have
more links, biological magnification is greater. Where humans are the final
consumers, human milk can contain detectable amounts of DDT and PCBs.

Aquifer pollution is an increasingly significant health threat. Prior to

environmental regulations enacted during the 1970s, many industries ran
wastewater into a pit from which pollutants could seep into the ground Much
of this material eventually made its way to the groundwater in various
aquifers below the surface. Wastewater and chemical wastes were also
injected into deep wells. Both practices are being phased out; there are few
alternatives for industry to dispose of wastes, other than to reduce the
volume or develop a long-term containment facility.

The oceans are the final recipients of wastes deposited in rivers and
along the coasts. Waste dumping occurs at sea, and ocean currents
sometimes transport both trash and pollutants back to shore. Solid pollutants
cause death of birds, fish, and marine mammals that mistake them for food
and get entangled. Offshore mining and shipping add pollutants to the
oceans. Five million metric tons of oil a year, over one gram per 100 square
meters of ocean surface, ends up in oceans. Large oil spills kill plankton, fish
larvae, and shellfishes, as well as birds and marine mammals. Some species
of fish are in dramatic decline from combined effects of pollution and
overfishing.

Desertification and Deforestation

In 1950, 20 % of the world's population lived in cities. Predictions of

this number rising to 60% by 2000 have been made. The trend of growth of
urban areas began with the Industrial revolution of the 1800s, but greatly
accelerated after World War II. Building new housing around new (or
enlarging) cities, removes land from agricultural uses. Change of land use
can alter heat distribution patterns and surface water runoff. Expanded
urbanization also degrades the environment.

In agricultural areas, wind and rain carry away about 25 billion tons
of top soil yearly, worldwide. At such a rate, it is estimated that practically
all top soil will be lost by the middle of the next century. Soil erosion causes
a loss of productivity; it is compensated for by fertilizers, pesticides, and
fossil fuel energy. One solution is to employ strip-cropping and contour
farming to control soil erosion. Desertification is transformation of marginal
lands to desert conditions due to overgrazing and overfarming.

Mass Extinctions

Extinctions occur when environments change too fast. Local

extinctions can occur, as can mass extinctions: they differ in scale, scope and
the numbers of species involved. There have been five environmental
changes (mostly cooling) of global proportions that resulted in the five mass
extinctions in Earth history. Recovery from these extinctions took millions of
years. A spectacular exception was the large meteorite strike sixty-six
million years ago near the peninsula in Mexico that either caused the
extinction of dinosaurs and 75% of all marine species, or was the nail in the
coffin of the dinosaurs.

There have been several natural mass extinctions in the history of

earth followed by recovery. Human activities that reduce biodiversity began
about 30,000 years ago with development of social and language skills to
apply increasingly better stone tool technology to trap and kill the largher
animals. Hunting contributes to the estimated extinction of 15,000 to 30,000
species a year. Fish stocks are being depleted by overfishing. Commercial
trade causes exploitation of tigers, leopards, etc. for furs; sharks for fins;
elephants for tusks for ivory; and cacti for gardeners.

A major cause of extinction is the loss of habitat to support a species.

The habitat for a species may be totally destroyed through natural events or
human activities. Habitats may be fragmented into small pieces that cannot
support the population.

Accidental or purposeful introduction of new species can cause

extinction of endemic species. Global climate change may be so rapid that
many species cannot adjust. Biological magnification of pesticides has
reduced predatory bird populations. Acid deposition is implicated in the
worldwide decline in amphibian populations.

Conservation biology is a discipline that brings together many fields

to attempt to solve biodiversity problems. It attempts to develop practical
approaches to preventing extinction of species and destruction of
ecosystems. Most conservation biologists believe biological diversity is good
and each species has a value all its own. Sustainability is concept that it is
possible to meet economic needs while protecting environment. Some
economists argue that as per capita income increases, environmental
degradation first increases, then decreases as people become affluent enough
to begin to protect the environment.

Development in Tropical Regions

Human-caused environmental changes and extinctions are

accelerating in the tropics. If this pace continues nearly half all species could
be extinct by 2050. Development in tropical areas causes more extinctions
due to the great diversity found in tropical rain forests (half all species on
Earth). Tropical reefs are also under siege by water pollution, leading to even
more extinctions. Nearly half the rain forests are gone already. By as early as
2010 (less than 15 years!) all rain forests will be gone if present trends of
exploitation and human population growth continue.

Species are not equally likely to suffer extinction. Cockroaches have

been around for 300 million years essentially unchanged and probably will
be around for millions more. Island species, species with limited habitats,
low reproductive rates, high territory requirements, susceptibility to
pollution, predators, and having economic value: all make species
susceptible to extinction.

Ecosystems as Environmental Support Systems

 Species diversity is important to preserve because ecosystems are
composed of species and provide us with so many of life's essentials,
dismantle them and we have a real big problem:

 Oxygen to breathe (for use in aerobic respiration.

 Medicines (to augment the body's own immune defenses)
 Food (which we as heterotrophic consumers in the food pyramid
need).
 Drinkable water (purified by microbial activity)

How to Reduce Species Extinction and Destruction of the Biosphere

Conferences in 1992 and 1994 resulted in binding international treaties to

control management of finite resources and population growth along with the
resulting human impact on the biosphere.

Identification, Description, and Research on Value of Species

One of the first steps is to measure how much biodiversity there is.
Diversity can be measured at different levels: genetic diversity, species
diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Only 1.7 million species have been
described, estimates place the total number of species at 100,000,000.
Biologist E.O. Wilson has estimated that it would take the life's work on
25,000 specialists to completely study and describe the mostly undescribed
tropical species. There are currently only 1500 specialists in tropical biology.

Establishment of Preserves

It is essential to preserve the habitat of endangered species. Once a

species habitat has been destroyed, it is difficult to successfully reestablish
the species; no ecosystem has ever been completely rebuilt. Preserves are
well established in Africa, Asia, and the developed countries. Only 1% of the
Earth's land surface has been set aside as preserves.

Development of Laws and Regulations to Protect Endangered

Species

Poachers are difficult to catch and punish, especially in under

developed countries. In 1975 a treaty made it illegal to trade or sell products
from endangered species.

The Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Act directs governmental agencies to

maintain a list of threatened or endangered species. The Act has been
controversial and was recently challenged. Most species on the list are closer
to extinction now than when they were put on the list.

Captive Breeding

One last resort is to establish breeding programs in captivity. Many

species do not do well in such programs, so alternatives like gene banks must
be tried. Breeding programs are costly and the young from such programs
cannot be released into the wild, even if their habitat still remains.

Reduction of the Socioeconomic Causes of Extinction

Basic social and economic issues that drive explosive population

growth and increased exploitation of natural areas must be addressed.
Estimate predict a doubling of the 5.4 billion human population by 2050,
most of that growth is expected in developing countries. Slowing such
growth will take decades at best. Removing economic incentives that cause
many species extinctions is a more immediate measure.
‘
 Worksheet # 08

Name: Meiji Don S. Icban Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1 Professor:

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Biosphere is comprised of all living things on the planet. The biosphere is linked
to the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere, which are all spheres of the
physical environment.
2. Industrialization is propelled by energy consumption from coal, petroleum, and
natural gas, otherwise known as fossil fuels.

3. Temperature is a measure of hotness or coolness stated on any of numerous

arbitrary scales, indicating the direction in which heat energy will flow
spontaneously.

4. Greenhouse is a warming of the lower atmosphere induced by the buildup of

greenhouse gases that enable solar rays to pass through but subsequently reflect
or reradiate heat back to the Earth.

5. Climate is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long

period of time.
6. Ozone is thought to when sunlight strikes oxygen atoms and causes them to
momentarily combine, ozone is created in the upper atmosphere.

7. Smog is an issue in cities produced by the burning of fossil fuels. Pollutants

react with sunlight to produce over 100 secondary pollutants, which can cause
respiratory issues in people.

8. Hydrosphere is a combination of all water at or near the Earth's surface.

9. Freshwater is essential for drinking, agriculture irrigation, industrial usage, and

energy production in the home. Surface water from lakes and rivers, as well as
subsurface aquifers, are examples of freshwater resources. The scarcity of
freshwater is exacerbated by pollution.

10. Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees in order to create way for
anything other than a forest.
II. Completion.

1. The Endangered Species Act directs governmental agencies to

maintain a list of threatened or endangered species.
2. The biosphere is the sum of all living matter on the
Earth. Highly specialized organisms have adapted to the extreme
boundaries of the uppermost atmosphere and lowermost ocean
depths.
3. Plate Tectonics i s the geological theory that proposes
the lithosphere is composed of tectonic plates that are in constant motion
relative to each other.
4. The atmosphere is the envelope of gas that surrounds
the Earth. Nitrogen and oxygen compose 99% of the modern
atmosphere.
5. As developing countries expand their economies, their people will
strive to achieve the l i f e s t y l e of consumption and
waste that we in developed countries take for granted.
6. Industrialization is driven by energy consumption from
coal, petroleum, and natural gas, otherwise known as fossil fuels.
7. The damming of rivers to generate power (and hold water for
irrigation and other purposes) can lead to local extinctions or
declines in native fish populations.
8. Solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power are all considered
renewable sources of energy replenished since they are
by physical means.
9. Climate fluctuations have left evidence in the distribution of
fossils, living forms and their close relatives, and locations of certain
types of sedimentary rocks.
10. Photochemical smog is air pollution that contains nitrogen
oxides (NOx) [where the x is a 2 or 3] and hydrocarbons (HC), that
react together in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone (O 3) and
peroxylacetyl nitrate (PAN).
III. Discussions

1. Briefly discuss the following:

1.1 Desertification and Deforestation.

Desertification is defined as a loss of soil fertility and a

deterioration of plant cover, and it is linked to deforestation since
deforestation promotes desertification. Climate change is a distinct
possibility because of these events. It can also result in ecological
changes, with the ecosystem being altered as a result.

1.2 Disruption of the Biosphere.

Having a biosphere that is disrupted or interfered with can have a

significant impact on life on Earth. The biosphere is directly and
indirectly affected by the growth of technology on Earth. Also, in
terms of industrial progress, it has the potential to disrupt the
biosphere, resulting in pollution in a variety of ways.
1.3 Major causes of mass extinctions.

Extinction of diverse species may occur when the environment

changes too quickly. Desertification and deforestation are two factors
contributing to this. When these occurrences occur, species in the
impacted region are put in jeopardy, putting them at risk of extinction.
Furthermore, having a large number of dominant creatures in one
location may endanger the weaker creatures, resulting in mass
extinctions.

1.4 How to reduce species extinction and destruction of

the biosphere.

Multiple treaties from different nations were united to develop

diverse steps to manage this due to occurrences such as mass
extinctions and biosphere disturbance. The following are some of them:

i. Identification, Description, and Research on value of species

ii. Establishment of Preserves
iii. Development of Laws and Regulations to Protect Endangered
Species
iv. The Endangered Species Act
v. Captive Breeding
vi. Reduction of the Socioeconomic Causes of Extinction
IV. Assignment.

1. Write your reaction about the environmental news/ issue on “Near

Total Ape-Habitat Loss Foreseen By 2030”.

According to scientists, around 90% to 100% of apes will be without a

home by 2030. Numerous deforestation events over the last 20 years have
had a significant impact on ape habitat, particularly in forests and primary
forests, where apes are commonly encountered. However, many
infrastructure projects that result in deforestation and habitat disruption will
have an impact on apes and orangutans throughout Africa and Asia, where
these species are prominent. I believe that we should halt deforestation in
these places as soon as possible. Particularly considering what is going in
many regions of the world where forest fires are raging.
 Chapter 9

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Identify various environmental concerns and problems.

2. Discuss ways and means on how to lessen the identified
environmental problems.

Environmental Concerns and Problems

Greenhouse Effect

The Greenhouse Effect is an extremely vital process where infrared

rays from the sun come into the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere then
traps these rays after they have come in keeping the Earth warm and
habitable. CO2 (carbon dioxide), N2O (nitrous oxide), and CH4 (methane) are
destroying the atmosphere, causing more infrared rays to reflect on Earth.

Having more infrared rays reflected on Earth makes the Earth

warmer. As temperatures on Earth rise, so does the ocean water level and the
ice caps begin to melt. The worst possible scenario with this problem would
be mass flooding in low lying areas of the Earth including many islands in
the ocean which would basically disappear, most of Florida would be
underwater, all coastline cities, and river deltas such as Bangladesh,
Pakistan, China, Egypt, Louisiana and other parts of the U.S. It will also
cause more tropical storms, hurricanes, extreme temperatures and droughts.

Causes

The main causes of the Greenhouse Effect are gases called CO2
(carbon dioxide), N2O (nitrous oxide), and CH4 (methane). Small amount of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air helps keep heat in the Earth in the vital
process of the Greenhouse Effect. As car exhausts and industries continue to
shoot CO2 in the air, the amount of CO2 in the will increase. This causes
more heat to be kept, increasing the Earth’s temperature. Methane and
Nitrous Oxide has the same effects as CO2, but they have a less harmful
effect on the Greenhouse Effect.
 Solutions

1. Reduce usage of greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide,

methane, and nitrous oxide).
2. Prevent forest fires and the depletion of trees.
3. Do not use nitrogen-based fertilizer to reduce the amount of
nitrous oxide.

Acid Rain.

"Acid rain" is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids
fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has
two parts: wet and dry.

Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic
water flows over and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and
animals. The strength of the effects depend on many factors, including how
acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soils
involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the
water.

Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the
acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The
wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and
trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can also be washed from trees and
other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water adds those
acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the falling
rain alone.

Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry
acid deposition across state and national borders, and sometimes over
hundreds of miles.

Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulfur dioxide (SO 2)

and nitrogen oxides are the primary causes of acid rain.

Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with
water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds.
Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions. The result is a mild
solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid.
Measurement of Acid Rain

Acid rain is measured using a scale called "pH." The lower a

substance's pH, the more acidic it is.

Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal rain is slightly acidic because

carbon dioxide dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5. As of the year
2000, the most acidic rain falling in the US has a pH of about 4.3.

What is pH?

Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like
hot and cold are two extremes that describe temperature. Mixing acids and
bases can cancel out their extreme effects, much like mixing hot and cold
water can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic
nor basic is neutral.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. It ranges

from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH
greater than 7 is basic. Each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic
than the next higher value. For example, a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic
than a pH of 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than a pH of 6. The
same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more
alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value. For
example, a pH of 10 is ten times more alkaline than a pH of 9.

Pure water is neutral, with a pH of 7.0. When chemicals are mixed

with water, the mixture can become either acidic or basic. Vinegar and
lemon juice are acidic substances, while laundry detergents and ammonia are
basic.

Chemicals that are very basic or very acidic are called "reactive."
These chemicals can cause severe burns. Automobile battery acid is an
acidic chemical that is reactive.

Automobile batteries contain a stronger form of some of the same

acid that is in acid rain. Household drain cleaners often contain lye, a very
alkaline chemical that is reactive.
 (A Diagram showing the pH scale and the pH of some common items)

Source: URL: http://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/acidrain/ph.html

Effects

Acid deposition has a variety of effects, including damage to forests

and soils, fish and other living things, materials, and human health. Acid rain
also reduces how far and how clearly we can see through the air, an effect
called visibility reduction. The acid rain effects section provides more details
on each of these.

Solutions

There are several ways to reduce acid deposition, more properly

called acid deposition, ranging from societal changes to individual action.

1. Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes.

2. Use alternative energy sources.
3. Restore a damaged environment.
4. Individuals can contribute directly by conserving energy, since
energy production causes the largest portion of the acid
deposition problem. For example, you can:
4.1 Turn off lights, computers, and other appliances when you're
not using them.
4.2 Use energy efficient appliances: lighting, air conditioners,
heaters, refrigerators, washing machines, etc.
4.3 Only use electric appliances when you need them.
 4.4 Keep your thermostat at 68 F in the winter and 72 F in the
summer. You can turn it even lower in the winter and higher
in the summer when you are away from home.
4.5 Insulate your home as best you can.
4.6 Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or
bicycle whenever possible
4.7 Buy vehicles with low Nitrogen emissions, and maintain all
vehicles well.
4.8 Be well-informed.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is a gaseous cover in the earth's atmosphere that

serves as a shield against dangerous ultraviolet radiation. Excessive levels of
UV radiation can cause cataracts, skin cancer, and immune system
suppression in humans as well as having harmful effects on other living
systems. Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, prevalent in Styrofoam, refrigerants
(such as in air conditioners), and cleaning agents (such as ammonia) are
largely to blame for the degradation of the ozone layer. Toxic emissions and
the burning of fossil fuels by power plants, factories, and engines also play a
role in the alteration of ozone layer functioning.

Solutions

1. Avoid using Styrofoam whenever possible.

1.1 Replace Styrofoam cups with a mug.

1.2 Buy individual fruits and vegetables rather than those

packaged in Styrofoam containers.

1.2 When shipping fragile goods, wrap them in newspaper or, use
plastic bubble wrap instead of Styrofoam "popcorn."

2. Avoid using a car when it's not crucial.

1.1 Take public transportation.

1.2 Ride a bicycle or walk.

2.3 If and when driving is necessary: Carpool with others; use a

fuel-efficient vehicle and super-unleaded gasoline.

3. Avoid using excessive power.

 a. Turn off the lights, TV, stereo, computer, and other
appliances when you leave the room and especially
when you leave your residence.
b. If you want to keep a light on while you're away at night
to discourage burglars, use a timer to control when your
lights switch on and off.
c. Install energy-efficient bulbs such as halogen lamps.
d. Wait until the dishwasher is full before running it.
e. Use a screen saver for your computer.
f. At work or at your apartment, take the stairs instead of
the elevator when you can.

Pollution Problems

There is a variety of possible pollution in the lower atmosphere, and

these are divided into 2 main categories: primary pollutant and secondary
pollutant. Primary pollutant is those, which are produced directly by the
automobile. These include the products from the combustion of fossil fuels
and other products, which the engine produces. As the chemistry of the
internal combustion engine is quite complex, a variety of products are
possible. The input to the petrol engine is hydrocarbons, mainly octane.
Surprisingly, the hydrocarbons themselves are in fact a form of pollution, as
the most volatile components of the fuel escapes from the refinery, the petrol
tanker, and the pump at the petrol station as well as directly from the car.
Inside the petrol engine, Carbon Dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is produced as
the complete combustion product of petrol. When incomplete combustion
occurs, Carbon Monoxide, the toxic gas, is produced. The small amount of
Sulphur Dioxide, which causes acid rain, is also produced because of the
sulphur-bearing impurities in petrol. Due to the abundance of nitrogen in the
atmosphere, some of that nitrogen is oxidized at the temperature of 1000 oC
in the engine, and nitrous oxides are produced. These have very little effects
by itself, but as we shall see later, when combined with some other chemicals
present in the atmosphere, it can cause a lot of damages.

Water Pollution

There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories
exist: direct and indirect contaminant sources. Direct sources include effluent
outfalls from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants etc.. that emits
fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies. In the United
States and other countries, these practices are regulated, although this doesn't
mean that pollutants can't be found in these waters.

Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from
soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rainwater. Soils and
groundwater contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers,
pesticides, etc..) and improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric
contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous
emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).

Effects of Water Pollution

The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous

drinking water, poisonous food animals (due to these organisms having
bioaccumulated toxins from the environment over their life spans),
unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full
biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and many other effects.
These effects are, of course, specific to the various contaminants.

Solutions

Science provides many practical solutions to minimizing the present

level at which pollutants are introduced into the environment and for
remediating (cleaning up) past problems. All of these solutions come with
some cost (both societal and monetary). In our everyday lives, a great deal
can be done to minimize pollution if we take care to recycle materials whose
production creates pollution and if we act responsibly with household
chemicals and their disposal. Additionally, there are choices we make each
day that also can affect the quantity of pollutants our actions will introduce
into the environment. Heavily packaged foods, for instance, contain boxes,
cartons, bottles etc.. made with polluting dyes, many of which are released
from groundwater at municipal landfills. Whether we choose to drive to the
corner store rather than walk or ride a bicycle will determine how much we
personally contribute to acid and hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere
(and ultimately to global fresh water supplies) (Dr. Ken Rubin, Assistant
Professor, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii,
Honolulu).

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution can be defined as unwanted or offensive sounds that

unreasonably intrude into our daily activities. It has many sources, most of
which are associated with urban development: road, air and rail transport;
industrial noise; neighborhood and recreational noise. A number of factors
contribute to problems of high noise levels, including:

 Increasing population, particularly where it leads to increasing

urbanization and urban consolidation; activities associated with urban
living generally lead to increased noise levels
 Increasing volumes of road, rail and air traffic.

Effects of Noise

The WHO suggests that noise can affect human health and well-being
in a number of ways, including annoyance reaction, sleep disturbance,
interference with communication, performance effects, effects on social
behavior and hearing loss. Noise can cause annoyance and frustration as a
result of interference, interruption and distraction. Activity disturbance is
regarded as an important indicator of the community impact of noise.

Research into the effects of noise on human health indicates a variety

of health effects. People experiencing high noise levels (especially around
airports or along road/rail corridors) differ from those with less noise expo
sure in terms of: increased number of headaches, greater susceptibility to
minor accidents, increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping pills, increased
mental hospital admission rates

Exposure to noise is also associated with a range of possible physical

effects including: colds, changes in blood pressure, other cardiovascular
changes, increased general medical practice attendance, problems with the
digestive system and general fatigue.

There is fairly consistent evidence that prolonged exposure to noise

levels at or above 80 dB (A) can cause deafness. The amount of deafness
depends upon the degree of exposure.

Major Noise Sources

1. Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and growing

environmental problems in urban. Road traffic noise has become a major
urban environmental problem because:

 Land use planning has not been well integrated with transport
planning, allowing residential developments and major transport
corridors to occur in close proximity without appropriate buffer zones
or treatment to buildings
 There has been an increasing community reliance on road
transportation, and a reluctance to implement or accept partial
solutions involving greater use of public transport.
  Traffic on many existing roads through built-up areas has increased
well beyond expectations prevailing during planning or construction
of the roadways
 Potential solutions, apart from new vehicle noise standards are
complex, often costly, and require coordinated actions by a number
of agencies and the community
 While there is high community awareness of the problem, there is a
general lack of understanding of its extent and possible solutions.

2. Cost of transport noise. The economic costs of noise can include

costs associated with building noise barriers alongside major transport
routes, insulating affected buildings and the lowering of property prices for
residential and commercial buildings. Noise costs are difficult to quantify
and so estimates can vary widely. Other costs, such as annoyance and
impacts on human health or fauna are even more difficult to quantify.

3. Neighborhood & domestic noise. Other significant sources of

noise annoyance in Sydney include barking dogs, car alarms, garbage
recycling, building construction and household noise. Noise from barking
dogs is of particular concern because it is unpredictable and often happens
repeatedly.

Soil Erosion

Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such

'background' (or 'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450
million years, since the first land plants formed the first soil.

In general, background erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate

as soil is formed. But 'accelerated' soil erosion, loss of soil at a much faster
rate than it is formed — is a far more recent problem. It is always a result of
mankind's unwise actions, such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation
practices. These leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Then, during
times of erosive rainfall or windstorms, soil may be detached, transported,
and (possibly travelling a long distance) deposited.

Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both

agricultural areas and the natural environment, and is one of the most
widespread of today's environmental problems. It has impacts which are both
on-site (at the place where the soil is detached) and off-site (wherever the
eroded soil ends up).

More recently still, the use of powerful agricultural implements has,

in some parts of the world, led to damaging amounts of soil moving
downslope merely under the action of gravity: this is so-called tillage
erosion.
 Erosion processes

Soil may be detached and moved by water, wind or tillage. These

three however differ greatly in terms of:

 Where and when they occur

 What happens to the area that is being eroded (on-site impacts)
 How far the eroded soil is moved, and
 If the soil is moved away from the place where it was eroded, what
happens as a result (off-site impacts)

Erosion by Water

Soil erosion by water is the result of rain detaching and transporting

vulnerable soil, either directly by means of rainsplash or indirectly by rill
and gully erosion.

Rainsplash

Rain may move soil directly: this is known as rainsplash erosion.

Splash is only effective if the rain falls with sufficient intensity. If it does,
then as the raindrops hit bare soil, their kinetic energy is able to detach and
move soil particles a short distance.

Because soil particles can only be moved a few centimetres at most

by this process, its effects are solely on-site. Although considerable
quantities of soil may be moved by rainsplash, it is all merely redistributed
back over the surface of the soil (on steep slopes, however, there will be a
modest net downslope movement of splashed soil). Thus a more descriptive
term might be 'rainsplash redistribution'.

Erosion by Wind

Unlike water, wind can move soil over very large distances of
thousands of kilometres and over sea to other countries. It can move soil up-
hill. Of course, the finest clay particles are transported furthest. The amount
of soil moved, must not be underestimated, and once in motion, and the air
heavy with dust, its erosive power increases.

Damage is caused in various ways:

a. Loss of fine soil: fine soil is transported furthest away. The fine
clay particles bind nutrients and are crucial to fertility.

b. Loss of crops: crops are lost because they are being dug out, sand-
blasted and covered in soil.
 c. Damage to soil: the composition of the soil changes; the land is
furrowed in rills and gullies, leaving infertile rock behind.

d. Damage to buildings and infrastructure: roads are dug out and

sand deposited over houses, fences and so on. The farm becomes
unrecognizable.

To avoid wind-blown erosion, arid soils should not be worked, but in

order to survive, people do. The remains of the previous crop (stubble, stalks,
straw) should not be removed until just prior to planting. Strip cropping
shelters the land and so do shelterbelts. Reduced tillage or no-tillage is
preferable. Once the soil has been swept into land dunes (as opposed to sea
dunes), these should be planted and stabilized. Fertilizer is an important
weapon in doing so

Causes of Erosion

Deforestation. Forest soils contain much organic matter, indeed

often more than can be converted by the soil organisms. When a forest is
cleared, the trees are burnt, which leads to an immediate loss in organic
matter, but above the soil. Some of the organic matter in the soil is burnt too.
But in the years following, soil organisms become starved of a carbon source
and burn the remaining organic soil content. It all leads to massive emissions
of carbondioxide. In the wet tropics, forest soils do not contain much
fertility. The tropical rains make farming a nightmare.

Fuelwood. Cutting forest for fuelwood is another form of

deforestation. Fuelwood is usually converted to charcoal, which burns
cleanly. In the process, all hydrogen and oxygen are removed, so that carbon
remains. Humans need enough fuelwood for cooking, to be problematic. In
arid regions, even the last tree and shrub is used, leaving the landscape
barren.

Overgrazing. When insufficient amounts of grass litter are left for

the soil, the soil organisms die and the soil loses fertility. Sparse cover lets
raindrops erode the surface. It is a common practice that leads to
desertification.

Agriculture. Most agricultural practices are harmful to the soil.

Industrialization. Industries can pollute soils, mining operations do.

Factors affecting erosion can be summarized as follows:

1. Natural factors
a. Heavy rains on weak soil: rain drops loosen soil particles
and water transports them down hill.
b. Vegetation depleted by drought: rain drops are free to hit
the soil, causing erosion during rainfall. Winds blow away the
fine particles during droughts.
c. Steep slopes: gravity 'pulls harder': water flows faster; soil
creeps, slips or slumps downhill.
d. Sudden climate change
i. Rainfall: erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as
rainstorms become more severe.
ii. Drought: water dries up and the soil becomes a
playball of winds. Soil biota die. A sudden rain causes
enormous damage.
iii. Changing winds: areas previously sheltered, become
exposed.

2. Human-induced factors
a. Change of land (deforestation): the land loses its cover, then
its soil biota, porosity and moisture.
b. Intensive farming: the plough, excessive fertilizer and
irrigation damage the land, often permanently.
c. Housing development: soil is bared; massive earthworks to
landscape the subdivision; soil is on the loose.
d. Road construction: roads are cut; massive earthworks,
leaving scars behind. Not enough attention paid to rainwater
flow and maintenance of roadsides.

Here are various remedies to combat erosion on grassland and hilly

terrain.

1. Riparian fencing: by fencing waterways, cattle won't trample

river banks and natural vegetation can regrow. Also tree planting
on river sides helps. Make sure the flat land is not part of the
river's flood zone.
2. Shelter belts: shelter belts provide roots at the boundaries of the
field, sheltering the soil, supplying organic matter.
3. Grassed waterways: a very effective protection of shallow water
ways is to grass them over. Grass leaves bend over in the current,
protecting the soil. Note that grass needs sunlight, so shelter belts
 must be placed on the correct side. Make grassed waterways wide
and shallow to slow the water down and to prevent it from rilling
and then gullying the waterway. Avoid spraying and mow
regularly..
4. Spaced tree planting: trees provide deep roots that hold the soil;
cycle deep nutrients and lost nutrients, provide organic matter and
more. Trees must compete with highly metabolizing grassland,
thus should be fast growing and deciduous.
5. Debris dams: debris dams check the water in steep gullies. They
should not be used in slow-flowing waterways. Any kind of debris
would do but natural products such as tree stumps, branches,
plantings are better.
6. Retirement fencing: problem areas should be fenced for
retirement so that seedlings are no longer grazed. Fencing is an
absolute must to encourage natural growth and to protect tree
plantings.
7. Close tree planting: on retired land, trees can be planted closely.
Once retired, any kind of tree can be planted, as necessary for
forestry or for slow growing native bush.
8. Topdressing: fertilizing is the best remedy against erosion, both
immediately and in the long term.
 Worksheet # 09

Name: Meiji Don S. Icban Date:

Course/ Year: BSCE-1 Professor:

I. Define each of the following words or terms.

1. Pollution is defined as any alteration in the environment that has a negative

impact on the lives and health of living creatures.

2. Rainfall is the movement of water from the atmosphere to the land or ocean.

3. Overgrazing happens when there is not enough grass litter in the soil, soil
organisms die, and the soil becomes deficient in nutrients.

4. pH is the acidity and basicity are two extremes used to describe chemistry, much
as hot and cold are two extremes used to describe temperature.

5. Rainsplash erosion occurs when rain moves soil instantly.

6. Erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate as soil is formed.

7. Fuelwood is frequently turned to charcoal, which is a clean-burning fuel.

8. Drought is when the water dries up and the soil becomes a playball of winds.
Soil biota die. A sudden rain causes enormous damage.

9. Deforestation is when the forest soils have a lot of organic stuff, typically more
than the soil organisms can convert. When a forest is cleared, the trees are
burned, resulting in an immediate loss of organic matter above the soil, but not
below.

10. Acidity is the level of acid in a certain substance.

II. Completion.

1. Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect

both agricultural areas and the natural environment and is one of the
most widespread of today's environmental problems.
2. The greenhouse effect is an extremely vital process where
infrared rays from the sun come into the Earth’s atmosphere.
3. Methane and Nitrous Oxide has the same effects as CO2, but they
have a less harmful effect on the Greenhouse Effect.
4. Acid rain is a term used to describe several
ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise term is
acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry.
5. Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow.
As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it affects a
variety of plants and animals.
6. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. normal rain is slightly
acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves into it, so it has a pH of
about 5.5.
7. Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles.
About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through
dry deposition. The wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto
buildings, cars, homes, and trees.
8. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) , prevalent in Styrofoam, refrigerants,
and cleaning agents (ammonia) are largely to blame for the
degradation of the ozone layer.
9. The WHO suggests that noise can affect human
health and well-being in a number of ways, including annoyance
reaction, sleep disturbance, interference with communication,
performance effects, effects on social behavior and hearing loss.
10. Soil is naturally removed by the action of
water or wind: such 'background' soil erosion has been occurring for
some 450 million years, since the first land plants formed the first
soil.
III. Discussions.

1. Discuss ways and means how to eliminate or lessen the following

environmental problems:

1.1 Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is an unseen enemy that contributes to irritation.

The easiest method to decrease noise pollution is to avoid busy
locations where loud activities are likely to occur. Also, avoid
engaging in any activity that contributes to increased noise pollution.
In addition, noise insulators can be used in infrastructure to reduce and
absorb noise.

1.2 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is one of the environmental issues that can stunt plant
development and have an impact on water supplies. To reduce the risk
of soil erosion in each region, we must pursue reforestation rather than
deforestation. More trees are being planted to make the soils more
compact and stable. Mulching is a different method. Mulching is the
technique of covering the soil with mulches to protect the soil's
condition.
1.3 Water Pollution

When waste items invade a body of water, it is called water

pollution. We must be aware of our acts that might pollute water to
avoid or reduce water pollution in our surroundings. We must conduct
appropriate garbage disposal and refrain from discarding rubbish in
bodies of water. Also, do not allow cleaning products or chemicals to
discharge into water bodies. These compounds are harmful to aquatic
organisms.

1.4 Air Pollution

Air pollution occurs when the air is contaminated because of

various environmental and non-environmental activities. We must not
do anything that contributes to air pollution to avoid and reduce
pollution. We can ride a bicycle or walk instead of driving a car, which
can pollute the air owing to the smoke it emits. Stop smoking as well.
It not only makes you sick, but it also contributes to pollution in the
air.
 133
1.5 Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer is vital to human survival. It shields us from

hazardous radiation; thus, we must safeguard it. To keep the ozone
layer from depleting, we must avoid using ozone-depleting chemicals.
Substances like chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, and others fall into
this category. Reduce the use of CFC-emitting automobiles and air
conditioners.

1.6 Acid Rain

Acid rain is a type of precipitation that contains potentially

dangerous acidic components such as nitric and sulfuric acids. We
must create energy without the usage of fossil fuels to avoid acid rain.
We prefer to employ renewable energy sources such as solar and wind
power. These renewable energy sources emit less pollution than fossil
fuels and will reduce the incidence of acid rain significantly.
 134
1.7 Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural mechanism that causes the planet

to warm. We must preserve energy to reduce the greenhouse effect.
Electricity generation is responsible for a significant amount of
greenhouse gas emissions. Trees absorb carbon dioxide and release
oxygen into the atmosphere; therefore, reforestation is beneficial.

1.8 Global Warming

Global warming is the warming of the earth's climate because of

many environmental issues. To reduce and avoid global warming, we
must simply avoid all harmful environmental issues that can be created
by human actions. Soil erosion, air and water pollution, ozone
depletion, and greenhouse gas emissions can all have a role in global
warming. Reducing the activities that create these would significantly
reduce global warming on the planet.
 1

REFERENCES

Allee, W. C., Emerson, A. E., Park, O., Park, T., and Schmidt, K. P., 1949,
Principles of Animal Ecology: Philadelphia, Saunders.

Auffenburg, W., 1981, The Behavorial Ecology of the Komodo Monitor:

Gainesville, Florida, University of Florida Presses.

Bakker, R. T., 1971, Ecology of the brontosaurs: Nature, v. 229,

Bartlett, M. S., 1960, Stochastic Population Models in Ecology and

Epidemiology: London, Methuen.

Black, C. A., 1968, Soil-Plant Relationships [2nd ed.]: New York, Wiley,

Cailliet, G., Setzer, P., and Love, M., 1971, Everyman's Guide to
Ecological Living: New York..

Campbell, R. R., and Wade, J. L., 1972, Society and Environment: The
Coming Collision: Boston, Allyn and Bacon,.

Caughley, G., 1966, Mortality patterns in mammals: Ecology, v. 47.

Clark, L. R., Geier, P. W., Hughes, R. D., and Morris, R. F., 1967, The
Ecology of Insect Populations in Theory and Practice: London,
Methuen.

Colinvaux, P. A., 1973, Introduction to Ecology: New York, Wiley.

Collier, B., Cox, G. W., Johnson, A. W., and Miller, P. C., 1973, Dynamic
Ecology: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.

Morman, R. H., 1979, Distribution and ecology of lampreys in the lower

peninsula of Michigan, 1957-1975. Great Lakes Fishery Commission,
Technical Report No. 33.

Stanley, S. M., 1973, An ecological theory for the sudden origin of

multicellular life in the Late Precambrian: Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, v. 70.

Tappen, H., 1971, Microplankton, ecological succession and evolution:

North American Paleontological Convention, Proceedin