INDONESIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Vol. 12 No. 3, January 2023, pp. 870-880

Available online at:

https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/view/44952

https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v12i3.44952

An academic writing model: Lessons learned from

experienced writers
Fahrus Zaman Fadhly1*, Muziatun2, Nanan Abdul Manan3, Arrofa Acesta4,
and Dadang Solihat1
1
Department of English Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Universitas Kuningan.
Jl. Cut Nyak Dien No. 36A Kuningan, West Java, Indonesia, 45513.
2
Department of English Education, Faculty of Letters and Culture, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo. Jl. Prof. Dr.
Ing.B.J. Habibie, Moutong, Tilongkabila, Kab. Bone Bolango, Gorontalo, Indonesia, 96554.
3
Department of Primary Teacher Education, STKIP Muhammadiyah Kuningan, Jl. RA. Moertasiyah Soepomo
No.28 B Kuningan Jawa Barat, Indonesia, 45511
4
Department of Elementary Teacher Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Universitas
Kuningan. Jl. Cut Nyak Dien No. 36A Kuningan, West Java, Indonesia, 45513.

ABSTRACT
Academic writing seems daunting for novice writers. Unveiling cognitive processes of
experienced writers in academic writing can presumably aid novice writers, primarily writing
for publication. The purpose of this research is to explore the cognitive processes of
experienced writers who have published articles in reputable journals in writing scientific
articles. Three experienced writers participated in the study: one from the social science and two
from the STEM fields. Thematic analysis following the six phases of Braun and Clark (2006)
was conducted to analyze the interview data from three experienced writers. The findings from
the interview generated five themes: search, topic, research, writing, and publication. These
emerging themes have similarities with the previous academic writing models but expand some
actions toward the publication process. The themes reflected the steps taken by the experienced
writers who participated in the study in producing their published articles. Thus, these steps can
be used as one of the models to guide novice writers intending to publish their work in
academic journals.

Keywords: Academic writing; experienced writers; novice writers; thematic analysis

First Received: Revised: Accepted:

25 March 2022 5 July 2022 8 December 2022
Final Proof Received: Published:
27 January 2023 31 January 2023
How to cite (in APA style):
Fadhly, F. Z., Muziatun, M., Manan, N. A., Acesta, A., & Solihat, D. (2023). An academic
writing model: Lessons learned from experienced writers. Indonesian Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 12(3), 870-880. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v12i3.44952

INTRODUCTION writing is at the university level as it usually

Academic writing is regarded as one of the essential becomes a center of assessment procedures and can
skills to be acquired by students who learn in higher be a factor that decides students’ success or failure
education. The reason for this is that control over in the academy and later in their career. Lavelle and
academic writing gives students and scholars Guarino (2003) also argue the centrality of academic
capital, power, and agency in knowledge building, writing due to its role as one of the evaluative tools
disciplinary practices, identity formation, social in higher education.
positioning, and career advancement (Fang, 2021, p. Despite its importance, academic writing has
3). In a similar vein, Lillis and Scott (2007) and been challenging and daunting task not only in L2
Flowerdew (2016) have highlighted how vital but also in L1, which motivates academic endeavors

* Corresponding Author
Email: [email protected]
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 Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12(3), January 2023

to answer the challenges. It is regarded as a daunting Academic writing models have been created
task by many, especially in relation to writing for extensively in the context where English is the first
publication as one of the requirements to complete language. The studies include Hayes’ (2012)
studies for both master’s and doctoral degrees remodeling of Hayes and Flower’s (1980) model
(Bryson et al., 1991; Nur et al., 2022). Min et al. and Graham’s (2018) writer(s)-within-community
(2013) further argue that the accomplishment of model. In Hayes and Flower’s (1980) model, the
publishing journal articles can advance a person’s features were the task environment, the writer’s
future career. In a similar vein, Kamler (2008, see long-term memory, and the writing process, which
also Min et al., 2013) emphasized the importance of included planning, translating, writing, and
publication as one of the personal and institutional monitoring. In the newest version, Hayes (2012)
performance criteria in higher education, making the deletes the monitor, adds the transcription process
publication process more demanding. Even though and motivation (see Figure 1), and divides the
English in the context where this study took place writing process into three levels, resource, process,
has been learned since the students are, at least, in and control. The process level in the model is split
senior high school, shifting to more academic and into writing processes and task environments. Hayes
rigorous writing poses different challenges, (1980) argues that this remodeling process comes
especially for novice writers. These challenges from decades of Hayes’ experience and proposes
might be caused by novice writers’ lack of more elaboration on Bereiter and Scadarmalia’s
awareness of the standard of publication (Min et al., (1987) knowledge-telling model of writing for
2013) and the writing process (Bazerman, 2013). mature and immature writers.
Thus, providing a model as an example for the
students to follow might help them write better.

Figure 1
The Remodelling of the Hayes-Flower Model (Hayes, 2012, p. 371)

The following writing model is the writer(s)- enlist and engage. In turn, I propose that
within-community model, see Figure 2, created by writing cannot be fully understood without
Graham (2018). The underlying principle of this considering how the communities in which it
model is that: takes place and those involved in creating it
...writing involves an interaction between the evolve, including how community and
social context in which it occurs and the individuals reciprocally influence each other
mental and physical actions writers are able to (Graham, 2018, p. 273).

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Figure 2
The Writer(S)-Within-Community Model (Graham, 2018, p. 280)

As can be seen in Figure 2, in the writer(s)- the goal of writing. The work of writers and
within-community model, the inner circle is how the collaborators with specific actions and tools of the
use of tools and actions accomplishes the goal of writing community requires some features on the
writing a text. As for the middle circle, Graham outer circle. In addition, Breiter and Scadarmalia
(2018) expresses the need for all community (1987) proposed two writing models: the
members, either as writers or collaborators, to work knowledge-telling model and knowledge-
together by accommodating and considering transforming models, depicted in Figure 3.
possible alternatives to the writing draft to achieve

Figure 3
Breiter and Scadarmalia’s (1987) Writing Models: Knowledge-Telling and Knowledge Transforming Models

Knowledge-Telling Model (p. 8) Knowledge-Transforming Model (p. 12)

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In the knowledge-telling model, as its name then refined by removing the monitor process and
suggests, writers usually choose a topic from a adding control, process, and resource levels (Hayes,
particular genre and create a set of statements on the 2012). Creating a writing model is considered
topic. This model usually describes young writers, helpful and preferable for novice writers so that they
and its strategy is quite simple (Hayes, 2011). In can deal with their writing issues. Nonetheless,
contrast, the knowledge-transforming model Bazerman (2018) explained that the instruction and
provides a more intricate process for more skilled the use of writing models should be explicit, and
writers because writers are required to contribute to students need to be guided in the process of creating
the problem-solving process by putting in the effort texts because the writing process is unstable, and
to shape their knowledge to fulfill the readers’ needs writers develop their writing styles over time. Thus,
or themselves. this research aimed to extend the research on
As mentioned and discussed above, many creating an academic writing model that provides a
educational efforts have been spent creating writing portrayal of expert writers with a more specific
models, such as the Hayes-Flower model, the purpose, that is, a writing model for novice writers
writer(s)-within-community model, and the who come from an EFL context and intend to
knowledge-telling and knowledge-transforming publish their work in academic journals.
models. Chenoweth and Hayes (2001, p. 80) iterate
that “a better understanding of the processes
underlying fluent writing can have important METHODS
implications for the field of composition.” These The study used a thematic analysis to see the writing
writing models were created with the intention of stages deployed by three experienced writers in
helping novice writers in writing in an academic writing for journal publication. The application of
setting (see Graham, 2018; Hayes, 2012; Hayes & thematic analysis allowed the researchers to see the
Flower, 1980). Each writing model poses a certain writing process of experienced writers and to create
hypothesis of the nature of writing itself. For a model from what they have exercised to help
example, Graham’s (2018) model, which combines novice writers. Three participants were purposively
sociocultural and cognitive perspectives, is anchored selected on the basis of their reputation in journal
on the fact that there is a reciprocal interplay publication. They came from two different public
between the community and the individual. As such, universities in West Java, Indonesia, and had years
individual writing development can be improved by of experience in teaching their subjects. Each
learning by doing, learning by observing, learning participant has published numerous articles in
from others, learning through deliberate agency, reputable international (Scopus and World of
and learning through accumulated capital (pp. 310- Science indexed journals) and national (SINTA
313). journals, an Indonesian government web-based
Taking a different approach from Graham’s research metrics for researchers, journals, and
(2018), Hayes and Flower’s (1980) model was institutions) journals. The details of the participants
derived from a protocol analysis that explained how during the time the research was conducted are
individual writers produced their composition displayed in Table 1.
cognitively in more specific ways. This model was

Table 1
The Information of the Participants in the Study based on SINTA metrics
No. Participant Code Expertise Scopus Google Scholars Web of Science
1. Ex. Writer A History Education 17 64 3
2. Ex. Writer B Legal Studies 9 56 0
3. Ex. Writer C Chemistry 77 97 58

Data Collection Procedures minutes, and each participant was interviewed for
After selecting the participants, the researchers around 90 minutes in total.
contacted them to inquire about their consent to Transcription of the interview data is essential
participate in this study. Then, following their in thematic analysis because it helps the researchers
consent, the researchers made an appointment with familiarize themselves with the data (Riessman,
the participants to conduct interviews. The interview 1993). The transcription system used in the research
was conducted face-to-face and at different times was verbatim, meaning that all verbal utterances
following the participants’ schedule and not were transcribed (Braun & Clark, 2006). The next
determined by the researchers. The participants’ step was to do a participant check, where the
questions revolved around their creative process in transcription of the interview results was sent back
writing for publishing their manuscripts in journals. to them, and they were given the opportunity to
The total time for conducting the interview was 270 revise and clarify what they meant in the interview.
After they agreed and confirmed the interview

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results, the data analysis stage commenced. The (2006, p. 87) six phases. The phases are depicted in
interview results with the participants were analyzed Figure 4.
using thematic analysis following Braun and Clark’s

Figure 4
Thematic Data Analysis Phases (Braun & Clark, 2006)

As can be seen in Figure 4, the first phase in publishing research article process of the
conducting thematic analysis is to familiarize with experienced authors. To better understand why
the data. In this research context, the transcription of expert authors are more adept than novice authors at
the interview analysis was read several times. While constructing arguments in their writing, Flower and
reading the transcription, the researchers searched Hayes (1981) looked at the elements of writing. The
for some patterns that could be generated from the early stage that kept reiterated by the experienced
data, highlighted intriguing excerpts in writing for writers in writing for publication fall under the main
the publication process, and discussed some possible theme of Search. It was supported that conducting a
codes that could be used. “search before research” (SBR) is strongly
In the second phase, the researchers created recommended before determining a research topic.
initial data coding. These created codes were data- Based on expert authors A, B, and C’s cognitive
driven (Braun & Clark, 2006) because the experiences, research topics were obtained from
development of the themes depends on the interview SBR, a process of reading scientific written works in
results of the publication process from experienced reputable international journals. SBR is a pathway
writers. In the third phase, the researchers focused to see the landscape of existing knowledge or ideas
on the codes generated from the previous phase and and identify the research gaps which have not been
reanalyzed them by grouping codes that could be investigated by other previous researchers around
combined and formed as themes using a highlight the world. Identifying research gaps surely led us to
and table. After developing initial themes, the identify elements of novelty on a particular issue.
researchers reviewed the themes and looked for This SBR was conducted by all expert authors as
similarities or differences that might occur and reflected in the following Excerpts 1, 2, and 3:
overlap with other themes. The broader themes and
more specific subthemes were also separated in this Excerpt #1:
phase. In the fifth phase, the researchers defined the “If we study literature, especially journals, we
themes that had been grouped from the fourth phase, will know what studies others have done and
and the refinery process of the revealed themes took what have not. Well, then we can fill in. Oh,
place. Here, as suggested by Braun and Clark this point has not been researched by others.
(2006), the researchers avoided using too many Because now nothing really original and really
diverse and complex themes. The final phase in the new original. There are no other people yet
thematic analysis the researchers utilized was to because it’s so difficult. There must be parts
produce the report. In this phase, a fully working that other people have researched. We can pick
theme was determined and decided, and examples to up the parts that no one else has studied. That’s
be presented in the report were selected. where novelty will be found.” (Expert author
A).

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Excerpt #2:

The findings from the in-depth interview are “Search before research. That’s the real deal
analyzed below, focusing on the writing for for me. Why do we have to search first before

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we conduct research? First, it was related to expert authors choose their research topics is quite
the estuary at the end. So, how can our data diverse and can be accomplished in a number of
still have the potential to be published? Our ways, including: (1) adhering to the research
data is still in line with the trends that people roadmap created by the subject-matter experts; (2)
are working on. Second, where are your engaging in SBR activities; (3) following global
research focus? Internationally or nationally. research trends or research tendencies; (4) adhering
Then the third thing is what we are most afraid to the national topics created by the ministry; (5)
of when we write. There will be replication, interpreting laws or regulations, departing from
duplication, and even plagiarism.” (Expert court decisions, pro-cons cases, or actual topics,
author B). especially those that are relevant to their field.
Then, the participants’ research disciplines
Excerpt #3: have an impact on the problem-setting and research
“In order to develop a research question, the goals they encounter. As can be seen in Excerpts 4,
first thing to do is library research. Library 5, and 6, the participants determined the topic of the
research to explore primary sources. It is a research pertaining to their expertise. In general, the
polygonal instrument. In the case of statement of problems and research objectives
international agreements, the primary sources because: (1) there is a gap between expectations and
include the contents of the agreement, court reality; (2) library research with a normative legal
decisions, domestic legislation, international approach; (3) intensive searching results by finding
agreements, and expert opinions through possibilities; (4) the testing of norms and case
interviews.” (Expert author C). studies are also the identifications of research issues
and research objectives; (5) the structure of issues
Based on the excerpts, the participants in the and crucial matters in a research topic; and (6) data
research conducted various activities that could be replication The ensuing extracts paint a clear picture
included in the Search theme. The purpose of the of how a research topic will be quickly recognized
undertook action in the interview was to find the by various intellectual endeavors:
elements of their research’s novelty and suggested
authors perform searching before conducting Excerpt #4:
research. This is in line with Grewal et al. (2016) “So, in determining the research topic, of
that searching for relevant literature is a key step in course, if I am in accordance with my area of
performing good authentic research. SBR, or doing expertise, the area is still within my area of
a literature review, is a research methodology expertise, especially in the field of education.
(Synder, 2019). Through SBR, one might know “a We already have a kind of road map. Road
higher emphasis on scientific knowledge around the map of research from the past, the current, and
world” (Kraus et al., 2021, p. 1). SBR also poses the future.” (Expert author A).
challenges for the researchers to get in touch with
the current works (Brainard, 2020), which is crucial Excerpt #5:
in conducting the research. Proposed by Hayes and If I determine a research topic, the basis is, of
Flower (1980), this stage in writing is also course, the experience we have. For example,
recognized in the Task Environment process in their because my concern is in the field of
writing model, which explained that the ideas and environmental chemistry, I am concerned in
expert opinions as outputs of the “search” are cueing the field of advanced materials, so of course,
motivations. This motivation leads to how long and the topic I choose is around that. I might not be
how much authors attend to the quality of what they going to conduct research, for example, about
write. The subthemes that could be identified from super plasmon because it’s out of my expertise.
the interview related to Level 1 of the writing for (Expert author B).
publication process were to search for the unknown,
to compose an extensive literature review, to create Excerpt #6:
a state-of-the-art, to find research gaps, and to Research question often arises from the results
propose a novelty. In short, the major activities in of court decisions. We criticize whether this
the initial stage of writing for publication deal with judgment is true or not. (Expert author C).
search information in the theoretical and empirical Following the activities that were conducted in
textbooks and articles that can enhance the the Excerpts 4-6, the experienced authors started to
participants’ knowledge of a particular field. conduct the research. An organic relationship exists
After conducting an in-depth search and between and influences the cognitive processes used
extensively reading the literature pertaining to the to choose research procedures that are appropriate
research idea, the experienced writers usually started for the themes, issues, and research objectives.
to look for the topic they needed to write for the There are at least seven intriguing aspects to
publication based on the first stage, so the main consider while choosing the best research
emerging theme is the Topic. The process by which methodology, according to the cognitive experience

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of the investigation’s participants, specifically: (1) literature review is very important.” (Expert
the research methodology on the effects of research author A).
problems; (2) the hoist and measuring equipment
needed for scientific research; (3) the case as the Excerpt #8:
foundation for legal research; (4) test norms as a “I once found a finding that was different from
qualitative method in the field of law, (5) the the usual publications. What do we usually do?
interpretation of the law as a research technique, (6) Oh… the data is wrong, then we throw it away.
evidence collection by looking at the core elements In research, we have to be patient, have to be
of a norm and the selection of a research sincere, don’t give up quickly. Because
methodology based on the goals of the study. All sometimes, we get thrown out if we don’t
interviewees acknowledged that they had to follow trends, even if we know how to discuss
understand the nature of the data in order to choose the data, it will be very interesting. But
the best research methodology. Knowing the nature because at that time, we didn’t have a way to
of the data, selecting a reliable methodology, doing discuss how to describe the data in a good
data replication and data reduction if necessary, and way.” (Expert author B).
knowing how to present the data are all important.
Regarding excerpts 4-6, following the research Excerpt #9:
roadmap and ensuring the area of expertise, and “Legal research has its own reason. The logic
criticizing trends can help determine a research of law is different from the logic of linguistics,
topic. In this matter, Hayes (2012) mentioned that sociology, or mathematics. Legal reasoning is
this writing plan and knowledge of topics are stored how a legal issue is tested by norms contained
in the authors’ long-term memory, which can be in statutes or international law as long as there
consciously evoked. are parameters to measure whether this is valid
At the research stage, researchers must really or not. It is not an individual reason. In fact,
understand the nature of the data. Recognizing and my individual reason is just a tool to
understanding the nature of the data to be studied strengthen. That is what ensures that my
will make it easier for researchers to use robust writing has a scientific level.” (Expert author
methodology. With a robust methodology, research C).
data will be managed properly (see Excerpts 7-9).
This situation will help researchers to interpret the From the cognitive experience of the expert
data found. However, the research method is closely authors in Excerpts 7-9, we conclude that
related to the research problem because they have an differences in disciplines are very likely to result in
organic relationship. Nevertheless, the use of differences in methodology. This reinforces the
research methods requires innovative steps or opinion that research methodology is closely related
procedures that allow it to produce findings that are to the nature of the data. All expert authors consider
different from previous ones. The choice of research it important at the research stage to conduct an
method, whether qualitative or quantitative, depends extensive literature review to make comparisons and
on the research questions formulated. In terms of learn about the research design to be formulated.
this research method, participants recommend Thus, this stage of designing the flow of writing to
reading a lot of references and seeing how other present the information, as represented in the
people use the same method. However, it is highly knowledge-telling stage proposed by Bereiter and
recommended to modify the method to produce Scardamalia (1987), is expected to produce writing
more advanced data analysis. schemas to ease the writing process, then further
Other participants suggested that if there is called knowledge-transferring. This is supported by
data that we consider less interesting, it should not Hayes and flower’s (1981) writing model in the last
be thrown away. It could be that the data is actually stage, which is the writing itself.
very interesting, depending on how we discuss or It takes specialized knowledge and experience
analyze the data. These data can be replicated and to translate ideas into academic writing that is
reduced as needed. One day, these data can be coherent, systematic, and reasoned. Additionally,
opened and analyzed again. scientific papers intended for publication in
reputable international journals have their own set of
Excerpt #7:
guidelines and requirements for the format and style
“The use of research methods depends on the
(also known as the “in-house style”). Writing the
research question. It is also related to the
introduction, method, results and discussion,
nature of the data to be studied. It is also
conclusion, acknowledgments, and bibliography in a
important to read the results of previous
scientific article gave three study participants a
research related to our research topic. Through
singular cognitive experience. They also
the literature review, we can see what research
experienced this when writing the acknowledgments
methodologies are used in analyzing and
and bibliography. Scientific writers must also follow
answering similar research questions. So a

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any conventions or guidelines established for peer review process contributes to quality control
academic writing. and is an important step in ensuring the originality
In the process of the writing process including of the research (Chanson, 2007). In accordance with
translating, reviewing, and editing the articles, as those writing processes mentioned in the excerpts,
shown in Excerpts 10-12, the participants of this Hayes (2012) also explained that the knowledge-
study revealed their cognitive experiences, including transferring stage, which includes the practice of
(1) looking for scholarly journals according to the seeking phenomenological topics, defining
focus and scope that are in line with the research problems, setting a goal, as well as rewriting and
topic; (2) creating research questions as the core of revising, are considered specialized writing
state of the art; (3) comparing and synthesizing; (4) activities that are modifiable based on authors’
using transitional words; (5) aligning results and experience and are important points in writing skills.
discussion; (6) writing conclusion with a conclusive In addition, while Hayes and flower’s (1981) last-
language; (7) reviewing the manuscript stage writing model refers to those activities, this
independently or in a group; (8) editing manually or current writing model includes publication as the
computer-assisted. last stage.
Searching for journals with the same focus and
Excerpt #10:
scope for our research findings is the first step
“Writing the introduction, there are rather
before writing a scholarly manuscript (see Excerpts
different tips between qualitative and
13-15). Before pouring ideas into writing, writers
quantitative. If qualitative must be inductive, it
generally looked for journals with the same focus
means that it starts from data based on the
and scope in advance. All expert authors have the
results from pre-research or preliminary data,
same cognitive experience: they search for the
or data from previous research, or begins from
intended journal and observe the format of the
phenomena. If quantitative is deductive, it can
journal by following the guidelines.
be started by grand theory. It could be started
with GBHN if it used to be. If the qualitative Excerpt #13:
must be from phenomena.” (Expert author A). “So, after my research had been done, I didn’t
write the article but looked for a journal first.
Excerpt #11: This includes seeing the quality, the number of
“I consider whether the technical aspect is a publications, focus, and scope. Then we open
picture or whether I label or give a caption to the web, study the author’s guidelines, then
the table wrong. The easiest thing that I do if I adjust it. Usually, there we see the level of
have already targeted a journal, I print out the difficulty. So, most of my friends first made an
guidelines. So we know from the guidelines, article, in my opinion, it was not right, because
for example, the font type and size. That’s there had to be revised again. So, the journal
already part of the consideration of technical must be searched first, then we adjust.” (Expert
aspects, but the content of the manuscript is the author A).
first thing I think of.” (Expert author B).
Excerpt #14:
Excerpt #12: “What I saw was in line, namely topics,
“When I write an article, I must have a problems, and conclusions if it’s technical
research question. If it already exists, then I stuff, of course. Guidance of the target journal
will structure the article or its outline. So it’s or publication that we will pursue. The issue is
simple, in the introduction, I wrote the technical. In terms of inline substance, no. In
background and, more importantly, why I had terms of language, we definitely have to check
to raise the issue to be written. That is to the most substance from the topics we
inform the reader that there is a need this is discussed was in line or not, to the conclusion.
important. So I’m not the only one who feels Next is the technical aspect. That aspect is the
interested. It should also be a public interest.” language and the layout of the writing.
(Expert author C). Including when I checked the library, brother.
If the library has already used software, I
Excerpts 10-12 show the substantial aspect of always check.” (Expert author B).
the manuscript that is entirely under the control of
the author/researcher. However, the aspect of Excerpt #15:
translation was considered by the participants as a “There are possibilities to be accepted,
mere technical aspect. Most scientific journals are depending on how we propose our ideas in the
highly specialized and contain peer-reviewed proposal. The publication is also the same.
articles. This is an effort to ensure that the articles to Every journal has its scope and coverage. So,
be published meet the journal’s quality standards when we want to publish, I always see the
and as a way to validate the degree of scholarship journal target. Where is the scope, then what is
(Baier-Fuentes et al., 2019; Öchsner, 2013). The it? Now if the scope is connected with the data

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we have, we will submit it there. That is the quality of the article, especially the substantial
actually sometimes in the aspect of technical aspects. Finally, this last stage confirms that those
writing that people rarely consider.” (Expert writing schemas produced qualified writing as the
author C). goal set in the previous stage. Bereiter and
Scardamalia (1987) have explained this stage in
Before submitting an article to the intended their writing stages called the knowledge-crafting
journal, the authors generally do a self- reviewing of stage, where the outcomes of the writing are for the
the article that has been compiled. However, they readers. In this stage, the interaction between the
considered it important to get input from peers or in author, the text produced, and the reader begins.
groups to ask for input. This step is carried out so
that substantive matters can be explored for the sake Proposed Writing Model for Publication
of perfecting the text. Based on expert authors A, B, Theme from the results of the interview with the
and C’s cognitive experience, the article is not experienced authors emerged five central main
infrequently examined many times to avoid themes that are applicable for novice writers to
substantive mistakes. According to them, one article follow, followed by several subthemes or specific
can be reviewed by the author about 2 or 3 times, activities that can support the main theme. The main
and it takes 2 to 3 weeks. The review process is also themes and subthemes are depicted in Figure 5.
carried out after submitting articles to the intended These themes and subthemes are derived from the
journal. The review process here will further refine interview results practice of experienced writers.

Figure 5
Proposed Writing Model for Publication from the Thematic Analysis of Experienced Writers

Most activities in Stage 1 are related to is an important element in writing research articles.
identifying and reading academic sources that This stage seems not to be explicitly mentioned in
support the writers’ research. The sources can be Hayes (2012) and Graham (2018). The writers must
from theoretical or empirical perspectives, also read extensive literature based on the topic that
emphasizing the latter more heavily. Also, one of has been decided. The subthemes are similar to the
the subthemes is to find the research gap, which is resource level in Hayes’ (2012) model, and as
important for writers who would like to publish their emphasized by Graham (2018), reading before
work, as Lim (2012) argues that indicating a niche writing is that not only do writers need to obtain
that links the past studies with the proposed studies knowledge but also to acquire writing styles and

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rhetorical devices. In the second stage, the Clearinghouse. https://doi.org/10.37514/PER-

experienced writers mostly conduct the analysis of B.2013.0513
their research topics and the trends of research Bazerman, C. (2018). What does a model model?
worldwide. This stage seems to be comparable with And for whom? Educational Psychologist,
the collective history of writing (Graham, 2018), 53(4), 301-318.
where writers adjust their writing types and styles to https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2018.149602
the intended audience and community. Third, the 2
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research stage, the subthemes in the model that analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research
emerged from the participants’ experiences and in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
seemed to be not included in other models are how Bryson, M., Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., & Joram,
they endeavor to comply with every guideline of the E. (1991). Going beyond the problem as given:
targeted journal. Hayes (2012) believes that in Problem solving in expert and novice writers.
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The research aims to create a model for writing in and impact in civil engineering into the 21st
an academic setting, especially with the purpose of century: Publish or perish, commercial versus
writing for journal publication. The data from open access, internet versus libraries?
interviewing three expert authors coming from Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 34(8),
different fields of expertise for 270 minutes were 946- 951. https://doi.org/10.1139/l07-027
analyzed using a six-phase thematic analysis (Braun Chenoweth, N. A., & Haynes, J. R. (2001). Fluency
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findings of the study were that experienced writers Written Communication, 18(1), 80-98.
who participated in the research deploy similar https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088301018001004
stages in writing leading to their publications. The Fang, Z. (2021). Demystifying academic writing.
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includes several subthemes that novice writers can Flowerdew, J. (2016). English for Specific
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