Notes on Radiation and Radioactivity

And Prodn. Of X-rays

Electromagnetic radiation is the transport of energy through space as a

combination of electric and magnetic fields.

Photons are referred to as energy bundles.

The wavelengths of most diagnostic x-rays are between 11 and 0.1 A.

The SI unit of radioactivity is the Becquerel (Bq)

1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second (dps)

The old unit for exposure is Roentgen (R).

X-rays are produced by energy conversion when fast moving electrons are
suddenly decelerated in the “target” anode of an x-ray tube.

The purpose of the vacuum in modern tubes is to allow the number and speed
of the accelerated electrons to be controlled independently.

The x-ray tube current, measured in mA, is the number of electrons flowing
per second from the filament to target.

Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons resulting from the

absorption of thermal energy. “Edison effect” one-way flow from hot to cool
diodes

Tungsten is chosen as a filament primarily because of:

a. it can be drawn into a thin wire
b. it is quite strong
c. its high melting point
d. has little tendency to vaporize

The collection of electrons in the vicinity of the filament is called space

charge.

The focusing cup is designed so that its electrical forces cause the electron
stream to converge on to the anode in the required size and shape. It is
commonly made of Molybdenum.

The focal spot is the area of the anode that is bombarded by the electrons.
Most of the energy is converted to heat with 1% being converted to x-rays.
Tungsten is often chosen as the target because of its high atomic number
making it efficient for the production of x-rays, high melting point, absorbs
heat and dissipates it at a high rate. Rotating anodes are used to spread the
heat produced during an exposure over a large area.

Heel effect - the intensity of the film exposure is significantly less than that on
the cathode side. It is less noticeable when large focus-film distanced is used.
It is also less when smaller films are used.

The leakage radiation measured at one-meter distance from the source shall
not exceed 100 mR in one hour when the tube is operated at its max.
continuous rated current for the max. rated tube potential (NCRP Report
#49).

Heat units = current x kVp x sec for single phase

= mA x kVp x sec x 1.35 for three phase

kW rating = kVp x mA max /1000

The wavelength of the x-rays in the continuous spectrum varies. The

variation is produced by the different energies with which the electrons reach
the target and by the fact that it give off their energies in stages.

Bremsstrahlung

Characteristic radiation

The intensity of the x-ray beam is the number of photons in the beam
multiplied by the energy of each photon.

The higher the atomic no. of the target the greater will be the efficiency of
production of x-rays.

The kVp determines the max. energy of the x-rays produced.

Interaction of X-rays with matter

Coherent Rayleigh scattering – only type of x-ray interaction that causes no

ionization.

Photoelectric effect
Compton Scattering

Pair Production

The only two interactions important in diagnostic radiology are photoelectric

effect and Compton scattering.

Attenuation

Quantity of the radiation refers to the no. of photons in the beam and quality
refers to their energies.

Attenuation is the reduction in the intensity as it traverses matter by either

absorption or deflection of photons from the beam.

The quality of monochromatic radiation does not change as it passes through

an absorber.
Linear attenuation coefficient is the quantitative measurement of attenuation
per centimeter of absorber, so it tells us how much attenuation we can expect
from a certain thickness of tissue.

The half-value layer (HVL) is the absorber thickness required to reduce the
intensity of the beam by half.

The mass attenuation coefficient is used to quantitate the attenuation of

materials independent of their physical state. For example, water, ice and
water vapor would have the same mass attenuation coefficient.

Factors affecting the attenuation of an x-ray beam as it passes through

matter:
1. Energy – inc. will inc. no. of transmitted electron
2. Density - *
3. Atomic no. - *
4. Electrons per gram - *
* inc. will dec. no. of transmitted photons

Factors affecting scattered radiation:

1. kVp – inc. will inc. scatter
2. part thickness – inc. will inc. scatter
3. field size – inc. will inc. scatter

Filters
Filtration is the process of increasing the mean energy of polychromatic
radiation by passing it through an absorber. Their function is to reduce
patient dose.

In a radiologic examination, the x-rays are filtered by:

a. tube and its housing (inherent filtration)
b. sheets of metal placed in the path (added filtration)
c. patient

Inherent filters: glass envelope, insulating oil, window in the housing

Added filters: aluminum and copper

The major disadvantage of filters is reduction in the intensity of x-rays.

X-ray beam restrictors

A beam restrictor is a device that is attached to the opening in the x-ray tube
housing to regulate the size and shape of the beam. They could be: a. aperture
diaphragms b. cones c. collimators

The main disadvantage is the production of penumbra.

The function of the beam restrictors is to protect the patient and to decrease
scattered radiation.
Note that as the x-ray field size is decreased, the exposure factors should be
increased to maintain film density.

GRIDS

The grid consists of a series of lead foil strips and separated by transparent
spacers. It was invented by Dr. Gustav Bucky in 1913.

Grid ratio is defined as the ratio between the height of the lead strips and the
distance between them. They are usually two numbers i.e., 8:1 where the first
one is the actual ratio and the other is always 1. Generally, the higher the
ratios the better the grid function. R = H/D, 2.0 mm/ 0.25 mm = 8

Grid pattern refers to orientation of the lead strips in their longitudinal axis.

A linear grid has lead strips parallel to each other in their longitudinal axis. It
allows us to angle the tube along the length of the grid without loss of primary
radiation from the grid “cut-off”.
A crossed grid is made up of two superimposed linear grids that have the
same focusing distance. The grid ratio is equal to the sum of the ratios of the
two linear grids. They cannot be used with oblique techniques.

A focused grid is made up of lead strips that are angled slightly so that they
focus in space.

Parallel grids are those with lead strips that are parallel when viewed in the
cross section.

Lines per inch are the no. of lead strips per inch of the grid.
Lpi = 25.4/ D + d

Grid cassettes are used for portable radiography.

Grids are used to improve contrast by absorbing secondary radiation before

reaching the film. However, the price of better film contrast is higher patient
exposure. Methods of evaluating performance of grids:
1. primary transmission
2. Bucky factor
3. contrast improvement factor

Primary transmission is the percentage of primary radiation transmitted

through a grid.

Bucky factor is the ratio of the incident radiation falling on the grid to the
transmitted radiation passing thru the grid. The higher the Bucky factor the
higher the exposure factors and the higher the dose to the patient.

Contrast improvement factor is the ratio of contrast with grid and contrast
without grid. It is dependent on kVp, field size and phantom thickness.

Grid cut-off is produced by:

a. focused grids used upside down
b. lateral decentering
c. focus-grid distance decentering
d. combine lateral and focus-grid distance decentering

Moving grids were invented by Dr. Hollis Potter.

They are advantageous because they eliminate grid lines from the film.

Usually 8:1 grids will give adequate results for 90 kVp and below; 12:1 is
preferred above 90 kVp.
 Intensifying screens

Luminescence refers to the emission of light by a substance. Fluorescence is

applied to a type of luminescence produced when light is emitted
instantaneously (within 108 sec of the simulation). If the emission is delayed
the term used is phosphorescence.
Fluorescence as used in radiology is the ability of certain crystals to emit light
when excited by x-rays.

Intensifying screens decrease x-ray doses to the patient.

Construction consists of the base, reflecting layer, phosphor layer and the
protective coat.
The efficiency with which the phosphor converts x-rays to light is called the
intrinsic efficiency of the phosphor.

The ability of the light emitted from the phosphor to escape from the screen
and expose the film is referred to as the screen efficiency.

The thicker the phosphors layer the faster the screen but will give lower
clarity because of the thickness.

X-ray Film and processing

Film base provides support for the fragile photographic emulsion.

Emulsion consists of gelatin and the silver halide.

Metallic silver is black and causes the latent image formed on the film.

Development is a chemical process that amplifies the latent image by a factor

of millions to form a visible silver pattern. The basic reaction is the reduction
of the silver ion to metallic silver.

Fog results in the development of unexposed silver halide grains.

Notes:
1. mAs controls film density
2. kVp controls film contrast

Density = log (Io/It) where Io is incident light It is transmitted light

Io/It is opacity while its reciprocal is transmittance

The measured speed of a film-screen system depends on:

KVp, amount of scatter radiation, x-ray absorption of the cassette or x-ray

table top, way the film was processed.

Standard silver halide films absorb light in the u-v, violet and blue regions of
the visible spectrum. Used with calcium tungstate or barium lead sulfate
screens this will work well.

Radiographic Image

Radiographic contrast refers to the difference in density between areas in the

radiograph. This is dependent on subject contrast, film contrast and fog and
scatter. Subject contrast is dependent on thickness difference, density
difference, at. no. difference and kVp. As a general rule, low kVp gives high
subject contrast.

Sharpness is the ability of the film or film-screen system to define an edge.

Resolving power is the ability to record separate images of small objects that
are placed very close together.