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TR232: SOIL MECHANICS (3.0 UNITS)

University of Dar es Salaam

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2014
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Chapter One: Flow of water through soils

Chapter contents

 Types of water in the soil (Ground water)

 Permeability of soils

 Flow nets

 Seepage discharge

 Seepage forces

 Effects of seepage force on the unit weight of soils

 Critical hydraulic gradient and other hydraulic problems

Background: Hydrologic cycle
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms
• Ground water (sub-surface water) refers to all water in soil deposits.
• Ground Water Table (GWT) or the Phreatic surface is the top surface
of the free ground water.
 It is at atmospheric pressure.
 Can be normal GWT or perched GWT.
• Normal GWT extends over a large area while Perched GWT are
found on local low permeability soil lenses above the normal GWT.
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms continued…
• Aquifers are geological units that can store and transmit water at rates
fast enough (high permeability) to supply reasonable amounts of
water to wells.
 Typical aquifers are made-up of sands, gravels, limestones and
sandstones.

o Unconfined aquifer: If the upper boundary of the ground water in the

aquifer is at atmospheric pressure the flow and the aquifer are said to
be unconfined.

o Confined aquifer: If an aquifer is saturated throughout and bounded

above by a layer with significantly lower permeability (Aquiclude or
Aquitard) the flow and aquifer are confined.
 For confined aquifers if the pore water pressure (piezometric
head) is above ground level it is referred as artesian. Otherwise it
is sub – artesian.
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Chapter 1 – Ground water

Definition of terms continued…
• Aeration/ Vadose zone: This is the zone which lies between the
ground water table (saturated zone) and the ground surface. Three
distinct zones exist within the vadose/ aeration zone:
 Capillary (action) fringe: Water held by capillary action at negative
hydrostatic pressure. Reaches full saturation.
 Partially saturated sub-zone: Above capillary fringe where water is
strongly attached to the surface of the soil particles by surface
tension and adsorption
 Top sub-zone occurs by continuous upwards evaporation
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Chapter 1 – Permeability
Definition of terms
• Permeability is the flow of water through soil. Also known as hydraulic
conductivity.

• Caused by gravitational forces equalising water levels/ head

(pressures) between two points.

• It is not an ‘intrinsic’ property of a soil rather depends on the;

 Particle size distribution
 Porosity of soil
 The shape and orientation of soil particles
 The degree of saturation/ presence of air
 Mineralogical composition of solids and type of adsorbed cations
 Temperature of water (viscosity)
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Chapter 1 – Permeability
Definition of terms continued…
• Importance of permeability of soil mass;

 To evaluate the amount of seepage through or beneath dams and

levees, and into water wells

 Evaluating the uplift or seepage forces beneath hydraulic

structures for stability analyses

 Providing control of seepage velocities so that fine grained soil

particles are not eroded from the soil mass

 Rate of settlement (consolidation) studies where soil volume

changes occur as water is expelled from the soil voids as a rate
process under an energy gradient
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Darcy’s Law of Saturated Flow

Definition of terms continued…
• Darcy’s Law of saturated flow (after Henry Darcy 1856), states the
velocity of flow through a porous medium is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient causing the flow.

• Where;
• v – Approach (apparent) velocity
• Q – Quantity of water flowing
• A – Cross–section area perpendicular to the direction of flow
• t – Time with which the volume of water steadily flows through the
cross section
��
• i – Hydraulic gradient, (the fluid head loss per unit length)
��
• k – Soil’s coefficient of water permeability/ hydraulic conductivity
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Darcy’s Law of saturated flow

Definition of terms continued…
• Fluid (piezometric) head explained
• Referring Bernoulli’s principle which describes the mechanical energy
held by flowing incompressible fluid per unit weight of the fluid
(expressed in head length, m);
���
 The potential head is
��
where; z – elevation above a reference
datum, g – acceleration due to gravity and m – mass
�� � ��
 The kinetic head is
��� ��
where; v – fluid average approach
velocity
�
 The pressure head is where u – water pressure and Ɣ – Unit
�
weight of water
�� �
 The total head is therefore
�� �
 For flow through soils, the water velocity is small
�
 Therefore total head
�
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

1. The constant head permeameter
o Suitable for cohesionless (coarse-grained) soils
o The hydraulic gradient through the sample is constant over the test
period

Where;
Q – Volume of water flowing through the
specimen in time t

H – Head loss across the specimen

(neglecting losses in the pipes and
connections)

L – Length of the specimen

A – Cross–sectional area of the specimen

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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

The constant head permeameter continued…
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Laboratory determination of k

2. The falling head permeameter
o Suitable for cohesive (fine-grained) soils
o The hydraulic gradient through the sample varies over the test period

��
; ��

�� ��

�� ��

�
� � �
With;
a – Cross sectional area of the tube �
V – Velocity of water in the standpipe
� � �
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Chapter 1 – Limitations of laboratory determination of k

 Inability to replicate the en-mass nature of soil as it exists in the field. Natural
soils are inhomogeneous and anisotropic.

o Inhomogeneity is the variation of soil properties with space.

o Anisotropy is the variation of soil properties with direction.

 The small sizes of the specimen tested has a bearing on results attained e.g.
boundary conditions from the smooth sides of the test chamber.

 Losses in the tubings of the equipment used for determining k and surface
evaporation have a bearing effect when the permeability to be determined is
very low

 No method is available to evaluate k for other than saturated steady state soil
conditions. Most flow will however involve partially saturated soil – water flow.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

1. The Pumping Out Test – Unconfined aquifer
o Flow is radial towards the test well and the observation boreholes are
in line with the test well along the radius of the circle of influence.
o Outside the circle of influence G.W.T is not lowered.
Q
q = = vA
t
Q dh
=k 2πrh
t dr
r2 h2
Q 1
∫
t r1 r
dr = πk ∫ 2hdh
h1

Q  r2  2
(
ln  = πk h2 − h1
t  r1 
2
)
Q r2 q r2
k= ln = ln
πt (h2 2 − h12 ) r1 π (h2 2 − h12 ) r1
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Field determination of k

2. The Pumping Out Test – Confined aquifer

o Derive an equation to determine

the permeability of a confined
aquifer from pumping out test.

 Principle is the same as for

unconfined aquifer however area
perpendicular to the radial water
flow is constant.

3. The Pumping In Test

• Used when bedrock level is very deep or where permeability of
various strata is required.

• A casing perforated only at the level of the aquifer is lowered in the

observation well and the flow required to maintain a constant head in
the casing is determined then the soils permeability is calculated.
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Stratified (layered) soils

Soils in there natural states are typically inhomogeneous and anisotropic.
For flow parallel to the layers/ bedding plane;
o Total water flowing through the soil is the summation of water
flowing through each strata.
o Total head loss across each strata is constant equal to total
hydraulic head available
q = q1 + q 2 + q3
H H H H
k hor d = k1 d1 + k 2 d 2 + k 3 d 3
L L L L
k1 d 1 + k 2 d 2 + k 3 d 3
k hor =
(d1 + d 2 + d 3 )

k hor =
∑ kd i i

d
h

∫k
o
h dh
k hor =
d
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Stratified (layered) soils

For flow perpendicular to the layers/ bedding plane;
o Water flowing through the strata is the same
o Total head loss is equal to head loss across each strata.

H = H1 + H 2 + H 3
dq d1q d 2 q d 3 q
= + +
k k1 k2 k3
d d1 d 2 d 3
= + +
k k1 k 2 k 3
d
kv =
dn
∑k
n

h
kv = h
1
∫0 k h dh
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Actual velocity of water through soils

Although approach velocity is considered for water flow across an entire
cross section of the soil, water can only flow through the voids of the soil.

For continuity; Water flow through the full soil mass cross section = Flow
through the soil voids

� � - (1)

�� ��
Substituting in (1)
� �

Where;
v is the approach (apparent) velocity
vs is the seepage velocity

However, vr, the real seepage velocity, varies from void to void
depending on the actual voids dimensions
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Chapter 1 – Permeability: Practical coefficients

(From Terzaghi et. Al. 1996)

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Chapter 1 – Empirical permeability relationship for granular soils

(From Terzaghi et. Al. 1996)

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Chapter 1 – Effect of temperature on k

It can be shown theoretically that for laminar flow condition in saturated
soil mass;
�

Where Ɣw – unit weight of water

η – viscosity of water which is temperature dependent

A correction for the effect of temperature may be obtained through;

� � ��

kt – value of k corresponding to a temperature of t

k20 – value of k corresponding to a temperature of 20°C (standard room
temperature)
Κt – Temperature correction coefficient
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Chapter 1 – Water seepage equations

Assumptions
o Darcy’s Law is valid
o The soil is completely saturated (S = 100%)
o The soil is homogeneous (k is constant everywhere in the aquifer)
o The soil is isotropic (k is the same in all directions)
o The size of the element remains constant (i.e no expansion or
contraction)
o The flow takes place in a steady state condition

Consider the velocity of flow and

piezometric levels for two-dimensional
flow of water through a soil element: -
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations

� – velocity of flow in the horizontal direction
� – velocity of flow in the vertical direction

The rate of water volume flow into the element;

������ � �

The rate of water volume flow out of the element;

�
������� � �

From continuity;
������ �������

��� ���
– (2)
�� ��
This is a differential equation of 2D water flow
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Chapter 1 - Water seepage equations

After Darcy’s Law, the velocity components can be rewritten as

�� ��
� � �� and � � ��

�� ��
and being the hydraulic gradients in the x and z directions
�� ��
respectively.
Inserting the expression in equation (2);
� �
� � � �

Since � � as the soil is isotropic

� �

� �

This is the Laplace’s differential equation of 2-D water seepage.

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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Definition of terms
The 2D seepage equation’s analytical solution has two functions, flow or
stream function, Ψ and potential function, Φ. Geotechnical seepage
problems have complex boundary conditions which excludes the use of
analytical solutions and therefore Flow net solutions or numerical
solutions are opted.

A flow net is a graphical representation of two–dimensional steady–state

groundwater flow through aquifers. It is graphical solution of the
Laplace’s equation for two-dimension flow constructed using flow lines
and equipotential lines.

Flow lines (flow or stream function, Ψ) are paths along which water flows
through a cross–section. Infinite number of flow lines will exist but for an
adequate flow net only a few (4 – 6) need to be drawn
Equipotential lines (potential function, Φ) are lines of equal energy level
or equal total head. As water flows through the pore spaces energy is
dissipated and equipotential lines act like contours of energy loss.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Rules for construction of flow nets
o Flow nets are created using a converging trial and error graphical
technique.

o All flow nets comply with the following criteria;

1. No two flow lines can intersect

2. No two equipotential lines can intersect

3. Flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angles

4. Flow and equipotential lines are smooth

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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Rules for construction of flow nets continued…
• All flow nets comply with the following criteria continued…
5. Square blocks/ fields: The areas bounded by equipotentials and
flow lines must be as near square as possible (Curvilinear
square)

6. Since no flow takes place across an impermeable boundary such

a boundary is a flow line (Ψ = constant)

7. A submerged permeable boundary along which the head is

constant will be an equipotential line
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Rules for construction of flow nets continued…
o The flow can be confined or unconfined and in a homogeneous or
inhomogeneous/ heterogeneous, isotropic or anisotropic soil
medium;
Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils;
a) Draw the cross–section to scale simplifying the problem taking
advantage of symmetry and Identify all the boundary conditions
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils continued…

b) Sketch the initial flow lines. It is a trial and error process so expect
to do some level of erasing before the final output. Add the
equipotential lines
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 1: Confined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils continued…
c) Select an integer value for NF, the number of flow tubes. Larger
values of NF produce more precise flow nets but also require more
effort to finalize. NF = 2 – 3 is on the coarser side and NF = 4 – 6 is
usually a good compromise between precision and effort.

d) Check for major errors and go back to rectify, adjust, correct and
revise accordingly.
e) Refine the flow net.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 2: Confined flow in homogeneous anisotropic soils
A ‘normal’ (isotropic conditions) flow net solution is performed but on a
transformed cross-section where the equivalent horizontal and vertical
permeabilities are equal then the transform is inversed to create the flow
net in the original space.
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Chapter 1 – Flow nets

Case 3: Unconfined flow in homogeneous isotropic soils
1. The upper flow line is unknown and has to be determined during
the analysis process.
2. The process starts by estimating the location of the phreatic
surface. Once located all the boundaries of the flow region are
defined and the solution proceeds as with the case for confined
flow.
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Chapter 1 – Seepage discharge

Consider an element of soil from a flow net: -

The quantity of water flowing per unit time per unit width through the
element is;
�
� � �

A – Area of inflow ( )
B – Dimension of soil mass perpendicular to the plane
� �
∆� �
The hydraulic gradient across the element is � ∆�
�
�
�

� ∆�
For a curvilinear square flow net therefore � ��
Where � are the number of equipotential drops across the flow net
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Chapter 1 – Seepage discharge continued…

Multiplying the flow through one channel with all the flow channels
(stream tubes) in the flow net gives the total flow per unit width across
the channel;

�
� �
�

��
is characteristic of flow net and is independent of the permeability k
��
and total head loss , It is known as the ‘shape factor’ of the flow net.

For anisotropic soil masses k for seepage discharge calculation

� �.
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Chapter 1 – Seepage force

Seepage force is a (drag) force exerted on the soil solid particles
during water seepage.

Consider water flowing through a square soil element: -

Water force on entry face = � �

Water force on exit face = � �
Face area per unit width of element =
Volume affected by seepage force = �
Hydraulic gradient ∆�
∆�
Seepage force on sand particles = Water force on entry – exit face
= � � � � �

�� ∆�∆��
Seepage force per unit volume �
∆� � �
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Chapter 1 – Seepage forces

Effects of seepage force of the unit weight of soils
For vertically downwards water flow (positive) it can be shown that the
seepage force acting downwards is;
↓ �

For vertical upwards water flow (negative) it can be shown that the
seepage force acting upwards is;
↑ �

The resultant effect on the soil element unit weight is therefore given
as ���
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Chapter 1 – Critical hydraulic gradient

Is the hydraulic gradient on upward water flow through a soil element
at which the contact stresses (effective stresses) on the soils solids are
reduced to zero a condition commonly known as boiling, piping or
quick condition.

Applies to cohesionless soils (sands).

It can be shown that the critical hydraulic gradient,

���� � �� �� �� ��
� �� �� ���

The critical hydraulic gradient will therefore depend on the particle

density and particle packing and can range between 0.6 – 1.0.

��
Factor of Safety against critical hydraulic gradient conditions
�������