DATA

❑ Factual information (such as measurements or statistics) used as a basis for reasoning,

discussion, or calculation. (Merriam-Webster)

❑ Information in an electronic form that can be stored and used by a computer. (Cambridge
Dictionary)

❑ Form – Text, Numbers, Images, Audio, Video.

❑ Foundation of information in the digital world.

❑ Enables understanding, decision making, communication, and

improves efficiency.

❑ Raw data needs to be processed to convert into useful information. It includes data storage,
retrieval, manipulation and analysis.
 SIGNAL
❑ Data holds valuable information but it needs a medium to be transmitted, processed and
communicated.

❑ The transition from data to information exchange is facilitated by SIGNALS.

❑ Signals are physical quantities that carry the encoded information derived from data.

❑ Data – Source of information

Signal – Carrier of information

❑ In digital electronics, data is converted into binary signals for efficient transmission and
processing.

❑ Each bit of data (0 or 1) is represented by corresponding levels

(Voltage in case of electrical signal, light pulse in optical signal).
 ANALOG SIGNAL
❑ Analog Signal is a continuous signal that can take on any amplitude and is well-defined at
each time instant.

❑ Represent real world phenomena with infinite precision.

❑ Continuous on both scales (Amplitude and time)

❑ Examples – Audio, Temperature, Voltage, Current,

Pressure, Speed etc.

❑ Analog processing is simpler but is more susceptible to noise and interference.

 DISCRETE SIGNAL
❑ Discrete Signal is a sequence of values that correspond to particular instants in time.

❑ Derived from analog signals through a process called sampling.

❑ The continuous analog signal is sampled at regular intervals to

obtain discrete data points.

❑ Unlike analog signals, discrete signals do not have infinite precision and can only assume
specific levels.

❑ Less susceptible to noise and interference compared to analog signals.

❑ Easier to process, store, and transmit.

ANALOG, DISCRETE & DIGITAL SIGNAL
 DIGITAL SIGNAL
❑ A digital signal is a discrete representation of data or information using binary digits (0 and
1).

❑ Use a binary code to represent data, where each bit

can be either 0 (low state) or 1 (high state).

❑ Digital signals have better noise immunity than analog signals due to their discrete nature.

❑ Errors in transmission can be detected and corrected using error-correcting codes.

❑ Can be easily processed and manipulated using digital electronic components.

❑ Applications – Digital Communication, Digital Audio and Video, Data storage, Artificial
Intelligence, Quantum computing
 WHY DIGITAL?
❑ Before the digital revolution, analog signals dominated communication and data processing.

❑ Digital signals brought about significant advantages, making them the preferred choice in
various applications.

❑ Advantages - Better noise immunity

Precise error detection and correction
Easier and more efficient signal processing
High scalability and flexibility
Digital data can be stored, retrieved, and duplicated without degradation
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

• Uses continuous signals to

Information • Uses discrete signals (binary) to
represent data.
Representatio represent data.
• Information is conveyed through
n • Information is represented using
varying physical quantities (e.g.,
binary digits (0s and 1s).
voltage, amplitude, frequency).
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

• Provides infinite resolution, • Offers finite resolution but its

allowing for precise discrete nature provides
Accuracy and
representation of real-world robustness against noise.
Precision
phenomena. • It ensures higher accuracy and
• However, it is susceptible to allows for error detection and
noise and has limited accuracy. correction.
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

• Analog processing is often • Digital processing is relatively

complex, involving continuous simple, performed using logic
Processing
signal manipulations. gates and algorithms.
Complexity
• Components like amplifiers, • Components can be easily
filters, and oscillators are used. replicated and automated.
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

• Analog signals are sensitive to • Digital signals are less affected

noise and external interference. by noise due to their discrete
Noise and
• Noise can significantly impact nature.
Interference
signal quality and accuracy. • Error correction techniques
ensure data integrity during
transmission.
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

Analog signals suffer from signal Digital signals can travel longer
Signal
degradation during long-distance distances without significant
Transmission
transmission. degradation.
ANALOG vs DIGITAL?

Analog Digital

• Digital data can be easily stored,

Analog data requires more Storage duplicated, and retrieved without
physical storage space. Efficiency quality loss.
• It offers higher storage
efficiency.

Analog and digital systems have their unique advantages and applications.
Digital technology's resilience to noise, error correction, and ease of
processing have made it the preferred choice in many modern
applications.
 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS IN COMPUTERS
❑ Digital electronics form the foundation of modern computing systems. Computers rely on
digital signals and logic to process, store, and transmit data.

❑ Binary Representation in Computers:

Computers use binary digits (bits) to represent data and instructions.
Each bit can be either 0 or 1, forming the basis of digital data representation.

❑ Components of a Computer:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
It processes data using digital logic circuits, such as arithmetic logic units (ALUs).

2. Memory:
Computers use various types of digital memory (RAM, ROM) to store data temporarily or
permanently. Memory addresses are represented using binary values.
 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS IN COMPUTERS
3. Motherboard:
The motherboard acts as a central hub, connecting and facilitating communication between
various digital components.

4. Input and Output Devices:

Input devices (keyboard, mouse) and output devices (monitor, printer) communicate with the
computer using digital signals.

5. Data Processing in Computers:

Computers use digital logic circuits to perform arithmetic operations, logic comparisons, and data
manipulation.
The CPU processes instructions stored as binary code, making decisions based on digital logic.
 BINARY TO DECIMAL
❑ Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the weight of the bit.

❑ Weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.

❑ Add the results.

Example 1010112 - 1 * 20 = 1
1 * 21 = 2
0 * 22 = 0
1 * 23 = 8
0 * 24 = 0
1 * 25 = 32
Total - 4310
 OCTAL TO DECIMAL
❑ Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the weight of the bit.

❑ Weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.

❑ Add the results.

Example 6248 - 4 * 80 = 4
2 * 81 = 16
6 * 82 = 384
Total - 40410
 HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
❑ Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the weight of the bit.

❑ Weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.

❑ Add the results.

Example ABC16 - C * 160 = 12

B * 161 = 176
A * 162 = 2560
Total - 274810
 DECIMAL TO BINARY

❑ Keep dividing by 2 and note down the remainders.

❑ First remainder is bit 0 (LSB).

❑ Second remainder is bit 1st bit and so on.

Example 43810 - 2 438

2 219 - 0
2 109 – 1
2 54 - 1
2 27 - 0
2 13 - 1
2 6-1
2 3-0
2 1–1
2 0–1 - 1101111102
 DECIMAL TO BINARY
❑ To convert fractional part into binary, multiply by 2.

❑ Note down the integer part (before decimal) and multiply the rest by 2.

❑ Continue until the fraction part is zero.

❑ The first integral bit is MSB and so on.

Example 4.12510 - 2 4 0.125 * 2 = 0.250 Integer part - 0

2 2–0 0.250 * 2 = 0.500 Integer part - 0
2 1- 0 0.500 * 2 = 1.000 Integer part - 1
2 0- 1

Answer – 100.0012
 OCTAL TO BINARY

1. Convert to Decimal and then execute decimal to binary conversion.

2. Convert each octal digit to 3 bit binary representation.

4 5 78

100 101 111 - 1001011112

 HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY

1. Convert to Decimal and then execute decimal to binary conversion.

2. Convert each hexadecimal digit to 4 bit binary representation.

4 5 716

0100 0101 0111 - 0100010101112

 DECIMAL TO OCTAL

❑ Keep dividing by 8 and note down the remainders.

❑ First remainder is bit 0 (LSB).

❑ Second remainder is bit 1 and so on.

Example 123410 - 8 1234

8 154 - 2
8 19 – 2
8 2-3
8 0–2 - 23228
 BINARY TO OCTAL

❑ Group bits in 3 and convert to octal digits.

101101102 10 110 110

2 6 6 - 2668

HEXADECIMAL OCTAL
❑ Use binary as intermediary.

A1516 - 1111 0001 0101

Make groups of three bits - 111 100 010 101
7 4 2 5 - 74258
 DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

❑ Keep dividing by 16 and note down the remainders.

❑ First remainder is bit 0 (LSB).

❑ Second remainder is bit 1 and so on.

Example 123410 - 16 1234

16 77 - 2
16 4 – 13 - D
16 0–4 - 4D216

BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
❑ Group bits in 4 and convert to hexa digits. 1010111002 - 1 0101 1100

1 5 C - 15C16
Number Signed 1s complement 2s complement

0000 0 0 0

0001 1 1 1

0010 2 2 2

0011 3 3 3

0100 4 4 4

0101 5 5 5

0110 6 6 6

0111 7 7 7

1000 -0 -7 -8

1001 -1 -6 -7

1010 -2 -5 -6

1011 -3 -4 -5

1100 -4 -3 -4

1101 -5 -2 -3

1110 -6 -1 -2

1111 -7 -0 -1
 1s COMPLEMENT ARITHMETIC
1. If both numbers are positive, simple binary addition is required.

For example 1101 + 1010 = 10111

2. If either number is negative,

i) Convert it into its 1s complement form.

ii) Perform simple binary addition.

iii) If there is a final carry, the result is positive and add the final (end around) carry to
the LSB.

iv) If there is no final carry, the result is negative. Convert it into 1s complement form
to get the final result.
 1s COMPLEMENT ARITHMETIC
3. If both numbers are negative

i) Convert into 1s complement form.

ii) Perform simple binary addition.

iii) Result would always be negative

iv) If there is a final carry, add the final (end around) carry to the LSB and convert
into 1s complement.

v) If there is no final carry, no conversion is required.

 2s COMPLEMENT ARITHMETIC
1. If both numbers are positive, simple binary addition is required.

2. If either number is negative,

i) Convert it into its 1s complement form.

ii) Perform simple binary addition.

iii) If there is a final carry, the result is positive and discard the final (end around)
carry.

iv) If there is no final carry, the result is negative. Convert it into 2s complement form
to get the final result.
 2s COMPLEMENT ARITHMETIC
3. If both numbers are negative

i) Convert into 2s complement form.

ii) Perform simple binary addition.

iii) Result would always be negative

iv) If there is a final carry, ignore the carry and convert the number into 2s
complement.

v) If there is no final carry, no conversion is required.

 9s and 10s complement
9s complement

❑ For a positive integer x, 9s complement (for representing -x) = 10n -1 – x (n – no. of digits)

❑ For n = 4, 104 – 1 - x = 9999 – x

❑ Example -11 99 – 11 = 88

10s complement

❑ 10s complement = 9s complement + 1 = 10n – x

❑ For n = 4, 104 - x = 10000 – x

❑ Example -11 100 – 11 = 89

 HEXADECIMAL ARITHMETIC
Addition Subtraction

❑ Similar to decimal addition. Similar to decimal subtraction.

❑ Carry only if number exceeds 15. Borrow in group of 16.

4A6 4A6
+ 1B3 -1B3
6+3=9 9 6–3=3 3
A + 5 = 15 5 9 with 1 carry A – B, Borrow 16
4 + 1 + 1(Carry) 659 = A – B + 16 = F F3
3–1=2 2F3

In Octal arithmetic, carry if number exceeds 7 and borrow in groups of 8.

Add 4568 + 1238, Subtract 4568 – 1738.
 BINARY TO GRAY CODE CONVERSION
❑ Copy the MSB value to the corresponding bit in the Gray code.

❑ For each subsequent bit, compute the XOR of the current bit and the previous bit in the binary
code, and assign the result to the Gray code.

❑ If we have n-bit binary code, bn-1 bn-2…..b0 then gn-1 gn-2…..g0 would be

gn-1 = bn-1
gi = bi+1 ⊕ bi where 0 ≤ i ≤ n-2

Example – Binary – 1 0 1 1 0 1
⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊕

Gray - 1 1 1 0 1 1
SELF REFLECTION IN GRAY CODE
2 bit Gray code 3 bit Gray code 4 bit Gray code

00 000 0 000
01 001 0 001
11 011 0 011
10 010 0 010
110 0 110
111 0 111
101 0 101
100 0 100
1 100
1 101
1 111
1 110
1 010
1 011
1 001
1 000
 GRAY TO BINARY CODE CONVERSION
❑ Copy the MSBs.

❑ For each subsequent bit, compute the XOR of the current bit in the original binary and the
previous bit in the Gray code, and assign the result to the Gray code.

❑ If we have n-bit gray code, gn-1 gn-2…..g0 then binary code, bn-1 bn-2…..b0 would be
bn-1 = gn-1
bi = bi+1 ⊕ gi where 0 ≤ i ≤ n-2

Example – Gray code 0 1 1 1

⊕

Binary code 0 1 0 1