Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Highway and Railroad

Engineering
(CE 333)

Unit IV
Highway Materials and
Equipment used in
Construction

GROUP 3 (BSCE - 3B)

Prince Jeric G. Fermin
Cedrick Bautista
Ericka S. Dichoso
Abigail Gragasin

Engr. Erish Ken Domingo

Highway Materials:
SOIL
• In the structure of highway, embankment and subgrade are to be constructed with soil.
•The soil is considered as one of the principal highway materials
•Soils are mainly of mineral matter formed by the disintegration of rocks, by the action of water, frost, temperature
and pressure.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL

• Based on individual grain size, soils are, gravel, sand, silt, and clay
• The characteristics of soil grains depend upon the size, shape, texture, chemical composition and electrical
charges on the surface of fine soil particles.
• Moisture and dry density influence the engineering behaviour of soil mass

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES
If a soil is to be used as highway material, it should possess the following properties:
1. Stability
2. Incompressibility
3. Permanency of strength
4. Minimum changes in volume and stability
5. Good drainage
6. Ease of compaction

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soil classification systems are:
1. Grain size soil classification
2. Textural soil classification
3. Unified soil classification
4. BIS soil classification
5. HRB soil classification

GRAIN SIZE SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Based on grain size of individual particles, soils has been classified in to following categories:
Gravel, sand, silt and clay Coarse silt - 0.02mm to 0.06mm
Gravel - size particle > 2mm Medium silt - 0.006mm to 0.02mm
Sand - size of particle in between 0.2mm to 2mm Fine silt - 0.002mm to 0.006mm
Coarse sand - 0.6mm to 2mm Clay - size of particle < 0.002mm
Medium sand - 0.2mm to 0.6mm Coarse clay - 0.0006mm to 0.002mm
Fine sand - 0.06mm to 0.2mm Medium clay - 0.0002mm to 0.0006mm
Silt - size of particle in between 0.006mm to 0.06mm Fine clay - less than 0.0002mm

TEXTURAL SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Textural classification system is based on grain size of different soil components which contains different
proportions of sand, silt and clay
Depend upon the fraction of soil component in the soil aggregate mix, soil classified as
Loam, Sandy loam, Silty loam, Silty clay loam, Sandy clay loam

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

• The unified soil classification system has been very widely accepted in general for the classification of soils for civil
engineering purposes
• According to this classification system, the soils are divided into two broad groups, based on grain size: Coarse
grained soils and
Fine grained soils
• This soil classification system makes the use of results of sieve analysis, liquid limit and plastic limit.

COMPACTION OF SOIL
• Compaction of soil is a mechanical process, by which the soil particles are constrained to be packed more closely
together by reducing the air voids.
• Degree of compaction is usually measured quantitatively by dry density.
Objects of Compaction:
• Soil compaction causes decrease in air voids, increase in dry density and increase in shearing strength
• The possibility of future settlement or compressibility decreases and also the tendency for subsequent changes in
moisture content decreases.

METHODS OF COMPACTION
In the field soil compaction may be carried out by different methods, such as:
1. Applying pressure on soil layers by means of static rollers
2. Ramming
3. Applying pressure and vibratory effect, using vibratory rollers

SUBGRADE SOIL STRENGTH

The factors on which the strength characteristics of soil depend are:
• Soil type
• Moisture content
• Dry density
• Internal structure of soil
• Type and mode of compaction

AGGREGATES
Aggregate, in building and construction, material used for mixing with cement, bitumen, lime,
gypsum, or other adhesive to form concrete or mortar. The aggregate gives volume, stability, resistance
to wear or erosion, and other desired physical properties to the finished product. Commonly used
aggregates include sand, crushed or broken stone, gravel (pebbles), broken blast-furnace slag, boiler
ashes (clinkers), burned shale, and burned clay. Fine aggregate usually consists of sand, crushed stone,
or crushed slag screenings; coarse aggregate consists of gravel (pebbles), fragments of broken stone,
slag, and other coarse substances. Fine aggregate is used in making thin concrete slabs or other
structural members and where a smooth surface is desired; coarse aggregate is used for more massive
members.

In general, natural aggregates are mined from stone quarries and from sand and gravel pits.
Increasingly, however, agencies are using recycled, reclaimed, and alternative byproduct aggregate
materials, such as blast furnace and steel slag, other mining or industrial byproducts, and reclaimed
asphalt pavement and recycled concrete aggregate. However, these alternative materials currently fill
only a small fraction of the total aggregate needs for highways. A 2010 survey of State DOT materials
engineers by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials' (AASHTO)
Subcommittee on Materials reveals use of reclaimed asphalt pavement (in asphalt mixtures) and use of
recycled concrete aggregate (mostly in base course applications) in most of the States.

Uses of Aggregates

Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in construction. In roads and railway ballast the
aggregates are used to resist the overall (static as well as dynamic) load, to distribute the load properly
to the supporting ground and to drain the water off the surface. In concrete the aggregate is used for
economy, reduce shrinkage and cracks and to strengthen the structure. They are also used in water
filtration and sewage treatment processes. The uses of aggregates can be summarized in to the
following three categories:

-As a Load Bearing Material.

-As a Filling Material.

-As an Infiltrating Material.

Uses of Aggregates in Roads

Aggregates are used as the base, subbase, and/or surface of roads in several forms:

-Stabilized using cementitious materials (blends of cement, fly ash, slag, lime).

-Stabilized with bituminous materials (bitumen or tar).

-Stabilized with other materials (resins, fibers, geosynthetics, etc.).

-Recycled aggregate.

In roads, it is also used to help distribute the load and assist in ground water running off the road.

Cement
An ingredient of Concrete. A fine powder that, when mixed with water, sand and gravel or
crushed stone such as fine and coarse aggregate, forms the rock-like mass known as concrete.

Characteristics of Cement

1. non-hydraulic cement

will not set in wet conditions or underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon
dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting. After non-hydraulic
cement is utilized in construction, it must kept dry in order to gain strength and hold the structure.

2. Hydraulic cements

(e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical reaction between the dry
ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble
and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack.

Uses of Cement

A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. Cements may be used alone (i.e., "neat," as grouting materials), but the normal use is
in mortar and concrete in which the cement is mixed with inert material known as aggregate. Mortar is
cement mixed with sand or crushed stone that must be less than approximately 5 mm (¾ inch) in size.

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.

3. It is used for water tightness of structure.

4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc.

5. It is used where hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of structures against
the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.

6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.

7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels, light houses etc.

8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths etc.

9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts, telephone cabins,
roads etc.

Properties of Good Cement

 Provides strength to masonry

 Stiffens or hardens early
 Possesses good plasticity
 An excellent building material
 Easily workable
 Good moisture-resistant
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
 Bituminous materials are those that are bonded together by bitumen. Initially, the usage of
bituminous materials was limited to road construction. The applications have now moved to roof
building, industrial purposes, carpet tiles, paints, and as a particular waterproofing coating. Bitumen is a
sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum that may be found in natural
deposits or may occur in a petroleum refinery using crude oil. In lower temperatures the bitumen is rigid
and brittle while at room temperature it is flexible and if it is higher temperatures it flows.

COMPOSITION OF BITUMEN

Conventional chemical analysis shows that bitumens contain mainly carbon and hydrogen with
small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur and trace amounts of metals. A typical analysis is 83%
carbon, 10% hydrogen, 7% oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur and trace amounts of vanadium, nickel,
aluminum and silicon. Using a selective solvent such as normal heptane, bitumen may be separated into
asphaltenes (which are precipitated) and an oily fraction (maltenes). With adsorption chromatography
the maltene fraction may be separated further into resins, aromatic oils and saturated oils.

COMPOSITION OF BITUMEN

These four groups of constituents differ in nature:

Asphaltenes

- are brittle brown to black amorphous solids. They contain mainly carbon and hydrogen but also oxygen,
nitrogen and sulphur. Chemically, they consist of highly condensed aromatic compounds of high
molecular weight. The concentration of asphaltenes varies with a higher proportion in the harder
bitumens.

Resins

- are brown to black, adhesive, shiny solids or semi-solids. They contain mainly carbon and hydrogen but
also small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Chemically they stand between the asphaltenes and
the aromatics.

Aromatic Oils

-are viscous dark brown liquids comprising mainly carbon, hydrogen and sulphur with minor amounts of
oxygen and nitrogen. They contain numerous naphthenic-aromatic ring compounds.

Saturated Olls

- are viscous liquids or solids which range from straw to white colour. They consist mainly of long chain
saturated hydrocarbons with some branched chain compounds, alkyl aromatics with long side chains,
and cyclic paraffins (naphthenes).

USES OF BITUMEN

Bitumen is like concrete, it is broad, general and widely used in construction. We can find bitumen
everywhere with respect for their uses and specialist:

For civil engineering works Canal lining to prevent erosion

Constructions of roads, runways and platforms Dump-proof courses for masonry

Water proofing to prevent water seepage Tank foundation

Mastic floorings for factories Joint filling material

Bitumen is widely used in the construction of asphalt roads and bituminous membrane products.
Bitumen is commonly used to build highways, motorways and rail networks. Bitumen has excellent
water- proofing properties and is widely used for making roofing products along with a range of other
household and industrial applications, from emulsion paints to sound-proofing. Penetration Bitumen and
Bitumen Emulsions are used for the construction of railway tracks and by using special types of bitumen
such as Polymer Modified Bitumen, the vibration and noise levels are reduced due to a dampening
effect. Bitumen has been proven to be effective on both high-speed railway tracks and heavy load railway
tracks. Bitumen is also used for surfacing airfield runways and air strips (PMB is preferred due to its fuel
resistant properties) and taxi ways. For the Marine construction industry bitumen is used for hydraulic
applications such as canal lining, underwater tunnels, river bank protection, dam construction and sea
defenses. There are also numerous industrial applications like roofing felt material, printing inks,
packaging paper, linoleum, electrical cable / Junction box insulation, mastic for roofing of terraces, and
duplex paper manufacture. Bitumen Suppliers Limited can meet all your individual requirements.

PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

Mix design methods and design requirements form an essential part for all asphalt concrete mixtures. An
asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in order to obtain the following
desirable mix properties:

1. STABILITY

Stability of an asphalt pavement is its ability to resist shoving and rutting under loads (traffic). A stable
pavement maintains its shape and smoothness under repeated loading. An unstable pavement develops
ruts (channels), ripples (wash boarding or corrugation) and other signs of shifting of the mixture.

2. DURABILITY

The durability of an asphalt pavement is its ability to resist factors such as changes in the binder
(polymerization and oxidation), disintegration of the aggregate, and stripping of the binder films from the
aggregate. . These factors can be the result of weather, traffic, or a combination of the two.

3. IMPERMEABILITY

Impermeability is the resistance of an asphalt pavement to the passage of air and water into or through
it. This characteristic is related to the void content of the compacted mixture, and much of the discussion
on voids in the mix design sections relates to impermeability.

4. WORKABILITY

Workability describes the ease with which a paving mixture can be placed and compacted. Mixtures with
good workability are easy to place and compact. ; those with poor workability are difficult to place and
compact. Workability can be improved by changing mix design parameters, aggregate source, and/or
gradation.

5. FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility is the ability of an asphalt pavement to adjust to gradual settlements and movements in the
sub-grade without cracking. Since virtually all sub-grades either settle (under loading) or rise (from soil
expansion), flexibility is a desirable characteristic for all asphalt pavements. An open-graded mix with
high binder content is generally more flexible than a dense- graded, low binder content mix. Sometimes
the need for flexibility conflicts with stability requirements, so that trade-offs have to be made.

6. FATIGUE RESISTANCE

Fatigue resistance is the pavement's resistance to repeated bending under wheel loads (traffic). Research
shows that air voids (related to binder content) and binder viscosity have a significant effect on fatigue
resistance. As the percentage of air voids in the pavement increases, either by design or lack of
compaction, pavement fatigue life (the length of time during which an in- service pavement is adequately
fatigue-resistant) is drastically shortened. Likewise, a pavement containing binder that has aged and
hardened significantly has reduced resistance to fatigue.

7. SKID RESISTANCE

Skid resistance is the ability of an asphalt surface to minimize skidding or slipping of vehicle tires,
particularly when wet. For good skid resistance, tire tread must be able to maintain contact with the
aggregate particles instead of riding on a film of water on the pavement surface (hydroplaning). Skid
resistance is typically measured in the field at 40 mi/hr with a standard tread tire under controlled
wetting of the pavement surface. A rough pavement surface with many little peaks and valleys will have
greater skid resistance than a smooth surface. Best skid resistance is obtained with rough-textured
aggregate in a relatively open-graded mixture with an aggregate of about 3/8 in.-1/2 in. (10-13 mm)
maximum size. Besides having a rough surface, the aggregates must resist polishing (smoothing) under
traffic. Calcareous aggregates polish more easily than siliceous aggregates. Unstable mixtures that tend
to rut or bleed (flush asphalt to the surface) present serious skid resistance problems.

TYPES OF BITUMEN
1.Cutback Bitumen

-Cutback bitumen is in liquid form that is dissolved in a solvent. . Typically these solvents include
naphtha, gasoline, kerosene and white spirit. Bitumen is cutback by adding controlled amounts of
petroleum distillates such as the solvents described above. This reduces the viscosity of the bitumen
temporarily so that it can penetrate pavements effectively. This would allow spraying at temperatures
that are too cold for successful sprayed sealing with neat bitumen. The materials used to cutback
bitumen will evaporate after application leaving the remaining material similar in hardness to the original
bitumen.

2. Oxidized (Blown) Bitumen

-Produced by either a staggered or a continuous blowing process. . The heated Penetration Grade
Bitumen under controlled environment is blown with air which controls the oil content in the Bitumen
while it is oxidized

3. Bitumen Emulsion

-Bitumen Emulsion is made up of three basic ingredients which include bitumen, emulsifying agent and
water. Based on the various specifications it may contain other additives such as coating improvers,
stabilizers, anti-strips or break control agents. It is a well known fact that asphalt and water will not mix,
except under carefully controlled conditions using highly specialized equipment and chemical additives.

It has the following characteristics:

a. Excellent with wet aggregates

b. Is an alternate to cutback asphalt for energy and environmental objectives.

c. The cationic emulsion is very effective on high siliceous aggregate but may strip from high alkaline
that carry string positive surfaces changes.

d. Rejuvenating agent

4. Penetration Grade Bitumen

Is commonly used in road construction, surfacing and some industrial applications. Additional processing
of this type of Bitumen yields various grades of Bitumen products.

MINERAL FILTERS
Filler are generally used in hot mix ashphalt roads construction such as DBM,SDBC or B.C.,FILLER It is also
called fines which are defined as all material passing the 0.075 mm sieve size (sieve No. 200) quite much
of it usually stone dust, hydrated lime and cement as per morth5th revison. It is also called P200 material
(passing 200 sieve).

PURPOSE FOR USE

Filler has used as fines aggreagate its make a stable bond with bitumen, filler has improve Marshall
property like flow value and density of ashpalt mix.

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FILLER MATERIAL

Material is to be used as filler should have plasticity index less 4%,if cement or hydrated lime are used no
P.I. test required.atleast 2% of aggreagate weight filler should mixed in ashphalt mix.

SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR FILLER

Sieve Size Passing %

600 mic. 100%

300 mic. 95-100%

75 mic. 85-100%
 STEEL
Steel is made from iron ore, a compound of iron, oxygen and other minerals that occurs in nature. The
raw materials for steelmaking are mined and then transformed into steel using two different processes:
the blast furnace/basic oxygen furnace route, and the electric arc furnace route.

 Carbon steel - While all steel contains carbon, carbon steel is unique for the notable absence of
other elements in its makeup. Though it only contains 2% carbon or less by weight, its elemental
nature makes carbon steel a strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses.

Low carbon: A carbon content of .30% and under is considered low-carbon steel. This is the most
common and the least expensive type of steel. Thanks to its elasticity under strain,
manufacturers use low-carbon steel for wires, bolts and pipes.

Medium carbon: A carbon content between 0.31% and 0.60% gives this variety a higher strength
and lower ductility, meaning it’s less moldable under pressure. You can often find medium
carbon steel in gears and railroad tracks.

High carbon: The toughest variety contains more than 0.61% carbon and is often used to
produce extremely tough building materials and tools, like brick nails and sharp cutting tools like
trencher blades. They do not contain more than 2% carbon

 Stainless steel - This type is commonly known for its role in manufacturing medical equipment
and appliances, but its range of use is far greater than just the gas range in your kitchen.
Chromium is the alloy that sets stainless steel apart, lending the material its distinctive luster.

Types of Stainless Steel

Martensitic alloys: Toughness is a hallmark of martensitic alloys, but they’re prone to corrosion.
Manufacturers form these alloys with a rapid-cooling process that makes them ideal for medical
instruments, cutlery and pliers.

Ferritic alloys: These are less-expensive steels with low amounts of carbon and nickel.
Automotive manufacturers use ferritic alloys because of their chromium-induced strength and
sheen.

Austenitic alloys: Austenitic alloys have higher chromium and nickel contents, which improves
their resistance to corrosion and causes them to be non-magnetic. They’re present in commercial
kitchen appliances since they’re durable and easy to clean.

Duplex alloys: A combination of austenitic and ferritic alloys results in a duplex alloy that inherits
the properties of both while doubling strength. They’re also ductile and corrosion-resistant due
to their fairly high chromium content. Duplex alloys are common among instruments and
pipework used in gas, oil and chemical industries.

 Alloy steel - Alloy steel is iron fused with one of several other elements, each contributing its
unique attributes to the final product. All steels are indeed alloys, but carbon and chromium are
specific alloys with names attributed to the type of metal they form.

Aluminum: Lightweight, heat-resistant steel that’s ductile and easy to work with and is often
used in hot exhaust systems and power generators.

Copper: Corrosion-resistant steel that conducts heat very efficiently, making it a great choice for
electrical wiring and industrial heat exchangers.

Manganese: Impact-resistant steel that’s extremely tough. You can find it in bulletproof cabinets,
anti-drill plates and high-strength safes.

Molybdenum: Weldable, corrosion-resistant steel that performs well under high pressure,
making it suitable for underwater construction or oil and gas pipelines.
 Silicon: Soft-natured steel that’s malleable and highly magnetic. Silicon creates strong permanent
magnets power plants need for their electrical transformers.

Vanadium: High-impact steel that’s shock-absorbent and vibration-resistant. Automotive parts

like shocks and springs often require vanadium.

 Tool steel - Tool steels are exactly what they claim to be they are a type of high-carbon steel
specifically designed for use in the manufacturing of tools, such as drills, saw blades and tool bits.
Tool steel alloys along with other metals such as tungsten, chromium and vanadium — improve
its strength, hardness and resistance to wear and corrosion.

Air-hardening: The high chromium content in this steel allows it to be exposed to high
temperatures without distorting.

Water-hardening: This steel is water-quenched during use, used to make common tools and is
the most affordable tool steel.

Oil-hardening: This oil-quenched steel is exceptionally wear-resistant from slipping, and is used
to produce knives and shears.

High-speed: High-speed steel is highly abrasive and impact-resistant. It’s found in drill bits and
power saws.

Hot-working: The name gives it away, but this steel can withstand extreme heat and is used in
forging and casting.
Shock-resisting: Small amounts of carbon, silicon and molybdenum harden this steel and suit it
for punches and riveting tools.

What Are the Different Grades of Steel?

Two comprehensive grading systems accurately categorize a particular type of steel,
even within its subgroups. These systems are standardized across industries so that material
integrity is insured.

These are the two grading systems of steel.

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials): Alphanumeric classification that denotes the
steel’s overall categorization and specific attributes.

GEOPLASTIC FABRICS
The Geoplastic Fabrics were introduced and experimented in Europe in the year 1970. They were used to
reinforce soil of pavement and to provide drainage and erosion control for highways and railroads.

Function of Geoplastic Difference on properties includes

 As filter  Specific gravity

 As Drainage  Strength
 As separator  Future stain
 As reinforcement  Modulus of elasticity
 As armor  Creep resistance
Materials  Resistance to ultra-violet light and
biological effect
 Polypropylene
Construction Methods
 Polyester
 Nylon  Woven fabrics
 Polyethylene  Knitted Geoplastic fabrics
 Polyvinyl chloride  Non-woven or non-knitted fabrics
REFERENCES:

https://www.slideshare.net/12345ravigarre/highway-materials-soil

https://www.whitecap.com/compactors-and-rammers/types-of-compaction-equipment-and-their-applications

Aduna, J., Construction Materials and Testing, First Edition

https://www.scribd.com/presentation/208717870/Geoplastic-Fabrics#:~:text=GEOPLASTIC
%20FABRICS-,Geoplastic%20Fabrics,control%20for%20highways%20and%20railroads.

https://www.google.com/search?
q=steel&sca_esv=579062694&hl=en&tbm=isch&sxsrf=AM9HkKmX_AK4eJBpfz4m8o3NMtR
E9E5CTw:1698990495866&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZge7nkKeCAxW9wzgGHf-
VAX8Q_AUoAXoECAUQAw&biw=1280&bih=642&dpr=1.5#imgrc=SXs_96FboXp3rM