UNIT 4

Cofferdams & Caissons

 Syllabus
• Cofferdams – types, functions, construction of single, double wall, rock-fill
Cofferdam, Sheet pile cofferdams, concrete wall movable cofferdam, cofferdams
construction with touching and interlocking piles , construction of diaphragm
wall, Caissons: Types, Construction methodology for open caisson & pneumatic
caisson.
 Definition

Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to

permit dewatering and construction of the permanent facility (structure)
in the dry.
A Cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and /or soil
out of the excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built.
Meaning of Cofferdam : Coffer = Box
To take up the Foundation works in the Marine Region, it is necessary to
obstruct the water flow by means of Cofferdam.
PURPOSE TO USE cofferdam STRUCTURE
To retain Soil & Water

Can be used as either Temporary or Permanent

Main purpose is to provide dry working area for workers

It is constructed to facilitate pile driving operations.

It is used to place grillage as well as the raft foundations

It is used when the foundations for piers and abutments of a bridge,

dams, locks, etc. are to be constructed.

Sometimes it is also provided to store water temporarily.

Cofferdams can be used in all the sectors as explained below.
Civil Engineering: Underground Car Parking,Foundation,
Basement Construction
Transport Engineering: Bridge Pier, SupportWalls, Ramps,
Ground Water Retention, Tunnel Work etc.
Water Engineering: Weirs, Culverts, FloodProtection
Walls, Scour Protection Walls, Securing Embankment etc.
Port Construction: Dock Works, Jetty Worksetc.
Types of cofferdam

1. Earth fill cofferdams - mainly for low level water

2. Sand Bag cofferdam – to divert coarse of water
3. Rock fill cofferdams
4. Timber Crib or rock filled crib cofferdams -
Construction on land and than floated into place,
which is also known as Gravity Dam
5. Braced / Sheet Pile cofferdam- Consisting of Sheet
Piles, mainly used in shallow water depth
(i). Single wall cofferdams
(ii). Double wall cofferdams
(iii). Cellular cofferdams
6. Movable or suspended cofferdams
EARTH FILL COFFERDAMS
Suitable for rivers or streams having shallow depth of
water, about 120 to 150 cm, with low velocity of flow
It is the simplest type of cofferdam.
Free board – 60 to 90 cm
Top width of earth dyke – one meter
Suitable side slope should be provided
Provided suitable drain
Its depends on soil availability and site conditions.
Dry conditions – clay embankment provided
Wet condition – sand materials suitable
ROCK FILL COFFERDAMS
The construction of rock fill cofferdams is similar to
earth fill dams
It can be constructed with steeper slopes
Water depths – 3 m.
In case of high heads of water , this can be achieved
by a clay or concrete care wall
Impervious layer provided concrete or caly corewall
or sheet pile ) for reducing entry of seepage
TIMBER CRIB OR ROCK FILLED CRIB
COFFERDAMS
It consists of timber cribs made from logs of wood
Constructed on land and floated into place
It consists of a unit or a cell open at the bottom and
having the framework of horizontal timber members.
Hollow space thus formed are then filled with rock or
gravel
Depth of water – 10 to 20 m
Used for wide excavation and rocky river bottoms
SHEET PILE cofferdam

1. Single wall cofferdams

-it used in places, where the area to be enclosed is very
small
-depth of water is more = 4.5 to 6 m
- A single row of sheet piles is provided on the whole
length of the cofferdam
- Guide piles, Wales and struts (wood)
- guide piles are first driven deep in the river bed
and spacing between them 1.8 to 3.0 m
- The sand bags are stacked on the inside and outside faces
of the sheet to increase the stability of cofferdam
Use of Guide Block to prevent
twisting of Sheet Piles
2. Double wall cofferdams
- when the area to be enclosed is large it is
necessary to provide double wall cofferdam
- The double wall cofferdams are of two types:
(i) Ohio – river type cofferdams
(ii) timber or steel sheeting cofferdams
3. Cellular Cofferdams
- The cellular cofferdams are mostly used for
dewatering large areas , where the depth of water may
be 19 to 21 m.
-Mostly used the constuction of marine structures like
Dams ,Locks etc.
- The two common shapes of the cellular cofferdam
are:
(i) Circular type
(ii) Diaphragm type
MOVABLE OR
SUSPENDED
COFFERDAMS
Where there are numbers of repetition
work in under water foundations ,such
as in the piers of multi span river bridges
, it is economical to design the
cofferdams to be moved as a single unit
from one foundation to another.
SELECTION OF TYPES OF
COFFERDAMS
1. Low heads of water – earth fill cofferdams
2. Narrow Excavations – single wall sheet
pile cofferdams otherwise double wall
cofferdams or cellular sheet piling are
suitable for wide excavations
3. The materials available at site of work for
construction
4. The possibility of overtopping by floods,
tides, etc. and sliding – rock filled crib
cofferdams
5. The nature of bed on which the cofferdam is to rest –
deep deposits of soft clay, A heavy earth filled crib
or cellular cofferdam could not be suitable but
single wall sheet pile would be required in these
conditions.
6. The nature of velocity of flow,i.e. water flowing with
slow current or with swift current
7. The chances of bed erosion due to reduction of water
way caused by the construction of a cofferdam.
8. The facilities available for the transport of equipment
and material required for the construction of a
cofferdam.
 DESIGN FEATURES OF
COFFERDAMS
The design of a cofferdam depends on various
factors such as. (i).Hydrostatic head of Water
• (ii).Dimensions of the area to be covered by
• (iii).Subsoil conditions
• (iv).Fluctuations of outside water level
• (v).Possibility of erosion
• (vi).Presence of ice
(vii).Floating logs(the stem of a cut-down tree), etc.
A purely theoretically designed cofferdam may fail for factors
unaccounted in its design.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to combine practical knowledge
or experience with the theoretical aspects in the design of a
cofferdam.
For width and Depth of cofferdam :for H < 3 m,
H
W
W
H > 3 m, W = 3 + ½*(H-3)
Where, W = Width of cofferdam in
metres
H = Height of water above river bed in metres
cofferdam
Factors governing the Economic Height of cofferdam
1.Depth of Water
- Low depth => Earthen Dam
- High Depth => Sheet Pile cofferdam
2. Current and nature of flowering of Sheet Pile
- High Current => Sheet Pile cofferdam (Higher
Seepage Control Capacity)
- Low Current => Earthen or any other Dam (Less
Seepage Control Capacity)
3. Type and Period of Work
- Short Duration Work => Timber Dam
- Long Duration work => Sheet Pile Coffer
Dam
4.High and Low Tide Level of Reservoir
- Sheet Pile must have top level slightly higher
than that of the HTL. So that even in
extreme case water can not over top the
cofferdam, to achieve the dry working
through out the season.
5. Scour Level of Reservoir
- Scour level can be considered as the bottom
most layer of the loose soil of river Bed Level.
- Up to Scour level there are chances of erosion
due to the current of water. In any Pile or Well
foundation, the care to be taken that the
founding level must be below the scour water
level
6. Type of Material to be used
- Structural Sheet pile is costly but can be
reused at different projects.
SHEET PILE cofferdam
Bracing welding work in
progress
SHEET PILE cofferdam
Diaphragm wall Construction
Diaphragm wall is a continuous wall constructed
in ground in to facilitate certain construction
activities, such as:
a) As a retaining wall
b) As a cut-off provision to support deep excavation
c) As the final wall for basement or other
underground structure (e.g. tunnel and shaft)
d) As a separating structure between major
underground facilities
e) As a form of foundation (barrette pile –
rectangular pile)
Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete
structure constructed in-situ panel by panel.
The wall is usually designed to reach very
great depth, sometimes up to 50m,
mechanical excavating method is thus
employed. Typical sequence of work includes:
a) Construct the guide wall
b) Excavation to form the diaphragm wall trench
c) Support the trench cutting using bentonite slurry
d) Inert reinforcement and placing of concrete to
form the wall panel
 Further explanation on the work sequences
• Guide wall – guide wall is two parallel concrete
beams constructed along the side of the wall as a RC guide wall to
protect and control of
the wall alignment
guide to the clamshell which is used for the excavation
of the diaphragm wall trenches.
• Trench excavation – In normal soil condition
excavation is done using a clamshell or grab suspended Bentenite slurry to
counter balance the
by cables to a crane. The grab can easily cut through pressure from soil

soft ground. In case of encountering boulders, a gravity

hammer (chisel) will be used to break the rock and then
take the spoil out using the grab.

Trench to be
excavated
downward using
grab or clamshell
until reaching the
required level
Excavation support – the sides inside the trench cut can collapse easily. Bentonite
slurry is used to protect the sides of soil. Bentonite is a specially selected fine clay,
when added to water, forms an impervious cake- like slurry with very large viscosity.
The slurry will produce a great lateral pressure sufficient enough to retain the
vertical soil.
Reinforcement – reinforcement is inserted in the form of a steel cage, but may be
required to lap a few sections in order to reach the required length.
Concreting – placing of oncrete is done using tremie pipes to avoid the
segregation of concrete. As Concrete being poured down, bentonite will be
displaced due to its lower density than concrete.
Bentonite is then collected and reused.
Joining for the diaphragm wall panel – Diaphragm wall cannot be constructed
continually for a very long section due to limitation and size of the mechanical
plant. The wall is usually constructed in alternative section. Two stop end tubes
will be placed at the ends of the excavated trench before concreting. The tubes
are withdrawn at the same time of concreting so that a semi-circular end section is
formed. Wall sections are formed alternatively leaving an intermediate section in
between. The in-between sections are built similarly afterward but without the end
tube. At the end a continual diaphragm wall is constructed with the panel sections
tightly joined by the semi-circular groove.

1st panel 3rd panel 2nd panel Excavation

onward

Stop-end tube Semi circular groove

Joining for the diaphragm wall panel – Diaphragm
wall cannot be constructed continually for a very long
section due to limitation and size of the mechanical
plant. The wall is usually constructed in alternative
section. Two stop end tubes will be placed at the ends
of the excavated trench before concreting. The tubes
are withdrawn at the same time of concreting so that a
semi-circular end section is formed. Wall sections are
formed alternatively leaving an intermediate section in
between. The in-between sections are built similarly
afterward but without the end tube. At the end a
continual diaphragm wall is constructed with the panel
sections tightly joined by the semi-circular groove.
1st panel 3rd panel 2nd panel Excavation
onward

Stop-end tube Semi circular groove

Excavation using grab or clamshell to Placing in of reinforcement Placing concrete into the trench
form trench for the diaphragm wall bars and stop-end into trench using tremie pipe and take-out
panel. Bentonite slurry is filled inside the stop-end at the same pace
the trench to stabilize the side of cut

Steel tube used as Stop-end

to form the joining key

Construction process for a diaphragm wall panel

Forming the guide
wall and using it in the
trenching operation
Clamshell use to excavate the trench
to form a diaphragm wall panel
Fixing and placing of reinforcing cage
Hydrofraise technology
• The execution of diaphragm walls with hydrofraise is based on
the reverse circulation technique. The excavation is carried out
by milling soil by means of two drums fitted with tungsten
carbide cutters, rotating in opposite directions. Particles of soil,
suspended in the support fluid, are pumped off the trench by
utilizing a suction pump and delivered to the desanding plant
through the pipelines. At the plant the particles of soil are
removed from the bentonite suspension, which is recycled into
the storage tanks.
Flow diagram showing the excavation using trench cutter and soil removal
by de-sanding equipment through circulation of slurry
Construction sequences of a Hydrofraise panel

1. Excavation of the pre-

trench
2. Start of drilling of a
primary panel, 1st
element
3. Continuation of drilling
of a primary panel, 2nd
element
4. End of drilling of
primary panel, 3rd
element
5. Pouring the concrete of
a primary panel
6. Construction of the next
primary panel
7. Drilling of an
intermediate secondary
panel
8. Pouring the concrete of
the secondary panel
9. Continuation of the
excavation of the pre-
trench
Common hydrofraise equipment with the guiding frame and the cutting drum at
the bottom for cutting into various kind of subsoil ranging from clay to hard rock
 Guiding frame

Cutting
drum
Using hydrofraise (reverse circulation trench
cutter) to form the diaphragm wall panel –
Festival Walk
Using hydrofraise (reverse circulation trench
cutter) to form the diaphragm wall panel –
KCRC project
Bentenite slurry to balance the
soil pressure to protect the
trench from collapse

Guide wall

Trench excavation working in

bentonite slurry with grab
alignment control by guide wall
 de-sanding equipment

Debris (sand and gravel) being

filtered from the bontonite slurry
and deposite to the storage tank

Debris
storage tank

De-sanding equipment – the bontonite slurry carrying the soil and gravel
re-circulate to this equipment with the bontonite slurry and the debris being
removed. The debris will be collected in the storage tank for disposal later
Concrete placing using
hopper and tremie pipe

Tongue and groove type stop-

end to form the joining for two
adjacent diaphragm wall panel
Application of diaphragm wall in
construction
Diaphragm wall

Diaphragm wall
Diaphragm wall as cut-off for
basement excavation
Connecting the basement
floor onto the diaphragm wall.
The diaphragm wall will
become the permanent
basement wall afterward
 Diaphragm
wall

As side support for trenching

cutting (constructing an
underground subway for
Central-Wanchai Bypass)
Diaphragm wall Diaphragm wall

Diaphragm wall

Diaphragm wall to form large

cofferdam for building foundation
Construction of the ICC Tower from a cofferdam formed using diaphragm wall