Alternating current and Electrical Machines

alternating current and voltage of the

1. Alternating current. It is that current
same frequency as rotating vectors
which varies in magnitude
(phasors) along- with proper phase
continuously and reverses its direction
angle between them is called a phasor
periodically. Its value at any instant is
diagram or Argand diagram.
given by
6. A.C. circuit containing only an inductor.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 An alternating voltage, = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡 if
where I0 is the peak value of a.c. or applied to a pure inductor L drives a
current amplitude. The frequency of current, I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2) in the
a.c. supplied to our homes is 50 cps. inductor. The current in the inductor
The average value of a.c. over a lags behind the voltage in phase by π /
complete cycle is zero. 2 rad.
𝜀 𝜀
Peak value of current, 𝐼0 = 𝜔𝐿0 = 𝑋0
2. Average or mean value of a.c. It is that 𝐿

value of direct current which sends the Root mean square value of current,
𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝜺𝟎
same charge in a circuit in the same 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = =
time as is sent by the given alternating 𝑿𝑳 𝝎𝑳 √𝟐. 𝝎𝑳
7. Inductive reactance. It is the effective
current in the same circuit in its half
𝟐 resistance or opposition offered by an
time period. 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑰𝟎 inductor to the flow of a.c. through it.
𝝅
3. Effective or rms or virtual value of a.c. It is given by XL = ωL = 2 π/L
It is that value of direct current which The SI unit of inductive reactance is
produces the same heating effect in a ohm (Ω).
given resistor as is produced by the For a.c., XL ∝ f
given alternating current when passed For d.c., f = 0, so XL =0. (7.87)
for the same time. 𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 or 8. A.C. circuit containing only a capacitor.
1
– 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 or 𝐼𝑣 = 2 ⋅ 𝐼0 An alternating voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
√
= 0.707𝐼0 applied to a capacitor Cdrives a
4. Alternating voltage. It is that voltage current, I = I0 sin (ωt + π/2) in the
whose magnitude varies continuously capacitor. The current in the inductor is
and direction reverses periodically with ahead of voltage in phase by π/2 rad.
𝜀 𝜀
time. Its instantaneous, average and Peak value of current, 𝐼0 = 0 = 0
1/𝜔𝐶 𝑋𝐶
root mean square values are Root mean square value of current,
respectively given by 𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝟎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = =
𝜀 = 𝜀0 SIN𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝜀𝑎𝑣 = 0.637𝐸0 𝑿𝑪 𝟏/𝝎𝑪 √𝟐 ⋅ 𝟏/𝝎𝑪
9. Capacitive reactance. It is the effective
𝟏 resistance or opposition offered by a
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝜺𝟎
√𝟐 capacitor to the flow of a.c. through it.
1 1
5. Phasors and phasor diagrams. A It is given by 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
rotating vector that represents a The SI unit of capacitive reactance is
sinusoidally varying quantity is called a ohm (Ω)
phasor. A diagram that represents

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 1 Instantaneous voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
For a.c., 𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝑓
Instantaneous current, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 −
For d.c., 𝑓 = 0, so 𝑋𝐶 = ∞
𝜙)
Thus a capacitor allows a.c. to flow 𝜀0 𝜀
Peak current, 𝐼0 = = 0
through it easily but blocks d.c. √𝑅2 +𝑋𝐶2
𝑍
10. Impedance. It is a quantity that 𝜀0 𝜀
measures the opposition of a circuit to Impedance, 𝐼0 = = 𝑍0
√𝑅2 +𝑋𝐶2
the flow of current through it and so 𝑋𝐶
determines the magnitude of the Phase angle, 𝜙 = tan−1 or 𝜙 =
𝑅
current. In a d.c. circuit, this is the 𝑅
cos−1
𝑍
resistance R alone. In an a.c. circuit, the
13. The series LCR-circuit. For a series LCR-
reactance X also has to be taken into
circuit connected across a source 𝜀 =
account, according to the relation:
𝜉0 sin𝜔𝑡 the current I is given by
Z2 = R2 + X2 𝜀0
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Where Z is the impedance. Impedance 𝑍
triangle is a right angled triangle where Z is the total effective resistance
whose base represents resistance R, of the LCR-circuit and is called its
perpendicular represents reactance impedance.
and hypotenuse represents 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
impedance Z of the circuit. From this
triangle, the phase angle ϕ between 𝟏 𝟐
= √𝑹𝟐 + (𝝎𝑳 − ) T
voltage and current is given by 𝝎𝑪

𝑋 𝑅 The phase angle ϕ between voltage

tan𝜙 = or cos𝜙 = and current is given by
𝑅 𝑍
11. A.C. through a series LR-circuit. The 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
tan𝜙 = and cos𝜙 =
alternating voltage leads the current by 𝑅 𝑍
a phase angle ϕ The voltage leads the current if XL > XC
Instantaneous voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡 and it lags behind the current if XL <XC.
Instantaneous current, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 −
𝜙) 14. Resonance condition of the LCR-
𝜀0 𝜀 circuit. If XL=XC, the impedance of LCR
Peak current, 𝐼0 = = 𝑍0
√𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿2 circuit becomes
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 𝑅
Impedance, 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 =
The impedance is minimum and hence
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝑋 current is maximum. The circuit is
Phase angle, 𝜙 = tan−1 𝑅𝐿 or 𝜙 = purely resistive and voltage and
𝑅
cos−1 𝑍 current are in same phase. This is the
12. A.C. through a series CR-circuit. The resonance condition of LCR-circuit and
alternating voltage lags behind the is satisfied at the resonant frequency
voltage by phase angle ϕ given by

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 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒇𝒓 = 𝑼= 𝑳𝑰
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪 𝟐 𝟎
15. Q-Factor. It indicates the sharpness of 18. Energy stored in a capacitor. The
resonance. It is defined as the ratio of energy stored in a capacitor when it is
the resonant frequency to the charged from 0 to V volt is
difference in two frequencies taken on 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
both sides of the resonant frequency 𝑼= 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑸𝑽 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑪
such that at each frequency, the
19. LC-oscillations. When a charged
current amplitude becomes 1 / √2
capacitor is allowed to discharge
times the value at resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency through a non-resistive inductor,
Q-factor = = electrical oscillations of constant
Band width

𝝎𝒓 𝝎𝒓 𝑳 𝟏 𝑳 amplitude and frequency are

= = √ produced. These oscillations are called
𝝎𝟐 − 𝝎𝟏 𝑹 𝑹 𝑪
LC-oscillations. The charge of the
16. Power in an a.c.-circuit. The average capacitor satisfies the equation of SHM
power in an a.c. circuit consumed per
cycle is given by 𝒅𝟐 𝒒 𝟏
+ 𝒒=𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳𝑪
𝜀0 𝐼0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ cos𝜙 = cos𝜙 Instantaneous charge, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos𝜔0 𝑡
2
𝑑𝑞
Here cos ϕ is called power factor which Instantaneous current, 𝐼=− =
𝑑𝑡
is the ratio of true power (Pav) to the 𝜔0 𝑞0 sin𝜔0 𝑡
apparent power
Angular frequency of free oscillations,
(𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) 𝜔0 =
1
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶
Power factor, cos𝜙 = 𝑍 =
Frequency of free oscillations, 𝑓0 =
𝑅
𝜔0 1
√𝑅2 +(𝜔𝐿−1/𝜔𝐶)2 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
√
(i) For a pure resistive circuit, ϕ = 0, The energy in the LC-circuit oscillates
2
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 between the capacitor and the
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = inductor but the total energy remains
𝑅
constant.
(ii) For a pure inductive circuit, 𝜙 =
𝜋 20. Transformer. It is a device used to
, 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0
2 convert a.c. at high voltage into that at
(iii) For a pure capacitive circuit, 𝜙 = low voltage or vice versa. For an ideal
𝜋
− 2 , 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0 transformer,
𝜀2 𝐼1 𝑁2
17. Energy stored in an inductor. When = = =𝑘
the current in an inductor grows from 0 𝜀1 𝐼2 𝑁1
to I0, the magnetic energy stored in it is Here suffix 1 refers to primary coil and

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 suffix 2 to secondary coil and k is called
transformation or turns ratios of the
transformer.
(i) For a step up transformer, k >1 or N2 >
N1
𝜀2 > 𝜀1 and 𝐼2 < 𝐼1
(ii) For a step down transformer, k < 1 or
N2<N1
𝜀2 < 𝜀1 and 𝐼2 > 𝐼1
21. A.C. generator. It is a device to convert
mechanical energy into electrical
energy of alternating form. It consists
of a coil of wire that rotates with
angular velocity ω in the magnetic field
B of a permanent magnet. The flux
through the coil varies as ϕ = NBA cos
cof, where N is the number of turns in
the coil having the face area
A. (At t =0, the loop is normal to the field).
Induced emf, 𝐸 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔sin𝜔𝑡 =
𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
𝐼= sin𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin𝜔𝑡
𝑅

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