KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF SPATIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

POTENTIALS AND PROSPECTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF

PEKERRA IRRIGATION SCHEME TO ENHANCE RURAL LIVELIHOOD IN
MARIGAT, BARINGO COUNTY.

BY

THE THIRD YEAR CLASS

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023/2024

EPM 372: RURAL PLANNING STUDIO

 DECLARATION

This report is our original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other
university. No part of this report may be produced without prior permission of the authors
and/or Kenyatta University.
PARTICIPANTS

NO NAME REG.NO SIGNATURE

1 SUSAN OCHIENG N36/3271/2021

2 TOM WANJALA N36S/18453/2015

3 BRIGID OKOTH N36/5359/2021

4 BENEDICT KATHAMBI N36/4939/2021

5 PETER MUHORO N36/3262/2021

6 JEMIMAH KAMULA N36/3254/2021

7 SIKONA SAMSON N36/3266/2021

8 BRENDA KAJUJU N36/3260/2021

9 GRACE WAIRIMU N36/3256/2021

10 CHRISTINE NGESA N36S/14113/2017

11 ROBINSON LOLOIBONI N36/6647/2020

12 NOORDHIN ADILLE N36/3246/2021

13 SWALEH HASSAN N36/3247/2021

14 ANGELA MURUGI N36/2989/2015

15 SYLVIA KIMOTHO N36/3251/2021

16 ADRIAN WANGAI N36/4938/2021

17 MOSES KAMBONA N36/1045/2018

18 LIANNE NYAKANGA N36/3265/2021

19 CAROLINE TERESA N36/7156/2021

This rural planning studio report has been submitted for examination with my approval as
studio coordinator.
Signature …………………. Date………………….

MR. WILSON NYAORO

DEDICATION

We dedicate this report to the farmers and all key stakeholders of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme
in Marigat, Baringo county.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The study on Perkerra Irrigation Scheme was made successful due to the help assistance and

direction of various people, institutions and organizations. First and foremost, we would like

to acknowledge the assistance of the county commissioner for granting us the permission to

move freely within the county with his blessings. Secondly, we would like to acknowledge

the help of S. Ochieng, director NIA Marigat, who gave us an introductory visit through the

scheme, Samuel Chaibi Sacco manager Marigat farmers cooperatives, NIA Officials,

Vincent Kimboya irrigation manager, who introduced us to the various actors within the

scheme. Third we would like to extend our thanks to the chairman of National Irrigations

Authority, chairman of the IWUA Nicholas Bowen, chairman conflict resolution committee

Moses Kipruto, and the various representatives of the different sections within the scheme

not forgetting KALRO officials: Mercy Cheptarus scientists’ apiculture, Biwot Daniel

farm manager, Joseph Sitienei scientists natural resource management. This also includes all

the farmers we interviewed during the study who spared their time to interact with us.

Thanks to Kenyatta university department of Spatial Environmental Planning and

Management (EPM) for availing the necessary resources that enabled us to conduct the study

and subsequently prepare this report. We are grateful to our supervisor and Lecturer Mr.

Wilson Nyaoro who guided us in this study carefully all through inception to completion, we

are grateful for his selfless and dedication to our success and to Kelvin Achesa for his

support and knowledge in GIS and maps generations. We also owe special thanks to our
lecturers from the Department of Spatial Environmental Planning and Management for their

continued support during the study.

We also wish to give thanks to our families for their support. We wish to convey our heartfelt

gratitude to all who contributed to this report, but whose names and designation may not have

been stated in this report.

Finally, all glory is to the almighty God who made the whole process a success by giving us

good health, understanding and peace of mind through the entire study period.

ABSTRACT

The largest contributor to the livelihoods and economies of many countries across the world
is the agricultural sector. The sector accounts for 36% of the continent’s GDP, 70% of
employment and 40% of export earnings Agriculture is a global cornerstone of human
civilization, providing sustenance, livelihoods, and economic stability to communities around
the world. It encompasses a vast array of practices, from traditional subsistence farming to
modern large-scale commercial agriculture

The study was conducted at Perkerra Irrigation Scheme, which is located in Marigat, Baringo
County, whose gazetted land is 5800 acres and supports around 1625 households. The
objective of this study was to evaluate Perkerra Irrigation Scheme's operation and
performance in light of its initial objectives and targets, to conduct an inventory of crop
varieties and their adaptability to the ecological zone which characterize Baringo south sub
county, Examine the nexus between the development of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme and
enhancement of rural livelihoods, assess safety, health environmental issues associated with
the scheme's operations, and prepare an integrated plan for the scheme's long-term
development to maximize the scheme's potential for sustainable rural livelihoods. the
problems that farming scheme faces, and ways for maximizing the scheme's potential.
Structured questionnaires, interviews, and photography were used as primary data collection
methods. Different documents were examined to compare data obtained through primary
methods. Secondary data was collected from existing studies. The data was sorted into
themes using qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods like excel, and the data was
presented using pie charts, tables, and figures.

The results from the study shows that, Perkerra Irrigation scheme has a greater potential for
sustainable development of livelihood among local farmers in the area even though its
production has not been fully utilized. With the availability of cheap labour in the area,
significant investments in capacity building, infrastructural development, use of improved
crop varieties that are adaptable to the Baringo South agro-ecological zone, full
implementation of policies governing the development of schemes as well as environmental
conservation measures and other strategies will help overcome challenges facing Perkerra
Irrigation schemes and maximize the potential for rice production.

LIST OF ACRONYMS

KALRO: Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization

SACCO: Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

WRA: Water Resource Authority

WARMA: Water Resource Management Authority

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

ASALS: Arid and Semi-Arid Areas

WUA: Water User Association

NIA: National Irrigation Authority

NEMA: National Environment Management Authority

IUWA: Irrigation Water Use Association

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The largest contributor to the livelihoods and economies of many countries across the world
is the agricultural sector. The sector accounts for 36% of the continent’s GDP, 70% of
employment and 40% of export earnings (Nyage et AL., 2011). Agriculture is a global
cornerstone of human civilization, providing sustenance, livelihoods, and economic stability
to communities around the world. It encompasses a vast array of practices, from traditional
subsistence farming to modern large-scale commercial agriculture. According to the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture employs over one-third of the global
workforce and is the primary source of income for the majority of people in developing
countries (FAO, 2021). It contributes significantly to the world economy, accounting for a
substantial portion of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of many nations. Irrigation plays an
indispensable role in global agriculture, ensuring food security by mitigating the impact of
unreliable rainfall patterns and enabling the cultivation of crops in arid and semi-arid regions.
As of 2021, it was estimated that globally, about 20% of cultivated land was irrigated,
producing 40% of the world's food (FAO, 2021). Various irrigation techniques are employed
worldwide, ranging from traditional methods like furrow and basin irrigation to more
advanced systems such as drip and sprinkler irrigation. Irrigation has allowed for the
expansion of agricultural production in many regions, leading to increased crop yields and
improved food supply. Food and nutrition security is given prominence in the global and
regional development agenda as contained in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to
end poverty, protect the environment and ensure prosperity for all with sustainability. Two of
the SDGs: Goal 2-End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture; and Goal 6- Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all have direct implications of food security and sustainable management of
water resources, including irrigation water. Irrigation is the use of water led from rivers or
lakes into farms in order to grow crops on dry land. Achieving sustainable agriculture
development without sacrificing environmental quality is one of the important challenges in
today's world in order to achieve poverty reduction, food security and better nutrition and
health. Irrigation can make a significant contribution to reducing poverty and hunger in
developing countries, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization said in a report published
on (22nd March).

Agriculture and irrigation play crucial roles in promoting economic development in

developing countries, with tangible examples illustrating their impact. Agriculture serves as a
fundamental pillar of these economies, employing a significant portion of the population and
contributing substantially to GDP. For instance, in countries like India, where agriculture
engages more than half of the workforce and contributes about 17% of the nation's GDP,
agriculture is a vital economic driver (World Bank, 2021). The sector's contribution to
employment and income generation is particularly notable in countries like Bangladesh and
Ethiopia.

Irrigation, a key component of modernizing agriculture, significantly enhances productivity

in developing countries. Take Egypt, for example, where the Nile River and the Aswan High
Dam have enabled extensive irrigation, transforming vast desert areas into productive
agricultural lands. This increased agricultural output not only ensures food security for a
rapidly growing population but also creates surpluses for export. Egypt's agricultural exports,
including cotton and citrus fruits, generate substantial revenue and contribute to the nation's
economy (FAO, 2020). Moreover, agriculture serves as a source of raw materials for agro-
based industries, fostering value addition and economic diversification. In countries like
Kenya, the tea and coffee industries thrive on agricultural produce, contributing significantly
to export earnings and employment opportunities. The growth of these industries also attracts
foreign investments, further bolstering the national economy (UNCTAD, 2021}
Kenya has implemented several policies and initiatives in the agriculture and irrigation
sectors to contribute to rural development. The National Irrigation Policy (NIP), established
in 2016, is a key initiative aimed at expanding irrigated agriculture across the country. The
NIP seeks to improve food security, increase agricultural productivity, and reduce
dependency on rain-fed agriculture. It emphasizes the development of small-scale irrigation
schemes, supporting farmers in accessing water resources for sustainable crop production
(Ministry of Water, Sanitation, and Irrigation, 2016). To enhance rural development in
Kenya, the government launched the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Strategy (2017-
2026). This initiative promotes climate-resilient farming practices and efficient water
management in agriculture. It encourages the use of modern irrigation technologies, such as
drip and sprinkler irrigation, to reduce water wastage and increase crop yields. By
incorporating climate-smart agricultural practices, this strategy aims to enhance the resilience
of rural communities to climate change impacts (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock,
Fisheries, and Cooperatives, 2017).

The Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy (ASTGS) is another significant
policy in Kenya's rural development efforts. Launched in 2020, ASTGS aims to transform the
agricultural sector into a competitive, efficient, and sustainable industry. It focuses on
increasing agricultural productivity, value addition, and market access for smallholder
farmers. Through ASTGS, the government is investing in rural infrastructure development,
including irrigation systems and rural roads, to facilitate the movement of agricultural
products to markets (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Cooperatives,
2020).The government of Kenya has also initiated programs such as the National Youth
Agribusiness Program (NYAP) and the National Accelerated Irrigation Program (NAIP) to
engage young people in agriculture and promote irrigation expansion, respectively. These
programs not only create employment opportunities in rural areas but also contribute to
increased agricultural production and rural development (Government of Kenya, 2021a;
2021b). The Perkerra Irrigation Scheme is not an exemption as it exemplifies the synergy
between agricultural development and rural upliftment. By providing a reliable water supply,
it not only fosters increased agricultural production but also acts as a significant driver for job
creation and income generation, thereby playing a pivotal role in the holistic development of
the rural community.

1.1.1GLOBAL AND REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES OF IRRIGATION

Since farming provides two thirds of livelihoods and two thirds of the household budget for
food for the poor in Africa (Africa Progress report, 2015), agriculture is one of the continent's
most important social and economic sectors. As a result, the success of Africa's agricultural
sector will have a significant impact on how well people are able to live.

Despite the recent high economic development in Africa (more than 5% in several Sub-
Saharan nations), hunger is still a problem, especially in the Horn of Africa and the Sahel
region, and the agricultural sector continues to perform poorly. In rural areas, there is still
significant poverty, inadequate resilience to climatic influences, and poor nutrition. To
address food security issues in Africa, agricultural transformation. In general, agriculture will
encounter severe challenges between now and 2050 in order to feed the world's expected 9
billion people. According to UN figures, the world's population is increasing by 80 million
people per year and is anticipated to reach 9 billion by 2050. Population expansion,
urbanization, industrialization, and increases in production and consumption have all resulted
in a growing demand for fresh water.

The globe is expected to suffer a 40% worldwide water deficit by 2030, (UN, 2015)
Competing demand raises the possibility of localized disputes and makes availability to water
for sustainable irrigated agriculture development more challenging. Under water scarcity
situations, increased irrigation development and improved water management are critical to
increasing productivity. Water shortage has three dimensions in Africa, notably Kenya:
scarcity of water quantity and quality, scarcity of water infrastructures, and scarcity of
services and capacities. Water withdrawal per capita remains modest, as reciprocated is water
withdrawal for agriculture. In 2013, the total internal renewable freshwater resources in Sub-
Saharan Africa were estimated to be 3,857 billion m3, with water withdrawals accounting for
only about 189 billion m3, or 18% of total internal resources. (UN, 2015)

Agricultural water use accounts for 31% of overall withdrawals and less than 2% of potential
resources. Where agriculture is developed in East Asia, the potential is smaller than that of
Sub-Saharan Africa (1,982 billion m3), water withdrawal is 51%, and agriculture is the main
user (91% of water withdrawal). Similarly, in North Africa and South Africa, food security
has improved through time, and farmers are becoming more prosperous.(The United Nations
World Water Development Report, 2021)
1.1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE AND
RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

Irrigated agriculture and rural development in Kenya have undergone significant historical
development, shaped by a combination of environmental, economic, and political factors.
Traditionally, various ethnic communities in Kenya practiced rain fed agriculture, adapting
their farming methods to the country's diverse climatic regions. However, the need for
increased food production and improved livelihoods led to the promotion of irrigated
agriculture. Over the years, Kenya has witnessed a shift towards community-based irrigation
systems, encouraging smallholder farmers to adopt sustainable practices. Government
policies and international support have played crucial roles in promoting efficient water
management and improving irrigation infrastructure. The establishment of the National
Irrigation Board (NIB) in 1986 further emphasized the commitment to expanding irrigated
agriculture across the country. In the 21st century, the importance of irrigated agriculture in
ensuring food security and mitigating the impacts of climate change has gained prominence.
The government has implemented initiatives to enhance smallholder farmers' access to
irrigation technologies, credit facilities, and market linkages.

Sustainable rural development strategies, including the promotion of agribusiness and value
addition, have been integrated to uplift the economic status of rural communities. The
colonial period marked the beginning of formal irrigation schemes, with British authorities
introducing projects such as the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme in the Rift Valley. Post-
independence, the Kenyan government prioritized rural development as part of its broader
economic agenda. The Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s saw the introduction of
modern agricultural technologies, including irrigation systems, to enhance crop yields. Large-
scale irrigation projects like the Mwea Irrigation Scheme were initiated, aimed at boosting
rice production and reducing reliance on rain fed agriculture.

1.2 RATIONALE OF THE REVITALIZATION PLAN

The need for this revitalization plan for sustainable development of irrigation arises out of the
high priority the Government of Kenya has assigned to developing irrigation at an accelerated
rate to increase agricultural productivity and to enhance rural livelihoods. The rationale
behind the revitalization plan for sustainable irrigation development encompasses optimizing
water use, enhancing agricultural productivity, safeguarding the environment, fostering
economic growth, and building resilience to climate change. This comprehensive approach
aims to create a sustainable and equitable future for agriculture and the communities it
sustains. In turn this priority is based on the urgency of addressing food and nutrition security
and reducing poverty, which is more prevalent in rural areas than urban, and on the
predominant role of agriculture in the economy, which means that rapid overall economic
growth cannot be attained without transforming and making the irrigated agricultural
productive and competitive.

Food and nutrition security is also given prominence in the global and regional development
agenda as contained in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, protect
the environment and ensure prosperity for all with sustainability. Two of the SDGs: Goal 2—
End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture; and Goal 6—Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all have direct implications of food security and sustainable management of
water resources, including irrigation water. Further, the Government has undertaken
institutional reforms in the irrigation sector that has culminated in the Irrigation ACT 2019.

This ACT repeals the Irrigation Act (Cap.347 of 1966), which established the NIB and
creates a National Irrigation Authority (NIA) with the mandate of regulating, promoting the
development, and effective management of irrigation services in Kenya. This plan shall,
therefore, prepare a firm foundation for NIA to shift to the new roles and responsibilities, as
contemplated in the ACT.

1.3PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION SERVICES

According to studies conducted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB, 2015) and the World
Bank, (WBG, 2015) successful irrigated projects commonly share the following features:

 Improve agricultural productivity and performance: Good irrigation projects should

aim at improving agricultural productivity and increase crop yields and cropping
intensities.
 Legal and Institutional Frameworks: Sustainable and competitive irrigation sector
requires an enabling environment that allows farmers to supply the demand for their
produce. This include the following: (i) a policy and institutional framework that
 promotes sound integrated water resource management; (ii) a legal framework for
water user associations that promotes cost recovery at least sufficient to finance
sustainable O&M; (iii) rural infrastructure (e.g., roads that allow farmers to market
their products, and farm inputs to be delivered when they are needed); (iv) efficient
markets that are free of price distortions and barriers to competition for both farm
products and agricultural inputs; and (v) access to information on demand, prices, and
technology.
 Partnership and Collaboration: Long-term involvement by Implementing/Executing
Agency in irrigation sector and building up effective partnerships with farmers,
communities and other stakeholders over time contributes to project success, policy
reform, and the development of institutional capacity.
 Building commitment and ownership: The strategies employed by the Executing
Agency should lead to long term commitment and ownership. Some of the indicators
indicating commitment and building support include (i) establishing site-based project
offices; (ii) well-qualified staff; (iii) selecting Implementing Agency personnel
involved in earlier projects; and (iv) financing a considerable share of project cost.
 Project Design and Management: Good quality at entry reflected by the quality of the
feasibility study and project design, incorporation of lessons from prior projects, and
the level of stakeholder participation.
 Stakeholder Involvement and participation: Direct stakeholders and beneficiaries
involved in all project phases, particularly O&M. Participatory techniques used to
develop a sound understanding of the roles and responsibilities of farmers and water
user associations and to create a climate in which participants were willing to pay
irrigation fees.
 Equitable irrigation water supply within the catchment area: Adequate water supply
reached tail-end users, which are usually small farmers.
 Dynamism and Flexibility: Making judicious changes in project designs during
implementation contribute to achieving good project outcomes.
 Principles of Quality Management: Effective quality control systems for civil works
and internal and external audit systems put in place, even in remote areas.
 Institutional Capacity Development: During implementation, continuous attention
paid to building the systems needed for effective Project Operations and Management
and Monitoring and evaluation
1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Baringo County, and particularly Marigat, is an arid area where the population has been

depending on pastoralism as the main source of earning a livelihood. Due to successive

droughts, there has been hunger, which has resulted in death; the locals have become destitute

and depend on donations from the government and non-governmental organizations.

However, an irrigation scheme known as the Perkerra irrigation scheme was initiated by well-

wishers to boost food security and increase the standard of living in the area, as well as

reduce dependency on donors and the government for support. The scheme was designed to

put 5800 acres under irrigation, while the area developed was 2750 acres. Further, due to

irrigation water shortages, only 2750 acres out of the 5800 acres have been cropped from the

gravity furrow irrigation system. This raises questions about whether the scheme has indeed

been effective in addressing the objectives for which it was intended. Even though, poverty

eradication was one of the major objectives of the scheme, according to Kenya bureau of

statistics, the poverty level of Baringo County is still high at 47.5% compared to national

poverty level of 38.6%, this calls for the revitalization of the scheme.

The Scheme has long been a vital resource for the local rural community, promising

agricultural prosperity and improved livelihoods. Despite the policies and initiatives set by

the government, the scheme is facing challenges. However, in recent years, the scheme has

faced a myriad of challenges that have eroded its potential benefits and left the community

grappling with significant issues. The problems are constraining the operation of the scheme

not meeting the targets and need to be revitalized. The overarching problem lies in the

deterioration of the irrigation infrastructure, including canals, water storage, and distribution

systems, which have resulted in inefficient water use, reduced crop yields, and heightened

vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. This infrastructure decay, coupled with

inadequate maintenance and limited technical expertise, has hindered the scheme's capacity to
provide a sustainable source of income and food security for the local population.

Furthermore, the decline of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme has contributed to a vicious cycle

of rural poverty, as farmers struggle with unreliable water access, decreased agricultural

productivity, and limited market opportunities for their produce. As a consequence, rural

livelihoods have suffered, forcing many residents into subsistence farming and deepening

their dependence on external food aid. This has serious implications for the overall well-

being of the community, including reduced access to education and healthcare services.

Additionally, the ecological consequences of the scheme's deterioration cannot be ignored.

Inefficient water management practices have led to increased soil erosion and degradation,
negatively impacting the long-term sustainability of agriculture in the region. Moreover, the
environmental degradation has put additional stress on already limited water resources,
exacerbating water scarcity issues and undermining the scheme's potential to be a reliable
source of irrigation. In light of these pressing challenges, it is evident that a comprehensive
revitalization plan is urgently needed to address the deteriorating state of the Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme and its far-reaching consequences for rural livelihoods in Marigat, Baringo
County. This project aims to diagnose and rectify these critical issues, providing a sustainable
and inclusive solution that not only rejuvenates the irrigation infrastructure but also promotes
economic growth, food security, and environmental sustainability.

1.5 STUDIO QUESTIONS

1. What problems do constrain the operations and performance of Perkerra Irrigation

Scheme?

2. What are the crop varieties grown and how adaptable are they to the agro- ecological zone
that characterizes Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

3. How has Perkerra irrigation scheme contributed to the enhancement of rural livelihoods?

4. What are the safety, health and environmental issues associated with the operations of the
Perkerra Irrigation scheme?
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDIO

1. To evaluate the operations and performance of Perkerra Irrigation scheme in light to its
initial objectives and targets.

2.To conduct an inventory of the crops varieties grown and their adaptability to the agro-
ecological zone which characterize Perkerra irrigation Scheme.

3.To examine the nexus between the development of the Perkerra irrigation Scheme and
enhancement of rural livelihoods.

4. To assess safety, health and environmental issues associated with the operations of
Perkerra Irrigation Scheme.

5. To undertake SWOT analysis of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme.

6. To prepare an integrated revitalization plan for sustainable development of Perkerra

Irrigation Scheme.

1.7 PREMISES OF THE STUDIO

1. Perkerra irrigation scheme is characterized by several weaknesses and gaps and therefore
not meeting its initial objectives and targets.

2. The crop varieties grown in Perkerra irrigation scheme are not adaptable to the agro-
ecological zone of the area.

3. Perkerra Irrigation Scheme has contributed significantly to the enhancement of rural

livelihoods.

4. There exist a number of safety, health and environmental issues which characterize the
operations of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme.

1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDIO

The selection of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme in Marigat, Baringo County, as the primary
focus for our revitalization project is grounded in several compelling reasons. First and
foremost, Perkerra historical significance as a potential driver of rural livelihoods makes it a
standout candidate. This scheme has, for decades, represented a lifeline for local farmers and
communities, embodying the promise of improved agricultural productivity and economic
well-being. Its past contributions to the region's agricultural landscape underscore the
potential for meaningful impact through revitalization.

Furthermore, the choice of Perkerra is guided by the severity of the challenges it currently
faces. The degradation of its infrastructure and the resulting decline in agricultural
productivity has reached critical levels, making it an urgent case for intervention. This is
particularly important in light of the dire socioeconomic conditions faced by local residents,
who are grappling with food insecurity and poverty exacerbated by the scheme's decline. The
urgency of addressing these issues cannot be overstated, as it directly impacts the well-being
and future prospects of the community. Moreover, Perkerra selection aligns with regional
priorities and needs. Similar irrigation schemes in the East African region are confronted with
analogous problems, and their revitalization has broader implications for addressing food
security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable agricultural practices. By focusing on Perkerra,
we contribute not only to local development but also to regional efforts to tackle shared
challenges. Additionally, Perkerra environmental significance cannot be overlooked.

The degradation of its irrigation infrastructure has resulted in soil erosion and land
degradation, contributing to broader regional ecological concerns such as soil depletion and
water scarcity. Addressing these environmental issues at Perkerra serves as a model for
responsible resource management and sustainable farming practices, which have global
relevance. Lastly, the selection of Perkerra is guided by the potential for scalability and
replicability. Lessons learned from the revitalization of this scheme can be applied to similar
projects in the region and globally, amplifying the impact of our efforts. By showcasing a
successful revitalization plan for Perkerra, we set a precedent for sustainable rural
development that can inspire similar initiatives in other areas facing similar challenges. In
summary, the choice of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme as the focus of our revitalization
project is grounded in its historical significance, the urgency of its current challenges,
alignment with regional priorities, environmental implications, and the potential for
scalability and replicability. This choice allows us to address pressing local issues while
contributing to broader regional and global goals of sustainable development and responsible
resource management.

1.9 SIGNIFIGANCE OF THE STUDIO

In order to enhance farming in the region, the study was created to determine the potential of
the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme for the sustainable development of rural lives. It was clear that
the programme had improved the people's quality of life by generating jobs, raising incomes,
ensuring a steady supply of food, and improving food security. The National and County
Governments, National Irrigation Authority, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research
Organization (KALRO), Water Users Association, Ministry of Agriculture, and Sacco's can
all benefit from the findings. A greater understanding of the findings would help the national
and county governments build policy papers, strategies, standards, and guidelines to address
sustainability challenges affecting irrigation projects in the sub county and the country as a
whole. To donor organizations and development partners, the findings identify areas of
weakness in project implementation and take over for repair, ensuring the intended objectives
are realized and, as a result, funding for similar projects in other areas will be expanded. Last
but not least, the findings are beneficial to the commercial sector interested in investing in
irrigation projects as well as scholars wanting more information about the scheme's
performance. In general, the study's findings are valuable in boosting farming in the Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme and other locations experiencing similar challenges and possibilities. This
goes a long way towards improving agricultural productivity and reducing malnutrition
instances in the ASAL region.

The revitalization plan for the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme in Marigat, Baringo County, carries
profound significance for the local community and the broader region. Firstly, it promises to
usher in a new era of improved livelihoods for the rural population. By optimizing this
irrigation scheme, we can substantially increase agricultural productivity and create job
opportunities, thus helping to alleviate poverty and enhance the overall quality of life for
residents. Secondly, this project addresses the critical issue of food security. By boosting
agricultural output through sustainable irrigation practices, the scheme can ensure a
consistent and ample food supply for the community. This not only reduces reliance on food
aid but also strengthens resilience against food shortages, which have historically plagued the
region. Furthermore, the revitalization of Perkerra offers a pathway to economic growth. The
increased agricultural activity will generate a demand for labor and related services,
ultimately stimulating economic development in Marigat and its neighboring areas. This
economic growth can extend to sectors beyond agriculture, such as transportation and retail,
contributing to a more prosperous local economy. Environmental sustainability is another
vital aspect. By incorporating eco-friendly farming techniques and efficient water
management, the project can mitigate the negative ecological impacts of agriculture, ensuring
the long-term health of the land and water resources.

Socially, the project empowers the community by granting them the means to uplift their own
living conditions and invest in essential services such as education and healthcare. This
newfound empowerment fosters a sense of self-reliance and community pride. In addition,
the Perkerra revitalization project has the potential to boost government revenue through
increased agricultural productivity, which can then be reinvested into further development
projects and services for the community. Moreover, in an era marked by climate change and
weather uncertainties, the scheme provides a critical element of resilience, helping farmers
adapt to changing weather patterns and reducing vulnerability to droughts and extreme
weather events.

By involving local communities in the planning and execution of the project, it ensures their
active participation and ownership, leading to sustainable development that is tailored to their
needs. Ultimately, the success of this initiative can serve as a model for similar projects in the
region, promoting broader regional development and setting a precedent for sustainable rural
development efforts.

1.9 SCOPE OF THE STUDIO

The studio was conducted in Perkerra Irrigation scheme situated in Marigat Ward in Baringo
South sub- county, Baringo County. The gazetted area for the irrigation scheme is 5800 acres
of which the area under irrigation is 2750 acres. The irrigation scheme supports around 1,625
households. The study targeted farmers within the scheme and the various interested and
affected parties including the business community, Sacco’s and other key institutions such as
NIA, and KALRO and water users’ associations. The study was designed to evaluate the
operations and performance of Perkerra Irrigation scheme in light to its initial objectives and
targets: conduct an inventory of crop varieties grown and their adaptability to the agro-
ecological zone which characterize Perkerra irrigation scheme: examine the nexus between
the development of the Perkerra irrigation Scheme and enhancement of rural livelihoods,
assess safety, health and environmental issues associated with the operations of Perkerra
Irrigation scheme and finally prepare an integrated revitalization plan for sustainable
development of Perkerra Irrigation scheme.

1.11 DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS

Agriculture –primary production of food and fibre at the farm level, including crops and/or
livestock production, as well as apiculture, aquaculture, mushrooms and other non-plant and
non-animal products, and intentionally planted (and managed) forests.
“Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life”.
Irrigation refers to the artificial application of water to assist in the growing of crops, trees
and pastures. This can be done by letting water flow over the land (surface irrigation), by
spraying water under pressure over the land

Climate variability: Variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard
deviations, or statistics of extremes) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond
that of individual weather events.
Climate change: A change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human
activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural
climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
Evaluation: Evaluation is an assessment of a planned, ongoing, or completed intervention to
determine its relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.

Risk: The likelihood of an event occurring combined with the severity of expected impacts.
Stakeholders: An agency, organization, group or individual with a direct or indirect interest in
the program, or who is affected positively or negatively by the implementation and outcome
of the program.
Vulnerability: The degree to which a system is susceptible to and unable to cope with the
adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.

CHAPTER 2:

CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS

2.1. The meaning of rural development

The definition of “rural” differs by country, though it is usually used in contrast to “urban”.

For instance, this word is defined based on population density in Japan, indicating an area

other than “an area with over 5,000 people, which consists of each district with a population

density of over 4,000 per square kilometer”. However, we cannot simply apply this definition

to other countries. Moreover, due to the fact that the concept of “rural” varies from Asia to
Africa, it is difficult to define it uniformly. Therefore, the use of “rural” (including fishing

and mountain villages) as a relative concept to “urban”, based on social, economic, and

natural conditions in each country may be most adequate. The term could also be used to

describe areas where a majority of the residents are engaged in agriculture in a broad sense

(including livestock farming, forestry, and fisheries). The final beneficiaries of development

assistance are local people in both rural and urban areas. However, their livelihoods are based

on significantly different social, economic, and natural environments. Most rural residents in

many developing countries (especially in the least developed countries, or LLDC) are

engaged in and depend on local agriculture, forestry, and fishery resources to make a living.

If the local people are final beneficiaries of development assistance, the aim of rural

development can be defined as the improvement of sustainable livelihoods (especially

impoverished groups), with careful attention paid to local characteristic.

2.1.1. Dimensions of rural development

Human Dimension: The basis of all rural development are people. If a rural area has

massive outmigration of young people or if a large percentage of the farmers is above the age

of 65 (as is the case in Italy, Greece, or Portugal), it will be very difficult to initiate

endogenous economic growth. The human dimension also includes the educational level of

the population, their cultural identity and their social structure. Human factors are not only

relevant in the rural areas: we also have to consider the impact of urban life- style change on

rural areas, such as changes in leisure activities or food consumption of the urban majority.

Economic Dimension: Many languages have sayings which point out that for ordinary men

(and women) the economic sphere of life comes first and foremost. Societies cannot

indefinitely afford to subsidize living conditions only for reasons such as “landscape
preservation” or “cultural heritage”. In the end, if there is no viable economic basis for rural

life, there will be no rural life. Many experts are concerned that policies for improving or at

least stabilizing the economic situation in rural areas have not worked too well in the past.

For most farmers, the economic situation has deteriorated, despite heavy subsidies from both

national and Community sources. While the European Union has reduced in the past 30 years

their agricultural spending from about 80% to less than 50% of Community Expenditures, the

total amount of agricultural subsidies is still very high in comparison to other economic

sectors. This has great political relevance, because agriculture and forestry are often not the

most important economic activities in rural areas.

Environment & Resources: In the long run, rural development is only possible, if it does

not waste essential natural resources (such as water), if it preserves the cultural landscape, if

it does not pollute soils, water and air, and if it safeguards the biological diversity of plants

and animals. Other than in cities, where we can live and work in a highly artificial

environment, the rural areas depend to a much greater extent on natural resources and a

healthy natural environment for many of their economic activities, such as tourism, food

production, or forestry. Every new policy measure for the promotion of rural development

has to be evaluated in its impact on the natural environment. New economic and political

concepts have to be developed and implemented to promote the preservation of biodiversity,

such as the introduction of ecological criteria in agricultural subsidies.

Political Dimension: Public opinion and the participation of various social and economic

groups in the political debate about development priorities are most important for rural

change. There can be no doubt that farmers’ protests and massive lobbying of the food

industry have in past years significantly affected Europe’s agricultural policies - both on the

national and EU level. Rural development scenarios therefore cannot be based solely on

objective bio-physical conditions or economic rationality - they must also take into account
political pressures; and this clearly requires analyses of the power balance between various

political actors of rural development.

Figure: dimensions of rural development

2.1.2. Historical account of rural development in Kenya

According to Kirori (2002) in the 1970s, Kenya took special recognition and focus on the

rural economy by adopting rural development as a basic strategy for the path to national

development, and planning, as a central task for rural development. Through rural

development, people would achieve better living conditions due to increased productivity,

improved transportation facilities, new market opportunities, safe water supplies, better

housing, more jobs and coordinated services throughout the rural areas. It was understood

that full participation of the household in a rural economy was influenced in important ways

by literacy, health care, clean water, good education, good shelter, infrastructure and a

healthy environment.
Emphasis was placed on balanced rural development and eight rural programs were

formulated focusing on health; rural access roads with an emphasis on secondary, minor and

agricultural feeder roads; primary education; rural water; housing programs for the

improvement of rural housing as a major source of non-agricultural economic activity in rural

areas; rural growth centers designated as foci for trade, social services and communications to

ensure an orderly course of development in all rural areas; rural works programs for creating

rural employment; and rural development fund programs an important source of funding of

district-specific projects. Kenya's rural development strategy has evolved tremendously over

time. It embraced two major components in the 1980s, the District Focus Strategy {5th NDP,

1984 -1988), which made the district the operational center for rural development in 1983,

and the Rural-Urban Balance Strategy in 1986 (Sessional Paper# 1, 1986).

In the 1990s, the rural development strategy embraced the integrated approach to planning

and emphasized effective implementation of both the district focus and rural-urban balance

strategies through increased location of light agricultural based industries in the rural areas

and small towns to provide immediate market for agricultural produce and raw materials to

industries, increased promotion of industrial investments in rural areas, increased spatial

pattern of urbanization with close linkages to agricultural resource base as a shift from the

urban primary structure pursued in the past, increased promotion of informal sector

development to generate non-farm opportunities, and provision of adequate legal and

institutional framework to enhance community participation and self-governance (7th NDP,

1993 - 1996; 8th NDP, 1997 - 2001; 9th NDP, 2002 - 2008). Two complimentary planning

approaches have been used in addressing issues of rural development in Kenya, ‘the

interventionist strategy or traditional directed approach' also referred commonly to as the top-

bottom or top-down approach to development, and ‘the community or grassroots approach’

also referred to commonly to as the bottom-up approach to development (Mbithi, 1974).

2.1.3. Approaches and strategies for rural development.

2.1.3.1. The Community or Grassroots Strategy for Rural Development Planning in

Kenya

The distinguishing feature of the grassroots strategy is its focus on access to opportunities and

social amenities of majority of the rural population. Resources are channeled to those

persons. The aim of the strategy is to reach and involve the vast majority of the rural

population in the development process, i.e., ensuring local involvement of diverse interest

community groups in rural development planning and implementation.

Available literature recognizing the critical importance of grassroots strategy include Mbithi

(1974), who says that the rural household is always screening information and signals

translating them into most consistent behavior with the mastery of the community over the

environment and resource endowment; Heyer (1967) and Schultz (1964) who argue that the

rural household possesses expertise essential for its effective involvement in ensuring

efficient decision making with respect to maximization of productivity of its resource

endowment. According to Thirwall (1972), the "grassroots” school of economic development

lays emphasis on policies to raise the level of productivity in the rural sector as the best long-

term development strategy. Kenya’s various policy documents and reports of conferences and

commissions have implicitly and explicitly supported the grassroots approach and

decentralization in rural development planning and implementation.

The Sessional Paper No.10 of 1965, for example, declared that “the fundamental

characteristic of African Socialism is that society has a duty to plan, guide, and control the

uses of all production resources and planning will be extended to provinces, districts and

municipalities so as to ensure that each administrative unit made good progress towards

development."
The 1966 Kericho Conference emphasized the need for Kenya to give greater priority to the

rural sector in national planning, to shift decision making focus from headquarter to the field

and to experiment with different approaches to rural development.

The Ndegwa Commission in early 1970s emphasized putting strong focus for planned rural

development at the district level. Mbithi (1974), distinguishes three key attempts

(instruments) that Kenya has used in the role of promoting the community or grassroots

approach to rural development planning. They include the Harambee self-help movement, the

Special Rural Development Program (SRDP), and District Development Planning.

The Harambee Self-help movement is a grassroot operation with core feature centered on

local groups’ reactiveness vis-à-vis centralized planning. It is characterized by local level

identification of needs, local level mobilization of resources, and local level implementation

of projects to solve the local needs. The SRDP was an experimental pilot program in 1970-

1971 testing strategies for accelerating rural development including growth in local resources

utilization and coordination in planning and development management.

The concept of district planning for rural development was initiated early 1970s in

recognition of the weaknesses in centralized national planning and was aimed at achieving

balanced development among regions as well as a more equitable distribution of national

income between regions and individuals within a given area. It was adopted as a strategy for

rural development in July 1983 and formalized the bottom-up approach and decentralization

in development planning and implementation process in Kenya (5th NDP, 1984 - 1988,

Republic of Kenya).

Districts were made the centers or cornerstones of integrated rural development with

autonomy for setting their own priorities. The strategy is long range in nature and dynamic
requiring continuous review and revamping in light of changes of various societal aspects

including social, economic, cultural, political, ethical, moral aspects etc. It provides for local

involvement at the lowest administrative level, the sub-location as well as location and

division.

2.1.2.2. The interventionist strategy for rural development planning

The 9th NDP (2002 - 2008) with the theme “Effective Management for Sustainable

Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction” emphasizes adoption of participatory and

consultative approach to planning and implementation ensuring that resources are used where

they are most needed and have greatest impact. It proposes the use of the Kenya Rural

Development Strategy as key strategy for promoting growth in agriculture and rural sector

development.

The Plan emphasizes the need to strengthen the District Focus Strategy for Rural

Development with adequate legal and institutional framework so as to enhance community

participation and self-governance. The 9th NDP also emphasizes the strengthening of

management of development process and decision-making at all levels by establishment of an

effective Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) network in the Ministry of Finance and

Planning. The structure of the M&E system includes a National M&E Committee, Ministerial

M&E Committees, Provincial and District M&E Committees, and M&E of Community

Action Plans at the community level through Community Project Committees.

The planning and implementation strategy for rural development in the 4th NDP (1979-

1983) whose theme was “Alleviation of Poverty" emphasized the diversification of rural

activities from small scale agriculture to industry and non-rural farm activities, increased

effort in local-level community participation in program decision making in assessing

community needs and priorities, strengthening and revitalizing of DDCs to enhance the vital

role of the district as the basic unit for development and implementation, reducing imbalances
between urban and rural development, and increased research and development of

technologies for small farm and non-farm activities and for the rural industries processing

locally available crops.

2.1.2.3. The Harambee Self-Help Movement

The Harambee Self-Help Movement is a grassroots community development initiative that

originated in Kenya in the 1960s. The term "Harambee" is derived from the Swahili language

and translates to "all pull together." It embodies the spirit of collective effort and

collaboration towards achieving common goals. The Harambee movement emerged as a

response to the challenges faced by newly independent Kenya, particularly in the areas of

education, healthcare, and infrastructure development. It was initiated by Jomo Kenyatta, the

first President of Kenya, who called upon citizens to actively participate in nation building.

One of the key objectives of Harambee was to mobilize resources from within the

community to fund various development projects. This involved voluntary contributions of

money, labor, and materials. Harambee events were organized at both national and local

levels, where individuals would come together to donate towards specific projects Over the

years, the Harambee Self-Help Movement has made significant contributions to various

sectors in Kenya. Some notable achievements include:

 Education: Harambee has played a crucial role in expanding access to education in

Kenya. Funds raised through the movement have been used to build schools, provide

scholarships, and improve educational facilities.

 Healthcare: The movement has also contributed to improving healthcare services in

Kenya. Funds have been used to construct hospitals, clinics, and medical centers, as well

as to support medical research and training programs.

 Infrastructure Development: Harambee has been instrumental in the construction of

roads, bridges, water supply systems, and other infrastructure projects. These initiatives
 have helped to connect remote areas, improve transportation networks, and enhance

overall living conditions.

Criticism and Challenges: While the Harambee Self-Help Movement has achieved

significant success in community development, it has also faced criticism and encountered

challenges:

1. Inequality: Some critics argue that Harambee perpetuates inequality by relying

on voluntary contributions, which may favor wealthier individuals or communities

over those with limited resources.

2. Corruption: There have been instances where funds raised through Harambee

have been misappropriated or misused due to lack of proper oversight and

accountability mechanisms.

3. Sustainability: Maintaining the long-term sustainability of projects initiated

through Harambee can be a challenge. Without adequate planning and ongoing

support, some projects may not be able to sustain themselves financially or

operationally.

2.1.2.5. The Special Rural Development Program (SRDP)

The Special Rural Development Program (SRDP) is a comprehensive initiative aimed at

promoting and supporting rural development in various countries around the world. It is

designed to address the specific challenges faced by rural areas, such as limited access to

resources, infrastructure, and services. The SRDP encompasses a wide range of strategies and

interventions that aim to improve the quality of life for rural communities, enhance economic

opportunities, and promote sustainable development.

 One of the key objectives of the SRDP is to enhance agricultural productivity and

competitiveness in rural areas. This is achieved through various measures, including

providing financial support for farmers, promoting the adoption of modern farming

techniques and technologies, and improving access to markets. By investing in agriculture,

the SRDP aims to boost rural incomes, reduce poverty, and ensure food security.

Another important aspect of the SRDP is the promotion of rural entrepreneurship and

diversification. This involves supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in rural

areas, encouraging innovation and creativity, and facilitating access to finance and business

development services. By fostering entrepreneurship, the SRDP aims to create new job

opportunities, stimulate economic growth, and reduce rural-urban disparities.

In addition to agriculture and entrepreneurship, the SRDP also focuses on improving rural

infrastructure and basic services. This includes investments in roads, water supply systems,

electricity grids, healthcare facilities, schools, and other essential infrastructure. By

enhancing infrastructure, the SRDP aims to improve connectivity within rural areas and

between rural and urban areas, thereby facilitating trade, education, healthcare delivery, and

overall socio-economic development.

Furthermore, the SRDP recognizes the importance of environmental sustainability in rural

development. It promotes the adoption of sustainable land management practices,

conservation of natural resources, protection of biodiversity, and mitigation of climate change

impacts. By integrating environmental considerations into rural development planning and

implementation processes, the SRDP aims to ensure that development activities are carried

out in a manner that preserves ecosystems and supports long-term sustainability.

The implementation of the SRDP involves collaboration and coordination among various

stakeholders, including government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs),

community-based organizations, and the private sector. These stakeholders work together to

design and implement development projects and programs that are tailored to the specific

needs and priorities of rural communities. The SRDP also emphasizes the importance of

participatory approaches, involving local communities in decision-making processes and

empowering them to take ownership of development initiatives.

It is worth noting that the specific design and implementation of the SRDP may vary from

country to country, depending on their unique socio-economic context, development

priorities, and institutional arrangements. However, the underlying principles and objectives

remain consistent – to promote rural development, reduce poverty, and improve the well-

being of rural communities.

2.2. Concept of Irrigation

Irrigation is defined as any process, other than by natural precipitation, which supplies water

to the crops or any other cultivated plants, livestock, aquaculture and desired forest trees.

Irrigation plays a vital role in food supply, presently producing about 50% of all food. The

estimated cultivated area for farm use is about 15%-20%. Due to population growth,

urbanization, and climate change, competition for water resources is expected to increase,

with a particular impact on agriculture. The population is expected to increase to over 10

billion by 2050, and whether urban or rural, this population will need food and fiber to meet

its basic needs. Although the remaining 83% needs irrigation to ensure optimal growth due to

inadequate rainfall, irrigated fields occupy only 2% of Kenya’s total crop area under crop.

Combined with the increased consumption of calories and more complex foods, which

accompanies income growth in the developing world, it is estimated that agricultural

production will need to expand by 70% by 2050.

However, future demand for water by all sectors will require as much as 24% -40% of water

to be allocated from the lower to higher productivity and employment activities, particularly

in water-stressed regions. In most cases, such reallocation is expected to come from

agriculture due to its high share of water use. Currently, agriculture accounts (on average) for

70% of all freshwater withdrawals globally (and an even higher share of “consumptive water

use” due to the evapotranspiration of crops). (World Bank 2002)

2.2.1 Historical development of irrigation in Kenya

Irrigation is an old-age technology involving the artificial application of water to supplement

rainfall for crop production. In Kenya, there is evidence that local communities like

Marakwet and the Ilchamus (Jemp) Maasai, may have some of the irrigation for the last 500

years (Njokah1992). Formal irrigation started between 1901 and 1905 during the construction

of the Kenya-Uganda railway around Kibwezi and Makindu. Large scale commenced in the

mid-1950s with the development of Mwea, Hola and Perkerra irrigation schemes.

Development of irrigation in Kenya too place in the following phases:

2.2.1.1. During pre-independence.

Planned irrigation planning started after the Second World War around 1946 when the

African Land Development Unit (ALDEV) embarked on a broad agricultural

rehabilitation program in “native reserves” whose basic aim was to contain African

agitation for land occupied by European settlers (Raga et al. 1998). The onset of the

Mau uprising and agitation for independence gave an added impetus to this program.

ALDEV, implementing the agency, initiated several irrigation schemes using the pre-

independence Mau Mau detainees as free labor. Between 1950 and 1960, detainee

labor was used to construct irrigation infrastructure in Mwea, Hola and Perkerra.
2.2.1.2. During Post-independence.

The efforts of the government of Kenya in irrigation development focused on

establishing large-scale tenant-based irrigation schemes. The Ministry of Agriculture

took over the management of three initial schemes; Mwea, Hola and Perkerra. In July

1966, the NIB was enacted with the mandate to develop, improve and manage

national irrigation schemes. By the mid-1970s, another three schemes were

constructed: Ahero, Bunyara and West Kano irrigation schemes. Apart from the

centrally managed schemes, in the late sixties, small-scale irrigation was developed

using UNDP/FAO funds in the arid zones, especially in Turkana, Isiolo and Garissa

districts. Examples of these schemes include Katilu, Merti and Galfsa. The schemes

were developed to settle nomadic people affected by occasional drought, thus

providing them with alternative livelihoods. Irrigated agriculture was expected to

augment food security thus reducing the burden of relief food supplies. Research

findings demonstrated that, in the mid-sixties, coffee irrigation was profitable and

hence several coffee states in the central province were initiated with sprinkler

irrigation systems.
2.3. Policy Framework

2.3.1. African Union Agenda 2063.

Aspirations.

A prosperous Africa, based on inclusive growth and sustainable development. An integrated

continent, political lily united, based on the ideals of Pan Africanism and the vision of

Africa’s Renaissance.

Goals.

 A high standard of living, quality of life and wellbeing for all citizens.

 Well educated citizens and skills revolution underpinned by science, technology and

innovation.

 Healthy and well-nourished citizens.

 Transformed economies.

 Modern agriculture for increased productivity and production.

 Blue/ocean economy for accelerated economic growth.

 Environmentally sustainable and climate resilient economies and communities.

 A United Africa (Federal or Confederate).

 Continental financial and monetary institutions established and functional.

 World class infrastructure crisscrosses Africa.

Priority Areas.

 Incomes, jobs and decent work Poverty, inequality and hunger social security and

protection, including persons with disabilities mmodern, affordable and livable

habitats and quality basic services.

 Education and science, technology and innovation (STI) driven skills revolution.
  Health and nutrition.

 Sustainable and inclusive economic

 Growth

 STI [Science Technology and Innovation] driven manufacturing, industrialization and

value addition economic diversification and resilience tourism/Hospitality.

 Agricultural productivity and production.

 Marine resources and energy port operations and marine transport.

 Sustainable natural resource management Biodiversity conservation, genetic resources

and ecosystems sustainable consumption and production patterns water security

Climate resilience and natural disasters preparedness and prevention Renewable

energy.

 Frameworks and institutions for a United Africa.

 Financial and monetary institutions.

 Communications and infrastructure connectivity.

2.3.2. Vision 2030

It emphasizes the need to increase value in agriculture, livestock and fisheries and outlines

seven flagship projects in the agriculture and livestock sector. The Kenyan government has
further streamlined the roles and efficiency of the small enterprises in promoting rural

development by entrenching them in the country’s blue print plan Vision 2030 (2008).

The vision recommends that the state strengthens small and medium enterprises by investing

in research, training and development with the goal of generating 30 billion in GDP by

provision of consumer goods in local industries and raising the market share from 7 % to

15%.

The vision also provides for a key strategy of restructuring key local industries that use local

raw materials but lack a competitive edge. The flagship projects that will aid the sector will

include the development and creation of small and medium enterprise industrial parks. Other

policies include:

 Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS, 2010-2020)

 National food and nutrition policy

 The national agribusiness strategy

 The national agricultural sector extension policy

The overall policy goal of these strategies is to stimulate agricultural sector towards the

desired growth path to achieve the vision of a food secure nation.

2.3.3. Sustainable development goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global goals adopted by the

United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals

aim to address various social, economic, and environmental challenges faced by countries

worldwide. In the context of Kenya, the adaptation of specific SDGs can play a crucial role in
enhancing the achievement of sustainable rural development.

SDG 1: No Poverty: Poverty is a significant issue in rural areas of Kenya, where a large

portion of the population relies on agriculture for their livelihoods. By adapting SDG 1,

Kenya can focus on eradicating poverty in rural communities through various means. This

could include promoting inclusive economic growth, providing access to financial services

and credit facilities for small-scale farmers, and implementing social protection programs to

ensure a basic standard of living for all individuals. By addressing poverty, sustainable rural

development can be achieved as people will have improved access to resources and

opportunities.

SDG 2: Zero Hunger: Achieving food security and promoting sustainable agriculture is

crucial for rural development in Kenya. By adapting SDG 2, Kenya can prioritize efforts to

improve agricultural productivity, enhance sustainable farming practices, and ensure access

to nutritious food for rural communities. This could involve investing in agricultural research

and innovation, providing training and support to farmers, promoting climate-smart

agriculture techniques, and strengthening market linkages for smallholder farmers. By

addressing hunger and promoting sustainable agriculture, rural communities can become

more resilient and self-sufficient.

SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation: Access to clean water and sanitation facilities is

essential for the well-being and development of rural communities in Kenya.

By adapting SDG 6, Kenya can focus on improving water supply systems, ensuring safe
drinking water sources, and promoting proper sanitation practices in rural areas. This could
involve constructing water infrastructure such as boreholes and water storage facilities,
implementing water management strategies, and raising awareness about hygiene practices.
Access to clean water and sanitation not only improves health outcomes but also contributes
to agricultural productivity and overall rural development.
SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy: Energy access is a critical factor in promoting
sustainable rural development. By adapting SDG 7, Kenya can prioritize efforts to expand
access to affordable and clean energy sources in rural areas. This could involve investing in
renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind energy, and biogas systems. Access
to reliable and clean energy can enhance productivity in various sectors, including
agriculture, education, healthcare, and small-scale industries. It can also contribute to
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change impacts.
SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities: While this goal primarily focuses on urban
areas, its principles can be applied to enhance rural development as well. By adapting SDG
11, Kenya can promote sustainable rural settlements by improving infrastructure, ensuring
access to basic services such as healthcare and education, and enhancing transportation
networks. This could involve upgrading rural roads, constructing schools and healthcare
facilities, and implementing waste management systems. Sustainable rural settlements can
attract investment, improve living conditions, and create opportunities for economic growth.
SDG 13: Climate Action: Climate change poses significant challenges for rural
development in Kenya, particularly in the agricultural sector. By adapting SDG 13, Kenya
can prioritize climate action measures in rural areas to build resilience and mitigate the
impacts of climate change. This could involve promoting climate-smart agriculture practices,
implementing reforestation programs, enhancing water management systems, and raising
awareness about climate change adaptation strategies. By addressing climate change at the
local level, sustainable rural development can be achieved while safeguarding natural
resources.

2.3.4. National Irrigation Policy (2017)

The National Irrigation Policy takes cognizance of the obligations of each level of national
and county government with regard to irrigation development and management. The
Constitution recognizes Kenya as a member of the international community and Article 2 (5)
(6) upholds the principles of international law and recognizes all the treaties, conventions,
protocols and agreements ratified by Kenya as part of the laws of Kenya. The Policy
recognizes and upholds the participation of all the relevant stakeholders including; farmers
and the communities, the Ministry of Water, Sanitation and Irrigation.

Implementation of the policy as a national value and principle of good governance. The
Policy recognizes that there are clear functions and roles of the National Government and
county governments in the implementation of the policy and the need for intergovernmental
and inter-sectoral structures at both national and county government levels to address
irrigation matters.

The formulation and implementation of the policy therefore involves the two levels of
government in line with the spirit of the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The sharing of roles and
functions between the National Government and County governments will require:
o Review of some of the existing policies and laws.
o Development of new policies and legislation for various agencies within Government
as the current dispensation either adds or takes away roles that were earlier performed
by the central Government.
o It will also require the development of new institutional frameworks for the sector. As
part of the exploration of the irrigation potential and improve agricultural productivity
and production, there will be need for expansion of areas under irrigation as well as
improvement in the performance of the sector. 10.
o The implementation of the National Irrigation Policy will also require active
stakeholder participation and will be complemented by institutional and legal
frameworks, and sectoral strategies which will provide an enabling environment for
orderly and rapid development of the irrigation sector.
o The Policy will further seek to stimulate and guide irrigation and drainage
development through:
 Targeted technical support
 Intensified investment
 Improved research and technology
 Extension services and capacity building for both staff and farmer
organizations to ensure development and sustainability of the sector (11) of
the vision and guiding principles of this policy are aligned to The Kenya
 Vision 2030 and other relevant policies and strategies in the sector including
Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS).

2.3.5. The Sessional Paper Number 10 of 2012

Kenya adopted Vision 2030 in 2008 as a new blue print and roadmap for political, social and

economic development of the country in the next two decades. The Vision also identifies

agriculture as the engine of growth through transformation of smallholder and subsistence

agriculture to innovatively and commercially oriented agriculture.

In the Vision, agriculture is identified as a key sector in achieving the envisaged annual

economic growth rate. This shall be achieved through transformation of smallholder

agriculture from subsistence to an innovative, commercially-oriented and modern agricultural

sector. This sessional paper identifies specific interventions which in the agricultural sector

include increasing productivity of crops and livestock, introducing land use polices for better

utilization of high and medium potential lands, developing more irrigable areas in arid and

semi-arid lands for both crops and livestock, and improving market access for smallholders

through better post-harvest and supply chain management.

The shortcomings of this vision include:

o Smallholder land-tenure interests are covered but by default as there is no special

attention for this issue

o The issues of sustainability of land as a natural resource, biodiversity

conservation, organic farming and farm energy are not addressed, unless under the

broad principle of “sustainable development”

o Family farming as a facilitator for smallholder performance is not mentioned and

the specific good environmental conservation practices that warrant rewards are

not clarified.
2.3.6. The Sessional Paper Number 10 of 1965

The sessional paper of 1965 argues to revolutionize agriculture in Kenya by developing

unused and under-utilized land through consolidation, development credit, extension services

and training and the introduction of modern methods of farming and marketing. Higher

incomes in agriculture will stimulate the development of commerce and industry by-

 increasing the domestic demand for consumer goods and services and agricultural

supplies, and

 providing raw materials for agricultural processing industries.

2.3.7. Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS)

The Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS) in Kenya is a comprehensive and

long-term plan developed by the Kenyan government to guide the growth and development

of the agricultural sector within the country. It has made provisions for irrigation and

irrigation schemes through:

 Food Security: Ensuring food security for the Kenyan population was a primary goal

of the ASDS. This involved increasing agricultural production, improving food

distribution systems, and reducing post-harvest losses.

 Diversification: The strategy aimed to diversify agricultural production beyond staple

crops like maize to include a wider range of crops and livestock products.

Diversification can enhance resilience to climate change and market fluctuations.

 Value Addition: Promoting value addition within the agricultural sector was a key

component of the ASDS. This involved processing and adding value to agricultural

products to increase their marketability and profitability.

 Enhancing Productivity: Increasing the productivity of smallholder farmers was a

central focus. This included providing farmers with access to improved seeds,

fertilizers, and modern farming techniques.

  Infrastructure Development: The ASDS recognized the importance of infrastructure

such as roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities. Infrastructure development

aimed to reduce transportation costs, improve market access, and reduce post-harvest

losses.

 Market Access: The strategy sought to improve farmers' access to markets by

reducing trade barriers, improving market information systems, and strengthening

agricultural marketing networks.

 Sustainability: Sustainable agricultural practices were emphasized to ensure the long-

term viability of the sector. This included promoting conservation agriculture,

efficient water use, and environmental stewardship.

 Youth and Women Empowerment: The ASDS recognized the importance of engaging

youth and women in agriculture and sought to create opportunities for their

involvement through training, access to resources, and support for agribusiness

ventures.

 Private Sector Engagement: Encouraging private sector participation in agriculture,

including agribusiness and agro-processing, was a key strategy to drive investments

and innovation within the sector.

 Research and Innovation: The strategy promoted research and development activities

to improve crop varieties, livestock breeds, and farming practices that would enhance

agricultural productivity and resilience.

2.4.Legal framework
2.4.1.Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999) and its amendment of
2019
Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 2019 (EMCA) states the projects that
should undergo environmental impact assessment whereby irrigation falls under irrigation.
The management encourages the conservation of water through appropriate technology
choices, especially in irrigation and the reuse of wastewater. On water quality regulations, the
water for agriculture use explains the use of wastewater for Irrigation whereby it states:

 “No person shall be permitted to use wastewater for irrigation purposes unless such
water complies with the quality guidelines set out in the Eight Schedule to these
Regulations and Creation of buffer zone for irrigation scheme.”

 “Any owner or operator of an irrigation scheme shall create a buffer zone of at least
fifty meters in width between the irrigation scheme and the natural water body into
which such irrigation scheme discharges its waters.”

2.4.2. Climate Change Act (2016)

The climate change act 2016 with the amendment of 2023 guides the development of
strategies to adapt to the impacts of climate change in Perkerra irrigation scheme. It
emphasizes the following measures:

 The Nature-based solutions that implies actions to protect, sustainably manage, or

restore natural ecosystems, that address societal challenges such as climate change,
human health, food and water security, and disaster risk reduction effectively and
adaptively, simultaneously providing human wellbeing and biodiversity benefits.
 A project undertaken pursuant to this Act shall specify the anticipated environmental,
economic or social of benefits the project. For the purpose of environmental benefits
includes incentives that promote offset projects, increase of carbon abatement in a
manner that is consistent with protection of Kenya’s natural environment and
improved resilience to the effects of climate change.
 The National Government and the respective county government where the project is
situated shall oversee and monitor the negotiation of the community development
agreements with project proponents, the stakeholders and enforce the community
rights negotiated under a community development agreement.

2.4.3. Constitution of Kenya 2010

The Constitution of Kenya (COK) 2010 marks a critical stage in the country’s development
process. It provides for Kenyans the right to be free from hunger and to have adequate food
of acceptable quality (Article 43(c)). It further provides for two levels of government namely
the national and county governments. The two levels of government have specific, residual
and concurrent functions and powers as provided for under Article 186 and the Fourth
Schedule which entail; Part 1: National government and Part 2: County governments.
The Constitution describes the two levels of government as distinct and interdependent and it
requires the two levels of government to cooperate with, support and consult and liaise with
each other for the purpose of exchanging information, coordinating policies and
administration and enhancing policy.
The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution has assigned specified functions on Agriculture to
the National Government and the county governments respectively and it stipulates that the
two levels of government shall conduct their mutual relations on the basis of consultation and
cooperation (Article 6, Article 189 (1) (b) (c). The provisions related to irrigation at the
National Government include:
 The use of international waters and water resources
 National public works;
 Protection of the environment and natural resources (water protection, securing
sufficient residual water, hydraulic engineering and the safety of dams)
 Agricultural policy and capacity building, as well as technical assistance to the
counties and public investment.
At the county government level, the functions assigned by the Fourth Schedule include:
 Agriculture; implementation of specific national policies (National Irrigation Policy,
2017)
 Government policies on natural and environmental conservation on soil and water.
The functions assigned to county governments through the Kenya Gazette Supplement No.
116 of 9th August 2013 include:
o Agriculture (crop husbandry);
o Implementation of programs in the agricultural sector to address food security in
the county;
o Development of programs to intervene on soil and water management and
conservation of the natural resource base for agriculture;
o Land development services such as construction of water pans for horticultural
production for food security and others.
Cooperation requires that there be intergovernmental dialogue or consultation to inform both
the vertical and horizontal relationships between national and county levels of government
and among county levels of government and among the county governments respectively.
The Constitution requires the national government and county governments to embrace a
system of consultation, negotiation and consensus building to promote social and economic
development (Article 174 ()) while upholding the principles of good governance, integrity,
transparency, accountability and sustainable development.
The relationship between the two levels of government is further guided by the
Intergovernmental Relations Act no. 2 of 2012 which provides for the establishment of a
framework for consultation and co- operation. It also establishes mechanisms for the
resolution of intergovernmental disputes in line with the Constitution of Kenya 2010 Articles
6(2) and 189 (I); (3) and (4).
2.4.4. Water Act (2016)
A national public water works means a water works which has been designated by the Cabinet Secretary, by
notice published in the Gazette, as a national public water works based on the fact that the water resource on
which it depends is of a cross county in nature;
 It is financed out of the national government’s share of national revenue pursuant to the provisions of the
Public Finance Management Act, 2012;
 It is intended to serve a function of the national government; or it is intended to serve a function which, by
agreement between the national and county government, has been transferred to the national government.
National public water works include—

 Water storage;
 Water works for bulk distribution and provision of water services; inter-basin water transfer facilities; and
reservoirs for impounding surface run-off and for regulating stream flows to synchronize them with water
demand patterns which are of strategic or national importance.
A national public water works for domestic use shall, subject to the acquisition of a permit from the Authority in
case of inter basin water transfer, take precedence over all other water works for the use of water or the drainage
of land. Subject to the Land Act, 2012, land required for national public water works may be acquired in any
manner provided by law for the acquisition of land for public purposes.

2.4.5. The Irrigation Act (2019)

Outlines the government strategies and the objectives for the development, estimated potential and sustainable
management of irrigation in Kenya. It sets a framework for investment, technology adoption, and capacity
building in the irrigation sector. The policy also discusses the promotion of science and technology in irrigation. It
recognizes the adoption of the technologies by farmers has been limited due to lack of proper linkages. The large-
scale commercial irrigated farms utilize modern technologies and highly scientific methods of production.
However, public and smaller sized irrigation suffers weak linkages with science and technology, extension and
education. Although Kenya has a well-developed agricultural research infrastructure, there are inadequate
research extension packages and linkages.

It also states about the current capacity building for farmers and The National Government through the
Department of Irrigation and the National Irrigation Authority offers training to irrigators on water management
as part of their mandate. Research and development in the field to support innovation and adoption of best
practices. The financing and investments are aimed at mobilizing financial resources for irrigation and attracting
private investors.
The Land Act,2012 emphasizes land use planning that can be significant for irrigation as it ensures that land is
allocated and used efficiently, including for agricultural purposes like irrigation schemes.
2.5. Governance and Institutional framework
2.5.1. Governance
2.5.1.1. National Government.
The governance structure in Kenya is based on the principles of democracy, rule of law, and respect for human
rights. The government’s involvement in the governance of Perkerra encompasses various aspects, including
administration, policy formulation, resource allocation, and service delivery.
 The government provides administrative oversight in Perkerra through its various ministries and agencies.
 Policy Formulation and Implementation-The Government of Kenya formulates and implements
Administrative Oversight-policies that directly impact the governance of Perkerra.
 Resource Allocation-The government plays a crucial role in collaboration with National lands commission
in allocating resources to Perkerra to support various development initiatives. This includes budgetary
allocations for infrastructure projects, social welfare programs, agricultural development, and
environmental conservation efforts. The equitable distribution of resources is essential for addressing the
needs of the local population and promoting inclusive growth.
 Service Delivery-Ensuring effective service delivery is a key responsibility of the Government of Kenya in
Perkerra.
 Community Engagement and Participation-The government encourages community engagement and
participation in governance processes within Perkerra.

2.5.1.2. National Irrigation Authority

The National Irrigation Authority (NIA) plays a crucial role in the governance of the Perkerra irrigation scheme in
Kenya. The NIA is responsible for the planning, development, and management of national public irrigation
schemes, including the Perkerra scheme. Its role encompasses various aspects of governance, including policy
formulation, infrastructure development, water management, and stakeholder engagement.
 Policy Formulation and Implementation
 Infrastructure Development
 Water Management Effective water management is essential for the success of any irrigation scheme.
 Stakeholder Engagement as part of its governance role, the NIA engages with various stakeholders
involved in the Perkerra irrigation scheme.
 Regulatory Oversight in addition to its developmental functions, the NIA exercises regulatory oversight to
maintain compliance with irrigation laws and standards within the Perkerra scheme

2.5.1.3. IWUA (Irrigation Water Users Association)

The role of the IWUA includes all activities pertaining to the scheme implementation process in line with
prevailing policies, guidelines and procedures. These include:

 Acting as a linkage between the IWUA members and the Authority, CIDU as well as other stakeholders.
  Participating in all stages of scheme development
 Operation, maintenance and management of the irrigation scheme
 Ensuring collective community responsibility of setting and collection of levies (O&M,
 water use fee etc.) from all the members
 Ensuring equitable distribution and efficient use of water among the members
 Mobilizing internal and external resources for the benefit of the members.
 Formulation and enforcement of by-laws
 Ensure adherence to statutory obligations
 Conflict management

For IWUAs to play their roles effectively and ensure sustainable irrigation development, they should be cohesive,
functional and viable.

2.5.2. Institutional Framework

NIA stakeholders include; public agencies, national and county governments, development partners, private sector
players, farming communities, individuals, members of the public, NIA Board and employees, suppliers of goods
and services, research institutions, development partners, private sector, media, professional bodies, and academic
institutions.
These stakeholders provide opportunities for the board to enhance its efficiency and effectiveness in
implementation of the strategic plan. In the next strategic plan dispensation NIA will increase engagements with
all stakeholders as well as initiate support of potential stakeholders in a bid to successfully deliver the mandate.
Further the board will continuously carry out stakeholder analysis on a regular basis in order to track changes in
needs and ensure timely cooperation and support.

STAKEHOLDER INSTITUTION ROLE

MINISTRY OF WATER, SANITATION  Policy formulation on water resources

AND IRRIGATION management.
 Management and development of
water resources, irrigation, drainage
and land reclamation.
 National irrigation policy and
management.
 Management of irrigation schemes.
 Water harvesting and storage for
irrigation.
 Land reclamation.
MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE,  Identification and prioritization of
LIVESTOCK, FISHERIES AND agriculture value chains.
IRRIGATION.
 Water delivery: county governments
COUNTY GOVERNMENT ensure the adequacy and quality of
water for irrigation purposes
throughout the respective counties.
 To facilitate the availability of new
PEST CONTROL PRODUCTS BOARD pesticides for use during irrigation with
proven safety, economic value, quality
and efficiency.
 To promote streamline coordinate and
KALRO regulate research in crops, livestock,
genetic resources and biotechnology in
the country.
 Expedite equitable access to research
information, resources and technology
and promote the application of
research findings and technology in the
field of agriculture.
 Supporting large- and small-scale
IRRIGATION EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS agricultural projects using state of the
art technology modern irrigation
systems.
 Provision of comprehensive standards
KEBS development metrology, conformity
assessment, training and certification
services within the agriculture and
food sector.
 Sustainably and equitably allocate
WATER RESOURCES AUTHORITY water resources
 Control pollution and improves water
quality in the country’s water bodies.
 To collect all information on water
resources, analyze, store and
disseminate it to the various
stakeholders.
2.7. Theoretical framework.
2.7.1. Sustainable Livelihoods Theory.
This theory was created in mid 1980s by the researchers Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway. A livelihood is a
means of making a living. It of comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, claims and asses) and activity. A
livelihood is sustainable when it enables people to help cope with or recover from stress and shock (natural
disasters, economic) and enhances the well-being considering the future generation. (Majale 2002). The livelihood
and survival for human individuals, household, groups and communities are vulnerable to shock and stress.
Vulnerability here has two aspects: external, the stress and shocks to which they are subject; and internal, the
capacity to cope. Stresses are pressures which are typically continues and cumulative, predictable and distressing,
such as seasonal changes, rising population or declining resources, while shocks are impacts which are typically
sudden, unpredictable and traumatic, such as fires floods and epidemics. Any definition of livelihood
sustainability has to include the ability to avoid, or more usually to withstand and recover from, such shocks and
stresses. (Chambers 1991). The sustainable livelihoods approach is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope,
and priorities for development activities. It is based on evolving thinking about the way the poor and vulnerable
live their lives and the importance of policies and institutions. It makes the connection between people and the
overall enabling environment that influences the outcomes of livelihood strategies. It brings attention to bear on
the inherent potential of people in terms of their skills, social networks, access to physical and financial resources,
and ability to influence core institutions.

Sustainable livelihood focuses on ensuring people’s ability to meet their basic needs and improve their well-being
in a way that does not destroy the environment or deplete natural resources. It stresses the emphasis on
vulnerability reduction like climate resilience, which includes water management, ecosystem restoration, climate
resilient crops and diversified agriculture. Other emphases are education and skills development, sustainable
resource management and diverse livelihood strategies.

Figure 2.2: sustainable livelihood model.

Source: food and agriculture organization of united nations 2022
2.7.2. The “Theory” of Endogenous (Rural) Development
The idea of endogenous growth has been favored by many working on rural development because a model of
endogenous development guarantees autonomy to the process of transformation of the local economic system. It
does so by underlining the centrality of the decision-making processes of local social actors and their capacity to
control and internalize external knowledge and information, and by generally assuming the traits of a self-
sustaining process of development. The process of transformation is based, therefore, on local specificities and on
the capacity to govern fundamental variables. A model of endogenous development is, in fact, based on the
production of ‘social capability’ at the level of the community of firms and institutions that operate in the local
sphere (Garofoli 2002: 228).

The role of “endogenous growth” in “endogenous development”

A connection between the two approaches of “endogenous growth” and “endogenous development” is constructed
by some authors despite of the apparent oversimplification.

The macro-economic theory of endogenous growth (Romer 1986; Lucas 1988) rests on the idea of positive
externalities of production and of growing markets that cause positive scale effects. These ideas allow for an
indigenization of technical progress. Similar ideas have been transferred to models of the so called New Economic
Geography (NEG) (Engelmann and Walz 1995).

First, the relevant “local” factors of knowledge and entrepreneurship are no static entities that can be localized
independently of the process of development. Second, while the theory implies that these local factors may sustain
the development, it creates strong doubts on the possibility that endogenous forces will suffice in order to initiate
such dynamic developments. Just as well, the conclusion may be drawn that some kind of exogenous shock is
needed in order to initialize the self-enforcing process and the benefits of positive effects of scale. Third, the
regional development described by the new growth theory within NEG without compensations and transfer-
payments is no spatially neutral zero-sum or win-win game. Accordingly, the theory does not imply that all
regions should show positive “endogenous” development in equilibrium. This approach, like the approach of
endogenous rural development stresses the ability of local entrepreneurs in local central places to form businesses
and create niches (Daniels 1989).

Fundamental ideas for endogenous development

Actually, it is possible to contrast the ideas of endogenous development with those of the Endogenous growth
theory. Martin and Sunley warn against the confusion of these concepts, which they call the indigenous
respectively the endogenous approach (Martin and Sunley 1996). In endogenous growth, economic activity
facilitates innovation and thereby induces more economic activities.

The concept makes key-factors of growth Endogenous to the production-function (Martin and Sunley 1996) – not
endogenous in a spatial sense. Endogenous development (Garofoli 2002), indigenous development, and new
industrial districts (Harrison 1992) in contrast interpret “endogenous” as “locally based” (Martin and Sunley
1996).
The concepts on industrial districts apply the concept of social embeddedness (Granovetter 1985) mainly to the
relation between local firms. In contrast, the concept of endogenous development ascribes an important role in the
development of human resources not only to “innovative firms and entrepreneurs” but also to “governmental
agencies” and “education institutions” (Stimson, Stough, and Salazar 2009: 11). That is, while endogenous growth
theory gives primacy to the economic sphere, in endogenous development approaches the Coordinating function
of the administrative and political sphere is stressed. Stimson et al. (Stimson, Stough, and Salazar 2009: 12) name
as examples of potentially influencing institutional factors “leadership and the cooperation of local leadership
groups, entrepreneurship and the associated spontaneity which may alter the economic orientation of the region,
and social capital which may contribute to increasing returns to a regional economy by reducing transaction
costs”.

Moreover, according to endogenous growth theory, economic development is a process induced and sustained by
economic agent leaders bottom-up process;

The principal problem lies in the neglect of the indigeneity to economic development of those dimensions that
constitute the diamond, respectively the cube. Actually, at the core of the approach lies the idea (hope?) that it
would be possible to control at the local level the “use and implementation of local resources”, “the process of
accumulation at the local level”, the “innovation capacity”, and “intersectoral and intersectoral productive
interdependences” (Garofoli 2002).

If in contrast to these assumptions, these factors cannot be influenced purposely because they are endogenous to
the process itself, a relocation of responsibilities for regional development to the local level might instead “favor a
few, relatively well-endowed regions” (Markusen 1996). Referring to the scattered sources on endogenous
development there is no clear idea on what the desired economic outcome of the endogenous approach would look
like.

The ideas presented in the last paragraph imply that some kind of industrial district or cluster, formed by
interrelated firms in a competitive environment that makes the best from the local resources, would be envisaged.
According to the vast number of existing definitions, clusters may either consist of similar firms with few links or
of firms, which are closely linked by trade, contracts and common institutions (Barkley and Henry 1997). In line
with this argument, Stimson et al. Note that the shift towards “an emphasis on endogenous processes” and “the
increasing focus on integrated strategic planning” in the 1990s” led to a renewed interest in industry clusters
(Stimson and Stough 2009). We would expect this relative concentration or specialization especially in prosperous
rural areas since absolute concentrations do not fit the definition of the rural and therefore clusters or specialized
industry-patterns are a way of realizing positive local scale effects. Regional specialization might even be a
general necessity for regional growth (Markusen 1996).

With respect to clusters, it has been recognized, though, that their deliberate initialization is problematic, since it
is only after the initial formation of a cluster that a self-reinforcing dynamic starts to work “especially when local
institutions are supportive and local competition is vigorous” (Porter 1998). Barkley and Henry (1997) discuss the
potential relevance of the cluster concept for “Rural Industrial Development”.

They define “rural” as “nonmetropolitan” and stress that certain conditions have to be given in order for clusters
to evolve successfully. Due to the regions’ heterogeneity, these conditions are not given everywhere. Because of
difficult ex ante decision on which industries to target as well as natural late comer disadvantages in these regions
the cluster concept of policy support is likely to be non-appropriate. Conditions are rather favorable, though, in
regions with “well developed industry agglomerations” (Barkley and Henry 1997) S321.

Therefore, even though clusters or regional industry-specializations are a promising way of strengthening the
competitiveness of (rural) places, they do not seem to be a natural outcome of a process of endogenous
development.

To summaries, clusters are a result of self-organizing forces. Endogenous development, on the other side, is a
process meant to be initialized in regions that are not favored by self-organizing processes. Therefore, a successful
cluster-development is a rather improbable outcome of endogenous development. The expected outcome of
successful endogenous development remains unclear.

2.7.3. Theory of Change of Irrigation

This theory was developed by S. Earl, F. Carden and T. Smutylo (2001). The theory of change in irrigation is a
structured framework defining the Inventions, assumptions and expected outcomes of a particular irrigation
project. It helps the stakeholders such as the policymakers, planners, and project managers to understand the
specific irrigation initiative expected to bring changes. It promotes a comprehensive and adaptable approach,
community ownership, efficient resource use and evidence-based decision making which contribute to long-
lasting and sustainable development outcomes.

It also helps in identifying the vulnerable areas and conducting a risk assessment which anticipates the potential
challenges and uncertainties that may affect the project’s achievement or objective. The vulnerable areas like
climate and weather variability which include change in weather patterns, drought, floods and extreme climate
change events can impact water availability and irrigation scheduling.
The approach helps in the allocation of resources by identifying the most critical activities and outputs needed for
successful outcomes. They are considered critical because they have a direct and substantial influence on the
success of the initiative. This ensures resources are used effectively and not wasted contributing to sustainability.
The activities vary depending on the goal of the project. The structure includes;
 Input- irrigation infrastructure
 Activity- construction of irrigation canal
 Output- irrigated hectares of farmland
 Outcome- increase in crop yield
 Impacts- improved security, increased income for farming
Theory of change Irrigation model
Source: Andersen and Cardena 2015
2.7.4. Basic Resource Theory
Basic Resource Theory

Definition of Rural Development

The definition of “rural” differs by country, though it is usually used in contrast to “urban”. For instance, this
word is defined based on population density in Japan, indicating an area other than “an area with over 5,000
people, which consists of each district with a population density of over 4,000 per square kilometer”. However,
we cannot simply apply this definition to other countries. Moreover, due to the fact that the concept of “rural”
varies from Asia to Africa, it is difficult to define it uniformly. Therefore, the use of “rural” (including fishing and
mountain villages) as a relative concept to “urban”, based on social, economic, and natural conditions in each
country may be most adequate. The term could also be used to describe areas where a majority of the residents are
engaged in agriculture in a broad sense (including livestock farming, forestry, and fisheries). The final
beneficiaries of development assistance are local people in both rural and urban areas. However, their livelihoods
are based on significantly different social, economic, and natural environments.
Most rural residents in many developing countries (especially in the least developed countries, or LLDC) are
engaged in and depend on local agriculture, forestry, and fishery resources to make a living. If the local people are
final beneficiaries of development assistance, the aim of rural development can be defined as the improvement of
sustainable livelihoods (especially impoverished groups), with careful attention paid to local characteristic.

Rural Development Issues.

Rural development issues are often equated with poverty reduction. Although the definition of poverty varies5,
income poverty is used as a general guideline in defining poverty. In the case that “three-quarters of impoverished
groups live in rural areas”, “impoverished (poverty)” indicates conditions resulting from income poverty.
Improvement of livelihood is a central component of rural development. There also exists an opinion, which is
increasingly becoming mainstream, that living standards cannot be measured by income and consumption, but
require a wider view. For those who support this argument, the satisfaction of Basic Human Needs (BHN) is
necessary6 to improve living standards.

Also, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been using the Human Development Indicator
(HDI), which is based on life expectancy, literacy rate, gross enrollment ratio, and real GDP per capita in its
Human Development Reports since 19907. In the OECD/DAC Guidelines on Poverty Reduction, poverty is
described as the lack of the following five capabilities.

 Economic capabilities: to earn an income, to consume, and to have assets

 Human capabilities: to have access to health care, education, sufficient nutrition, clean water, and hygienic
living conditions
 Political capabilities: human rights, to participate in political and policymaking process, and to be able to
have an influence on decision-making.
 Socio-cultural capabilities: to participate as a valued member of the community with social status and
dignity.
 Protective capabilities: to prevent vulnerability from food insecurity, illness, crime, war, and conflict.

As described above, comprehensive measures are essential for a multidimensional approach to poverty reduction.
The number of assistance organizations which view comprehensive rural development as an effective approach in
improving the livelihoods of rural people has increased. For example, agricultural development needs an increase
of consumers, industrial development, and the improvement of infrastructure, and inhabitant’s productivity
through expansion, education, health care services have much effect on those conditions.

Also, it is important to preserve the environment through resource management and natural disaster prevention.
Moreover, it is essential that governments assist a variety of activities through a cross-sectional approach. In short,
rural development deals with multi-sectoral issues, such as infrastructure, health care and hygiene, education,
environment and governance as well as local income generation.

2.7.4.5. Significance of Assistance Rural development

Aims to improve livelihoods by implementing comprehensive development for rural areas where a majority of
people in poverty live. Rural development can also contribute to reduce poverty in urban areas by reducing
excessive population influxes from rural areas.

2.7.5. Structural Change Theory of rural development.

The Stylized Facts of Structural Transformation.

As mentioned in the introduction, structural transformation is defined as the reallocation of economic activity
across three broad sectors (agriculture, manufacturing, and services) that accompanies the process of modern
economic growth.3 In this section, we present the stylized facts of structural transformation. While a sizeable
literature on the topic already exists, including the notable early contributions of Clark (1957), Chenery (1960),
Kuznets (1966), and Syrquin (1988),4 we think that improvements in the quality of previous data and the
appearance of new data sets make it worthwhile for us to summarize the current state of evidence. Because the
process of structural transformation continues throughout development, it is desirable to document its properties
using relatively long time series for individual countries.

Rural system is complex and hybrid. Rural development can be seen as the outcome of interactions between
various rural system components (Lakshmanan, 1982; Marsden, 2010), e.g., geographical and bio-geo-physical
conditions, industrial development, rural population, and social and cultural characteristics (Fang and Liu, 2009,
2014; Long et al., 2010, 2011; Ye et al., 2013). However, demographic characteristics are the most important and
active factors in reflecting the change of rural development, as evidenced by some studies concerning land use
transitions affected by rural migration (Carr, 2009; Chen et al., 2014), the spatial-temporal variations of driving
factors of population change in rural, suburban, and urban areas (Chi and Ventura, 2011), population pressure and
agricultural intensification in rural systems (Ali, 2007), and implications of rural population change for
policymaking in developing countries (Anríquez and Stloukal, 2008).

In this case the agricultural industries develops connection and symbiotic relation with the other sectors of the
economy including stakeholders ,the government and other relevant authorities as it is its mandate to work in
harmony with as per the National Strategic plan of 2023.Here various bodies come together tom promote rural
development hence contributing towards growth of agriculture in rural areas generating growth for the fourth
pillar of sustainable development in Kenya’s VISION 2030.Ministries such as water ministries ,ministry for rural
development ,ministry for irrigation and THE Environmental Management Coordination Act via NEMA have
well outlined detailed duties to carry out as they can be found in the Strategic Plan of 2020-2023.

Systems theory elaborates how each agency plays a crucial role in carrying out its mandate in the agricultural and
irrigation sector. Since each agency cannot accomplish the whole goal of the rural development, their various
contribution is passed on and are used in decision on making process where they fuel attributions of the selected
and desirable outcome for the ministries.

KALRO and the National urban and rural development carry out this mandate by overseeing and supervising
various agencies ensuring they remain on track and follow stipulated guidelines on the same. The environment is
also kept at bay and checked by NEMA to ensure conservation and protection of the environment as they continue
to pursue rural development.

A methodology for assessing the conflicts and synergies between sectoral policies and rural Development has
been developed and applied to environmental transport policy in the study areas in the Kenya. Some refinements
have been made, such as the use of weighting systems, and it was found useful to revise and refine the explanation
of the Methodology’s application for wider use. A principal benefit of the methodology is that it is a Qualitative,
judgmental way of analyzing and evaluating policy, which complements methods of evaluation such as cost-
benefit analysis. It is particularly strong in identifying sectoral policy conflicts and synergies, highlighting their
nature. These are then candidates for closer examination, possibly by research and by quantitative analysis.
Fundamentally, there appears to be a need to recognize the special needs of rural areas, where distances are great
and people and businesses are faced with higher costs. The market for public transport is small, making the
provision of bus and rail transport expensive in per capita terms. The application of environmental transport
policies without rural preference or compensation puts rural areas at a significant disadvantage in the development
context, and threatens social and economic sustainability. Furthermore, the benefits in terms of environmental
sustainability (reducing fuel Consumed) are not clear.
2.8 Conceptual framework
It outlines the fundamental concepts and variables of irrigation systems and practice, in Pekerra irrigation
schemes, it represents a transformative agricultural initiative. Its primary aim is to revitalize farming practices by
providing dependable water sources for irrigation. The conceptual framework serves as a starting point as it helps
in structuring research questions and selecting variables to measure and understand the complex interaction within
irrigation systems. In enhanced agricultural productivity one of the main objectives is to significantly increase
crop yield. The scheme's primary focus is to bolster local food security, thereby reducing reliance on food imports.
Its main actors are the farmers and the government where the farmers do the production work and cooperate with
the government to build up capacity, and conserve the environment while reaping the financial benefits of
irrigated agriculture. Farmers need to form partnerships and associations and participate in the decision-making of
scheme management and policies affecting them. The government should provide ways to enhance skills and
knowledge in agribusiness as well as the infrastructure needed. The farmers and the government should
collaborate in the management of the schemes, operations of agri-business and environmental, which will lead to
sustainable livelihood.
The schemes provide 40% of the country’s national seed production of seed maize. The scheme is usually
contracted by the Kenya seed association, SIMLAW, ELGON SEED and KEPHIS.

The relevant bodies use the scheme to grow their seeds and produce them on large scale production. The farmers
usually having leased lands provided for by the government plant the seeds usually on 1-4 acres’ piece of land.
harvesting occurs three months after planting after which the seeds are harvested, sorted, prepared and sent back
to the contractors. The farmers are then paid and settled their amounts after deductions of farm inputs are
included.

The farmers to make quite a substantial amount of money as they run too their own farms outside the ones, they
operate including growing different crop varieties such as onions, chilies, butternut and green grams. farmers rake
up to 800000 shillings per production season. workers on the farm earn a lower than the actual farmers as they are
paid to work on farms. the actual farmers who reside in the town and operate separate business in towns having
more than two sources of incomes. The actual farmers can reap up to close of 2.2 million in a good production
year.

The scheme farmers face challenges especially on farm inputs and their prices. Items such as fertilizers, pesticides
and herbicides are quite a burden for the farmers as their prices are not consistent and they tend to shift time to
time. Cartels and middle men control the market making it very difficult for farmers to sell and receive their farm
products. The cartels hoard fertilizers, control their distribution, supplying and their sellers afterwards. The cartels
make it hard for the rest of the farmers to acquire the said farmers. They quite a menace is tended to rig the
process for the farmers.

The national irrigation authority too has been reduced the roles it carries out for the scheme. The farmers urge the
national irrigational authority also doesn’t support their activities as before including making and maintain the
canals. the farmers say NIA barely helps them and mainly come active during the election and contracting period.

Perkerra scheme is set to benefit now as the government is rolling out plans to introduce and carry out
infrastructure and development plans for the scheme. In this year’s financial budget, the scheme is set to benefit
from the national government so as to help raise the living standards of the farmers.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 SITUATION ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Location and the extent

Perkerra irrigation scheme is situated 100kms North of Nakuru near Marigat

Township in Baringo South Sub-County. It lies between Longitude 0.48270N and
Latitude The 36.01860 E. It derives its name from the river Perkerra, which is the
source of water for irrigation and the only permanent river in the region. The irrigation
scheme is found along river Perkerra. The neighboring sub-counties are namely
Baringo Central, Baringo North, Eldama Ravine and Tiaty. The Perkerra irrigation
scheme which is located in Baringo south sub-county has a gazetted area of 5800
acres, but the area under irrigation is 2750 acres according to the survey carried out
in the field work. Figure 3.1 shows the location and extent of the study area.

Figure 3.1: Location and extent

Source: Field survey map,2023

3.2 TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINANGE

The topography of Baringo south sub-county plays a crucial role in the successful
implementation and operation of the irrigation scheme. Understanding the
topography helps in planning the layout, drainage, and water management systems,
ensuring efficient and sustainable agriculture practices. The area is characterized by
undulating terrain, consisting of both flat and sloping landforms. The Perkerra River,
which serves as the primary water source for irrigation, meanders through the region,
creating a natural waterway system.

Baringo South sub-county incorporates a variety of land types, including plateaus,

plains, and valleys. The plateaus provide relatively flat expanses of land suitable for
large-scale agriculture operations. The plains, on the other hand, offer gently sloping
terrain, providing opportunities for productive cultivation. The valleys, formed by the
Perkerra River, contain fertile alluvial soils ideal for crop growth. The area closer to
the river has relatively lower altitude, gradually increasing as one moves away from
the riverbanks. The varying elevation influences the flow of water and determines the
design of the irrigation network. By utilizing gravity, water can be effectively
distributed to different parts of the scheme.

Furthermore, the topography affects the drainage and soil conservation systems within
the scheme. As the land features slopes and inclines, proper measures need to be taken
to prevent soil erosion. Terracing and contouring techniques are implemented to
control water runoff, retain the topsoil, and minimize erosion risks. The topography
also affects the water-holding capacity of the soil. In areas with gentle slopes, the soil
retains moisture well, supporting the growth of crops. On steeper slopes, water runoff
is higher, requiring the implementation of proper irrigation methods to prevent water
loss. Additionally, the topography influences the positioning of dams, canals, and
water storage facilities to optimize water distribution and availability.

A mix of plateaus, plains, and valleys, with varying elevations and slopes,
characterizes the topography of Baringo south sub-county. The undulating terrain
provides opportunities for cultivating different crops, while the presence of the
Perkerra River offers a reliable water source. Understanding the topography is crucial
for designing effective irrigation systems, managing water resources, and
implementing soil conservation practices within the scheme. As shown in figure 3.2
and figure 3.3 for the topography and drainage system respectively.
Figure3.2: Topography and drainage system

Source: field survey map,2023

Figure:3.3 Drainage and hydrology

Source: NIA,2023
3.3 LAND TERRAIN
The terrain of Baringo South sub-county is characterized by hilly and mountainous landscapes. The area is home to the
Tugen Hills, which are part of the Rift Valley Highlands. The Tugen Hills are a series of volcanic mountains that run from
the southern end of Lake Baringo to the northern end of Lake Bogoria. The hills are characterized by steep slopes and deep
valleys. The highest peak in the Tugen Hills is Kabarnet Hill, which stands at an elevation of 2,450 meters above sea level.
The area is also home to several rivers and streams, including the Perkerra River, which flows from the Tugen Hills into
Lake Baringo. The Perkerra River is an important source of water for irrigation and domestic use in the area. The county is
divided into three ecological zones, the lowland areas ranging from 762 to 1000 meters above the sea level, Midland areas
ranging from 1000 meters to 1500 meters above sea Level and highland areas ranging from 1500 meters to 2300 meters
above the sea level. The Perkerra irrigation scheme is in the molo-Perkerra basin of the semi-arid lowlands of Baringo
District which is characterized by the gentle sloping plains. The county is situated on the western side of rift valley at an
altitude of 1100 meters above the sea level. To the east of Kerio Valley land raise too from the northerly trending ridges of
the Tugen hills. The highlands are in the modified tropical zones with soils that are generally well drained and fertile. This
zone has High potential areas for agriculture and improved livestock development.

Figure3.4: Slope of Perkerra

Source: Field Study,2023

3.4 POPULATION PROFILE

According to the population and housing census 2019, the population of Baringo county was
666,773 compromising 336,322 males and 330,428 females. Baringo south sub-county was
estimated to have a total population of 90,955 comprising of 45,706 males and 45,246
females while Eldama Ravine sub county had the highest population (129,535) and Tiaty
East had the lowest (73434). It was projected to be 717,794 in 2022, further projections
indicate that the population will increase to 764,411in 2025 and 794,793 by 2027 using
intercensal population growth rate for the county.

3.4.1 Population data by urban area

The county of Baringo is majorly rural with 89% of its citizens inhabiting rural areas and
another 11% by average living in the key urban centers majorly in Baringo central with 32%,
Eldama Ravine with 25%, Marigat with 9% and 6% Mogotio respectively. Tiaty and Baringo
North had no records on population in urban centers as at 2019 census but a dozen of the
centers in these sub counties are now inhibited by a sizeable population. There is an expected
Increase in population migration to six key urban centers in the county namely: Kabarnet,
Marigat, Mogotio, Eldama Ravine and Kabartonjo.
3.4.2 Poverty level and poverty index
Baringo county is among the marginalized counties in Kenya with a multidimensional
poverty level of 60.3% against the national index of 53.0%. The county contributes 1.7% to
the National poverty. Multidimensional poverty it is measured by the ability to feed oneself,
to access quality housing, to attain quality health and educate children. Poverty is also
reflected through inadequate access to infrastructure and social service.
3.4.3 Peace, security and development
The Baringo county like other parts of Northern Kenya has been affected by banditry, cattle
rustling and resource-based conflicts. These security challenges have had negative impacts on
development in the region hindering, economic growth and causing disruption to trade and
travel. The issue of cattle rustling, in particular has had a significant impact on the local
pastoralist communities who rely on their livestock for their livelihoods. The banditry and
criminal activities have hindered economic development and the delivery of government
services in the affected areas, it has led to deteriorating community relations and hindered
development of common resources such as irrigation scheme and pasture field. The
government at both levels have made attempts to address these security challenges and
promote development in the region by deploying security forces, implementing development
and encourage dialogue and conflicts resolution.

Table 1.1: Population data by sex, number of households, land area,

population density and subcounty.

Sub Total Sex Households Lan Density

county d
Are
a
Baringo 96,951 48,120 48,829 23,555 23,523 32 787 123
Central

Baringo 104,87 52,369 52,500 23,500 23,345 155 1,678 64

North 1
Tiaty West 79,9 40,462 39,459 14,498 14,392 106 2,500 32
23
Eldama 129, 65,295 64,238 30,774 30,752 22 954 138
Ravine 53
5
Baringo 90,9 45,706 45,246 19,854 19,658 196 1,453 65
South 55
Mogotio 91,1 46,014 45,088 18,184 18,169 15 1,375 66
04
Tiaty East 73,4 38,356 35,068 12,153 12,038 115 2,107 34
24
Lake - - - - - - 221 -
Baringo,
Bogoria,
94

Baringo 666, 336,322 330,428 142,518 141,877 641 11,07 61

County 763 5
 Total Headco unt Pover Severity Contributio Constituency
Popul Index: ty of n to Ranking by
ati on Percent of Gap Poverty National Contribution
Individu as as Poverty to National
alsbelow Perce Percent (%) Poverty
Poverty ntof of
Line Pover Poverty
ty Line
Line

Tiaty 165,084 72. 16 4. 0.5 30

9 4 66

Baringo North 112,897 59. 14. 4. 0.3 136

5 4 5 26

Baringo 104,371 47 10. 3. 0.2 224

Central 4 2 17

Baringo South 97,916 51. 11. 3. 0.2 206

7 5 5 44

Mogotio 98,077 43. 8.5 2. 0.1 274

7 3 54

Eldama Ravine 139,449 29 5 1. 0.1 255

3 78

Source: KNBS 2019

Table 1.3: Population estimate Projections by (sub-county and sex)

Sub 2019 2022 2025 2027

Count y Male Fema Total Male Fema Total Male Fema Total Male Fema Total
le le le le
Baring o48,12 48,82 96,95 50,57 53,83 104,3 53,99 57,19 111,1 56,23 59,37 115,5
Centra 0 9 1 6 6 71 4 4 49 4 0 67
L

Baring 52,36 52,50 104,8 55,04 57,88 112,8 58,76 61,49 120,2 61,20 63,83 125,0
o North 9 0 71 2 3 97 2 4 29 0 3 08

Tiaty 40,46 39,45 79,92 42,52 43,50 86,04 45,40 46,21 91,62 47,28 47,97 95,27
West 2 9 3 7 5 0 1 9 8 5 7 0
Eldam 65,29 64,23 129,5 68,62 70,82 139,4 73,26 75,24 148,5 76,30 78,10 154,4
a Ravine 5 8 35 7 5 49 6 3 05 5 5 08

Baring 45,70 45,24 90,95 48,03 49,88 97,91 51,28 52,99 104,2 53,41 55,01 108,4
o South 6 6 5 9 5 6 5 7 75 3 3 20

Mogot io 46,01 49,71 98,07 51,63 52,81 104,4 53,77 54,82 108,5
4 45,08 91,10 48,36 1 7 1 2 46 3 1 98
8 4 2
Tiaty East 38,35 40,31 38,66 79,04 43,03 41,07 84,17 44,82 42,63 87,52
6 35,06 73,42 4 4 4 8 5 7 4 8 3
8 4
Baring o
Count 336,3 330,4 666,7 353,4 364,3 717,7 377,3 387,0 764,4 393,0 401,7 794,7
Y 22 28 63 86 08 94 77 34 11 34 59 93
3.5 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

The county's economic activity include livestock keeping, apiculture, fisheries and agriculture. Some of the crops
grown include maize, pigeon peas, beans, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, sorghum, cassava and finger millet which
are the principal crops farmed while coffee, cotton, macadamia nuts and pyrethrum are main income crops.
Baringo County is usually hit hard but drought and unpredictable rainfall patterns, which has affected the
agricultural activities. Large herds of livestock succumb to the drought and as a result people are forced to travel
for very long distances in search of water and pasture and as a result causes farmers to suffer loses and sometimes
even causes conflicts which result in loses of lives.
Poverty was and is used by the Commission of Revenue Allocation as one the indicators because of its bearing on
the county's development. Most marginalized counties are poor, seen through inadequate access of basic services.
Baringo County is among the marginalized in Kenya with a poverty. Incidence of 52.2% against 45.2%
nationally.

3.6 VEGETATION

Baringo is characterized as arid and semi-arid (ASAL) which is ecologically marginal areas
with vulnerable natural balance between elements of the environment. Natural vegetation
consists of several species of the acacia the is Acacia Senegal, Acacia relicense, Acacia
tortilis and Acacia mellifera. Resources derived from the vegetation is utilized to sustain
livestock, cutting down trees to produce charcoal. The vegetation is also significant and
crucial for bee- keeping carried out in the area.
Drought is a norm rather than exception across the county where it adversely affects
vegetation and water resources which are a key resource for pastoralism. Vegetation cover is
severely affected when droughts were prolonged and intense and vice versa. Bare grounds
devoid of vegetation cover were common during prolonged and intense droughts
experienced during the 2000 La Nina drought (NDVI value of 0.07). As the inhabitants
strive to cope with the effects of droughts, they turned into their immediate environment
exploiting the available resources. This led to the destruction of vegetation cover through
activities such as overgrazing on wetlands and forested areas, charcoal burning and clearing
vegetation to allow crop farming. Thus with the increasing drought frequency, duration and
intensity, if the environmental degradation remains unchecked Baringo County will become
a desert devoid of vegetation. Below are data plates collected from the field survey in
Baringo south sub-county in Marigat
Plate 1: Acacia tortilis Plate 2: Acacia Senegal

Source: Field survey,2023 source: Field survey,2023

3.7 TEMPERATURE, RAINFALL AND HUMIDITY
The county is divided into three ecological zones, the lowland areas ranging from 762 to
1000 meters above the sea level, Midland areas ranging from 1000 meters to 1500 meters
above sea Level and highland areas ranging from 1500 meters to 2300 meters above the sea
level. The Perkerra irrigation scheme is in the molo-Perkerra basin of the semi-arid
lowlands of Baringo District which is characterized by the gentle sloping plains. The county
is situated on the western side of rift valley at an altitude of 1100 meters above the sea level.
To the east of Kerio Valley land raise too from the northerly trending ridges of the Tugen
hills. The highlands are in the modified tropical zones with soils that are generally well
drained and fertile. This zone has High potential areas for agriculture and improved
livestock development. Baringo county generally experiences high temperature, especially
during dry season. The temperatures range between 30-35 degree Celsius. The county
experience bimodal pattern of rainfall ranges between 400 to 800mm annually. The humidity
in the county is mostly influence by moisture and the prevailing weather patterns. During dry
season humidity drops significantly as a result of reduced rainfall and increased evaporation.
During rainfall humidity rises due to increase in moisture content. The following figures
indicate the difference in humidity, temperature and rainfall.

Figure 3.7: Humidity comfort level Baringo county

Source: Weather spark.com

Figure 3.8. Mean maximum and minimum temperature of Baringo
County Source: Weather spark.com

Figure3.9: Mean monthly rainfall of Baringo county

Source: Weather spark.com
 3.7.1 Climate change and its effects
The rainfall varies from 1000mm to 1500 millimeters in the highlands and 600
millimeters in the Lowlands.
Due to varied altitudes, the sub counties receive different levels of rainfall, Koibatek
Sub County receives the highest amount of rainfall. The lowland sub counties of
Mogotio and East Pokot and Baringo North receives relatively low amount of rainfall.
The temperature ranges from a minimum of 10°c to a maximum of 35°c in different
parts of the county. Average wind Speed is 2m/sec and the humidity is low. The
climate of Baringo varies from humid highlands to arid low lands while some regions
are Between those extremes.
The county continues to suffer extreme weather events that adversely affect the
livelihood of the people. Evidence from the historic climate data sources show that the
drought frequencies and duration in the county increased from four droughts every ten
years in the 1980 s to eight Droughts every ten years in the 2000 s.
The hottest month in Baringo is March, with an average high of 92° F and low of 66°
F. The Cool season lasts for 2.4 months, from June 21st to September 1st with an
average daily high Temperature of 86°F. The coldest month of Baringo County is
August with an average low of 65°F and high of 85°F.
Variability in rainfall affected the livelihood assets of the rural populace. It was
observed that 78.7% of the respondents in are informed of climate change mostly
through the media (34.62%). Climate variability in high extent results to drought, crop
pest and diseases of the rural Populace in Baringo county experience food insecurity
due to climate variability.

3.7.2 Climate change mitigation measures and adaptation strategies

In addressing climate change, the county is planting more trees especially along the
river, roads and schools. Other actions being undertaken is water harvesting for future
use, value Addition and, soil and water conservation, on - farm diversification and
change of livestock type and crop varieties to move drought tolerance ones.

3.8 Land Cover/ Land Use

According to the National Irrigation Authority (2023), the total potential irrigated area
is 2,340 hectares = 5,800 acres, but only 810 hectares = 2,000 acres has been
constructed for horizontal trench irrigation, and 607 hectares = 1,500 acres of that is
being farmed owing to water scarcity. Onions, chilies, watermelons, pawpaw, and
cotton were once the principal crops but currently maize, beans, sorghum, cow peas, and
green grams are the major crops grown in the region. The economic value of the scheme
is Ksh.54 million annually (National Irrigation Authority, 2023). Crops grown in the
scheme currently are summarized in table 3.1 below that shows the acreage and
economic value of each.
 Table 3.1: Agricultural Economic Value of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme
Crop Acreage Approximate Yield Expected Income
(Kg.) (Ksh.)
Green grams 420 270,000 17,820,000
Cow Peas 55 19,800 2,376,000
Sorghum 100 135,000 6,075,000
Beans 90 32,400 3,240,000
Maize Seeds 135 270,000 17,820,000

Source: Adopted from (National Irrigation Authority 2023

Figure 3.10: land use and land cover of Perkerra

Source: Field Study,2023

3.9 Geology and Soils

Baringo South sub-county lies on the plains of Tugen hills. Deposits of alluvium have accumulated in
the plain due to their deposition during the Quaternary by the River Perkerra. Because the alluvial
deposits are products of tertiary and Quaternary volcanic rocks, they find their way into the plain as
erosional materials.
Soils
The parent material of the soil around Baringo south is alluvium, which is derived
from different tertiary and quaternary volcanic rocks. The soil is imperfectly well-
drained, very deep, dark brown in color, firm, and contains strongly cracking clay
from its surface. However, from about 50 cm deep below the ground surface, the
soil is calcareous. Besides, the soil texture is consistently clay, while the color is in
between dark brown and yellowish-brown. The structure of the soil ranges from
moderately coarse to very coarse prisms that can be broken throughout into angular
blocks. In terms of its consistency, the soil can be very hard when dry, firm in moist
conditions, and sticky and plastic when wet. The soil's consistency and its clay
mineralogy make it impeded such that irrigation water floods its surface for a long
time, making it a good water retainer from the surface.
Furthermore, the fertility of the soil is characterized by an adequate composition of
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. But there is a low carbon and
nitrogen concentration in the soil, which means that when planting crops of the
legume family, initial carbon and nitrogen supply is vital, followed by top dressing
with nitrogen fertilizers later in the crop's development. Additionally, the chemical
properties show that the pH is 7.7 in terms of hydroxide composition and 6.2 in terms
of chloride composition, with a base saturation of 90% and a sodium exchange
percentage at 14 to 60 cm depth. As shown in figure 3.11 and figure 3.12.
figure 3.11: Geology of Perkerra

Source: Field Study,2023

Figure 3.12: Soil Type

S
ource: Field Study,2023

3.10 Conditions that have favored the location of Perkerra irrigation scheme

Presence of the Perkerra river has made irrigation possible by supplying water to the Perkerra irrigation scheme in
jemps flats near Marigat township. However due to climate change and challenges of dry up of water sources has
initiated the construction of Radat dam project that is aimed to control and utilize the flood water of Perkerra river
and enhance the development of the expanded Perkerra irrigation scheme. A proposed 124MCM Radat dam is
aimed to supply3.25m³/s {280,000 m³/day} for irrigation development. The current irrigation development is2500
acres with a potential to increase to 10,000 acres. The type of irrigation used in Perkerra irrigation scheme is the
gravity fed open earth channel conveyance with open furrow application system. This was made possible due to
gently sloping environment that allows mechanization/easy flow of water for irrigation by gravity. Presence of
fertile loamy / alluvial soils good for the growth of variety of crops like maize, green grams, beans and cow peas
has enhanced the crops to revive and grow well.

Irrigation is encouraged by areas of low and irregular rainfall of 450 millimeters (18in) and
annual evaporation rate of 1650 millimeters (65in) to 2300 millimeters (95In). Stakeholders,
farmers and county officials agree that the climate has changed over time, with aspects like
rainfall and temperature becoming more inconsistent and unpredictable.
Climate change and global warming have impacted agricultural output and farmers
recognize the importance of addressing climate change challenges. A large part of Baringo
county is semi-arid and many farmers depend on rain fed agriculture and can only grow
during the rainy season. Long rains usually occur in March and lasts until May while short
rains begin in October and lasts until December. However, this is changing and rains may
begin later in some cases or instances.
Government policies that support irrigation schemes to be built in the counties e.g. the Radat
dam in the remote locations of the Perkerra irrigation scheme.
The quality of fund an available for investment such as buying farm inputs and tools. They
coordinated significantly with the agricultural sector development programs, the national
government and other development partners to ensure the project’s success.
There is ready market for farm produce harvested at the Perkerra irrigation scheme for both the
local and international markets. Farm produce of Perkerra have got ready market making them
to thrive well.

3.11 The synthesis of emerging issues in relation to Perkerra irrigation scheme

The Perkerra Irrigation Scheme is an important agricultural project located in Kenya. Over
the years, this scheme has faced several emerging issues that have implications for its
success. This essay aims to synthesize and analyze these emerging issues, highlighting their
significance and potential solutions
1. Water Management Challenges

One of the primary emerging issues in the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme is water
management. The scheme heavily relies on water from the Perkerra River, which has
experienced reduced water levels and increased pollution. This has led to inadequate
water supply for irrigation, affecting crop yields and farmer livelihoods. To address
this issue, stakeholders should focus on implementing efficient water management
practices, such as water conservation techniques and proper pollution control
measures.
2. Climate Change Impacts

The Perkerra Irrigation Scheme is not immune to the effects of climate change. Rising
temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events
pose significant challenges to agricultural operations. These emerging issues require
implementing adaptation strategies, such as promoting drought-resistant crops,
installing effective irrigation systems, and educating farmers on climate-smart
agricultural practices.

3. Socio-economic Inequities

Amid the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme's development, emerging socio-economic

inequities have arisen. Small-scale farmers, who form a significant portion of the
scheme's beneficiaries, face challenges accessing inputs, credit, and markets. This
disparity impedes their ability to fully benefit from the scheme's potential. Addressing
this issue requires enhancing access to credit, providing capacity-building programs,
and ensuring fair market opportunities for small-scale farmers.

4. Land Tenure Issues

Land tenure insecurity is another emerging issue affecting the Perkerra Irrigation
Scheme. Unclear land ownership and disputes hinder long-term investments,
discourage farmers' participation, and restrict scheme expansion. To tackle this issue,
it is crucial to establish a clear and transparent land tenure system that ensures
equitable access and protects the rights of all stakeholders.

The Perkerra Irrigation Scheme faces several emerging issues that require collective
efforts to address effectively. Through efficient water management practices, climate
change adaptation strategies, socio-economic inclusive approaches, and land tenure
reforms, the scheme can overcome these challenges and thrive. By synthesizing and
analyzing these emerging issues, stakeholders can develop comprehensive and
sustainable solutions, ensuring the long-term success of the Perkerra Irrigation
Scheme and the well-being of its beneficiaries.
 CHAPTER 4

4.0 STUDIO DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

In this study, we embark on a journey to explore the research design and methodology employed in the context of
Perkerra irrigation scheme in Baringo county. This specific chapter outlines; the research design, nature and
sources of data, targeted population and data collection methods and instruments used.

4.2 STUDIO DESIGN

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

There are two perspectives of research design that offer distinct ways of approaching research: qualitative research
design and quantitative research design. Quantitative research design focuses on collecting and analyzing
numerical data to answer research questions. It involves the use of structured data collection methods such as
surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis. Researchers quantify variables, establish patterns, and test
hypotheses using statistical techniques. This approach is commonly used in fields like psychology, economics, and
natural sciences to draw objective and generalizable conclusions. Qualitative on the other hand, it involves
collecting non-numerical data through methods such as interviews, observations, and content analysis. Researchers
explore the meanings, experiences, and perspectives of participants. Qualitative research is often employed in
social sciences, anthropology, and the humanities to gain a deeper understanding of complex social, cultural, or
human experiences.

There are four major types of Research Designs: Descriptive Research Design, Experimental Research Design,
Correlational Research Design, Diagnostic Research Design and Explanatory Research Design.

4.2.1 Descriptive design

Descriptive design is a research design which allows the researcher to study and describe the distribution of one or
more variables without regard to any causal or other hypotheses (Dulock 1993).This is a theory-based design,
where the researcher is primarily interested in describing the topic that is the subject of the research. It is applied to
case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys, and so on. This method includes data collection, analysis, and
presentation. It lets the researcher clearly present the problem statement in order to allow others to better
understand the need for this kind of research. Correlational design allows the researcher to establish some kind of a
relation between two closely related topics or variables. It’s a non-experimental research design type that requires
at least two groups of data.
The study adopted the descriptive research design as the researcher collected information and data in the Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme without affecting community behavior in any way. The researchers observed the scheme's
operations and asked questions aimed at gathering relevant data for the study. The tools used included well-
structured questionnaires, note-taking and photographs. The data collected were analyzed and presented in a
simplified manner. The study aimed at understanding the issues and benefits of the Perkerra Rice Growing
Irrigation scheme to the people of Marigat Sub County and Baringo County.

4.3 STUDIO METHODOLOGY

Research methodology refers to the systematic process researchers follow to conduct a study or investigation. It
involves the methods, techniques, and procedures used to gather, analyze, and interpret data. Common steps in
research methodology include defining research objectives, selecting a research design, collecting data, analyzing
data, and drawing conclusions. The choice of methodology depends on the research question and the nature of the
study, and it can include qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches. Besides literature reviews as the
basis for data collection, other techniques employed include; questionnaires and interview guides.

4.4 NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA

In order to achieve the set objectives of the studio, various nature of data from varying sources were adopted as
follows;
Nature and Sources of Data
4.4.1 Nature of data
To meet the study's objectives, various natures of data were used. In the case of the first
objective of evaluating the operations and performance of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme in light of its initial
objectives and targets the nature of the data gathered was on the acreage under irrigation versus the planned
acreage , annual farm output per individual crops, management strategies adopted within the scheme and their
effectiveness, new initiatives in the operation and management of the scheme, seeds acquisition system and
problems constraining the operations and performance of the scheme, existing land tenure system including tenure
rights and plot sizes. The second objective is to conduct an inventory of crop varieties grown and their adaptability
to the agro-ecological zone which characterize Perkerra irrigation scheme, the nature of data gathered was on type
and characteristics (e.g., rainfall patterns, temperature, humidity etc.) of agro ecological zone, various soil types
and various types of crops grown within the scheme and their respective requirements under which Baringo south
sub county falls. For the third objective, the nature of data collected on linkage between the development of
Perkerra irrigation scheme and enhancement of rural livelihoods. The data collected was on sources and levels of
income, level of food security, age and gender inclusivity among the farmers, overall state of infrastructure and
services within Perkerra Irrigation Scheme and its environs, water supply, road transportation, Energy supply,
Education and health infrastructure and occupational safety and health issues in line with OSHA (2007)
requirements. The fourth objective is to assess safety, health and environmental issues associated with the
operations of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme, the nature of data gathered was on agricultural inputs and their
environmental impacts (e.g., pollution), land degradation, waste management, social security and resource use
conflicts-land, water. The final objective is to undertake a SWOT analysis of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme, the nature
of data was gathered on the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

4.4.2 Data sources

Data are facts or figures which are either quantitative or qualitative from which conclusions
can be drawn. These data can be primary or secondary. Qualitative data for this study
included water supply and demand management issues, information on the crops variety grown
in the scheme, type of land ownership, the problem faced by farmers, measures to minimize
the problems, and suitability of crop varieties to Marigat climatic conditions. Quantitative data
for this study included information on total monthly income, area of land under crop cultivation, the cropvariety
grown and the amount produced, consumption and sold.
4.4.3 Primary data sources
The primary data is where the researcher is the first person to obtain data and can be
qualitative and quantitative. These types of data are used to address the issues at hand. For
the study primary qualitative data were sourced from a series of well-structured
questionnaires that were administered to the farmers, an interview guide that guided the
researchers during an interview with key stakeholders (government bodies, relevant ministry
representatives, County Government Officials-ward/County Administrators, business
community, private sector, NGOs and CBOs). While primary quantitative data were sourced
through observation, notes taking and photographs of the scheme activities and its
environment.
4.4.4 Secondary data source
These are data that are obtained from what other researchers have already done. They are
used to analyze and interpret the primary data. They include; published and unpublished
literature, journals report, MRGS documents and maps, different articles, magazines,
newsletters, newspapers, books, internet statistical data, policies, regulations, websites,
previous research; official statistics, diaries and statistics from NIA and.
In examining the challenges facing Perkerra Irrigation Scheme, the study relied on the data
Objective Nature of data Sources of Data

Initial objectives and

targets and 1.Primary Sources-
Objective 1; To achievements; Government officials
evaluate the acreage under (KALRO, NIA) obtained from the well-structured
operations and irrigation versus the Secondary sources- questionnaires which were filled by
performance of planned acreage, internet, KALRO farmers and that
P.I.S in light of its annual farm output website.
initial objectives per individual crops, obtained from the interview guide which
and targets. management was used to interview key stakeholders.
strategies adopted In
within the scheme
and their interviewing farmers practicing
effectiveness, new irrigation, farmers of rain-fed Agriculture
initiatives in the 2.Secondary were also
operation and Sources-Internet,
management of the Baringo CIDP, Maps. interviewed thought the number was
scheme, Seeds Internet, insignificant and therefore the
acquisition system Websites(KALRO). information obtained was
Problems
constraining the not enough to make a comparison with
operations and irrigated agriculture.
performance of the
scheme, existing land The checklist was used to identify the
tenure system environmental impacts of the irrigation
including tenure scheme to
rights and plot sizes.
come up with mitigation measures
S

Primary sources
Objective 2; To Type and Observations
conduct an characteristics (e.g., Secondary sources
inventory of crop rainfall patterns, Literature review
varieties grown and temperature, County department of
their adaptability to humidity etc.) of agro land and physical
the agro-ecological ecological zone planning
zone which under which Baringo
characterize P.I.S south sub county
falls.
Primary data
Farmers
-Various soil types, Observation
present in Baringo NIA, KALRO
south sub county and
their respective Secondary sources
characteristics. KALRO

- Various types of
crops grown within
the scheme and their
4.5Target Population and sample size

4.5.1 Target population

The study targeted 5000 farmers, business community and relevant institutions (KALRO, NIA, KEFRI, Farmers
cooperative society, IWUA) within Baringo south sub county where Perkerra irrigation scheme is situated. The
scheme covers 5800 acres of land of which the actual area under irrigation is 2750 acres. A specified group of
farmers under the irrigation scheme and the neighborhood communities are approximately 13000 people being
included as direct dependents. The research embarked too on CBOs, NGOs, Government bodies and government.
The study was carried out both inside and outside the scheme.

4.5.2 Sample size

Therefore, the number of interviewed farmers and business individuals were 150 and 120 respectively.

4.6 METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF DATA COLLECTION

Field data was collected using various instruments including observations, oral interviews, questionnaires, GIS and
remote sensing imageries and review of relevant literature

4.6.1 Observations

We basically used our eyes to see and garner information in the scheme. Observations were able to provide
valuable information on types of crops grown, soil types, water usage and management and the condition of
infrastructure around Perkerra irrigation scheme. (Plate.) The information was recorded in notes and photographs.

Plate. some vegetables being grown in Perkerra Irrigation scheme

Source: Field survey 2023

4.6.2 Oral Interviews

We Conducted interviews with irrigation scheme stakeholders to yield insights into their experiences, challenges,
and needs in the development of Perkerra irrigation scheme. Plate. we are having an interview with KALRO on
their role in Perkerra Irrigation Scheme. Plate.is an interview with NIA on their role and also engagement with
farmers in solving disputes

Plate. Plate

Source: Field survey 2023

4.6.3 Questionnaires:
Administered structured questionnaires to farmers to collect quantitative data on water use, crop yields, and farmer
preferences. (Dillman 2014) Plate4 administration of the questionnaires to the farmers and business.

The questionnaires covered the following issues; The demographic data of the various respondents, their income
both from farming and other sources, various methods of irrigation applied in the scheme and their effects/benefits
to both crops and farmers, the crop adaptability of the various crops in the scheme, the ecological, social, technical
and cultural issues that the farmers think has been brought by the scheme, respondents recommendations on what
can be done by various stakeholders to improve farming in the scheme.

Plate. our colleagues administering questionnaires

Source: Field survey 2023

4.6.4 Photography

We captured images during our research which were used to evaluate the state of Perkerra irrigation

We were able to monitor the infrastructure development of Perkerra irrigation scheme.

Plate. Double water division box Plate. A weir

Plate: Single water division box Plate Offtake gates

4.6.5 Focus Group Discussions

We prepared some lead discussion topics to get information from the lead institutions. This included taking notes,
listening and leading the discussion on Perkerra irrigation scheme. Focus group discussions provided qualitative
insights into stakeholders perceptions, social dynamics, and collective decision-making.(Plate

Plate. Having group discussions in a boardroom

Source: Field survey 2023

4.6.6 Review of relevant literature.

We used the available data in books, journals and internet to determine the current state of Perkerra irrigation
scheme from the county of Baringo development plan.

It also helped in the evaluation of Perkerra current state with its initial goals and objectives.

Literature review also helped to understand the weather and climate patterns in the area and how it influences the
crops grown within the scheme. (Yin 2013)

4.7 Data analysis and presentation

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the study because the data compiled were thought to apply to
both the sample in question and other similar populations. Content analysis was used to analyze data collected
from; questionnaires and interviews. Microsoft excel was used for the data analysis. Quantitative data were
analyzed by the use of measures of central tendency which was later presented in tables, charts and graphs while
qualitative data was analyzed and presented used using maps and photographs

4.8 Limitations of the studio

i) Unfavorable weather conditions during conduction of the questionnaires

ii)Negative attitude from respondents

iii)Illiteracy of some of the respondents

iv)Language barrier with some of the respondents

CHAPTER 5
5.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter gives a clear picture of the analysis of findings collected during the field work survey, in line with the
objectives of the study. The objectives of the study sought to find out how to efficiently maximize on the potential
of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme sustainable rural livelihoods. Data was collected through field interviews,
observations, photography and questionnaires carried out on selected rice growing farmers. The data has been
interpreted into meaningful, applicable units and a detailed analysis has been presented with the aid of pictorial
representations such as images, graphs, pie charts and statistical tables.

5.2THE OPERATIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF PERKERRA IRRIGATION SCHEME IN LIGHT OF

OBJECTIVES AND TARGETS

Perkerra Irrigation Scheme (PIS) is one of the seven public irrigation Schemes under the management of National
Irrigation Authority (NIA). It is situated 100 Km North of Nakuru town near Marigat Township in Marigat Sub-
County, Baringo County. It derives its water from the river Perkerra, which is the source of irrigation water and the
only permanent river in the district.

The initial objectives of the scheme were; to address food security situation; offer employment opportunities;
address the issue of flooding, to settle the landless; and to provide an alternative source of livelihood for the
pastoral community in order to address the issue of cattle rustling.

The construction of the Scheme started in 1954 after several feasibility studies, which showed the Njemps plains
were suitable for irrigation. Construction coincided with the “state of emergency” period whereby detainees were
used to provide labour. Marigat was one of the many detainee camps in the country at that time. The initial gazette
area was 5800 acres of which only 2750 acres have been put under irrigation. (figure 1) The Scheme has 1625
registered farm households owing farming plots ranging from 0.5 to 4 acres per household. Out of this 496
households have been settled on house an acres of village plots. The Scheme has a directly dependent population of
approximately 23000 people.it also indirectly benefits the larger Baringo county and parts of Nakuru county in
terms of farm labour, farm produce and livestock feed. The Scheme has an area developed for irrigation on an
inclined plane layout which is gravity fed through furrow irrigation with water being pushed from the feeder canals
directly into furrows or by siphoning. The Scheme lies in a semi-arid climate condition with an average rainfall of
630 mm with great seasonal and annual fluctuations.

Figure 1: Perkerra irrigation scheme layout map.

Source: NIA Marigat, 2023

Table 1): The summary of the history of Perkerra irrigation scheme.

Source: NIA Marigat, 2023

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT CROPS GROWN IN PERKERRA IRRIGATION SCHEME.

1. SEED MAIZE

Perkerra irrigation scheme targeted to facilitate the production of seed maize through supply of irrigation water and
production. The data given for production seed maize in the scheme from land acquisition to harvesting and
transport is a total of KS 52,590. The farm gate of Ksh 90 per kilogram with a total average production of 1.8tons
per acre. The total estimated gross profit of seed maize is Ksh 109,41

Table 2: Production cost estimate for seed maize.

PRODUCTION COST ESTIMATE FOR SEED MAIZE

S/NO ACTIVITY QUANTITY ESTIMATED COST (KSH)

10,000.
1 LAND LEASING 1 Acre 00

3,800.
2 PLOUGHING 1 Acre 00

1,700.
3 RIDGING 1 Acre 00

2,000.
4 O&M FEES 1 Acre 00

1,800.
5 CROSS-BAND CUTTING 1 Acre 00

1,240.
6 SEEDS 8 Kg@155 00

1,300.
8 PLANTING 65 boxes x20 00

9 IRRIGATION 1st and subsequent 9 1,000.

irrigation 1st 00

7,200.
subsequent 9 00

10 FERTILIZER DAP 2 bags x 6,000.

3000 00

5,400.
top dressing 00

65 cross bands x 3,250.

11 WEEDING 50 00

4,000.
12 DETASSELING 1 Acre 00

MAIZE 1,200.
13 GUARDING(WATCHMAN) 1 Acre 00
 1,500.
14 PEST CONTROL 1 Acre 00

HARVESTING & 2,800.

15 TRASPORTATION 1 Acre 00

TOTA 52,590.
L 00

Farm gate price Ksh 90/kg

Gross profit Margin

COP=Ksh. 52,590

Average production 1.8 tons per acre/year

1800 Kgs X Ksh.90=Ksh. 162,000

Gp= 162,000-52,590=Ksh. 109,410

2. MAIZE
During the 2022/2023, the data given for the production of maize in the scheme from land acquisition to harvesting
and transport to the market the cost of production is as total of Ksh. 44,000. The farm gate of Ksh.60 per kilogram
with a total yield of 1,800 kilograms per acreage. Despite a few challenges encountered by farmers the estimate
gross profit stood at Ksh 64000

3. Table 3: Production cost estimate for maize

COMMERCIAL MAIZE ESTIMATE FOR PRODUCTION
S/NO ACTIVITY QUANTITY ESTIMATED COST (KSH)

5,000.0
1 LAND LEASING 1 Acre 0

2,500.
2 PLOUGHING 1 Acre 00

1,400.
3 RIDGING 1 Acre 00

3,250.
4 CROSS-BAND CUTTING 1 Acre 65x30 00

1,950.
5 WEEDING 1 Acre 65x50 00

1,600.
6 SEEDS 8 Kg@200 00

1,300.
8 PLANTING 65 boxes x20 00

9 IRRIGATION 1st and subsequent 9 1,000.

irrigation 1st 00

5,400.
subsequent 9x600 00

10 FERTILIZER DAP 2 bags X 6,000.

3000 00

5,400.
top dressing 00

1,500.
11 SPRAYING 1 Acre 00

4,000.
12 DETASSELING 1 Acre 00

MAIZE 1,200.
13 GUARDING(WATCHMAN) 1 Acre 00

14 HARVEST & TRANSPORT 1 Acre 2,500.

 00

TOTA 44,000.
L 00

Farm gate price Ksh 60/kg

Gross profit Margin

COP=Ksh. 44,000

Average production 1.8 tons per acre/year

1800 Kgs X Ksh.60=Ksh. 108,000

Gp= 108,000-44,000=Ksh. 64,000

4. GREEN GRAMS
The data given for 2022/2023 for Green grams’ production in the scheme from land acquisition to harvesting
and transportation add up to a total of Ksh 30,970. The farm gate per kilogram Ksh 120 per kilogram whereby
the farmers delivered a total of 0.36tons per acre. The gross profit for 2022/2023 stood at Ksh 12,230

Table 4: Production cost estimate for Green grams.

PRODUCTION COST ESTIMATE FOR GREEN GRAMS

ESTIMATED
S/NO ACTIVITY QUANTITY COST

5,0
1
LAND LEASING 1 Acre 00.00

2,5
2
PLOUGHING 1 Acre 00.00

2,5
3
2ND PLOUGHING 1 Acre 00.00

1,4
4
RIDGING 1 Acre 00.00

CROSSBAND 1,8
5
CUTTING 1 Acre 00.00

6 SEEDS 4 Kg @ 155
 620.00

1,3
7
PLANTING 65 boxes x20 00.00

3,2
8
IRRIGATION 4 subsequent x50 00.00

3,2
9
WEEDING 65x50 50.00

5,4
10
TOP DRESSING 2 bags x 2700 00.00

1,5
11
PEST CONTROL 1 acre 00.00

HARVEST 2,5
12
&TRANSPORT 1 Acre 00.00

TOTA 30,9
L 70.00

Farm gate price Ksh 120/kg

Gross profit Margin

COP=Ksh. 30,970

Average production 0.36 tons per acre/year

360 Kgs X Ksh.120=Ksh. 43,200

Gp= 43,200-30,970=Ksh. 12,230

5. PAWPAW
The data given for 2022/2023 for pawpaw production in the scheme from land acquisition to harvesting and
transportation add up to Ksh 83,645. One acre has a total annual of 700 seedlings of pawpaw where else the
farm gate per kilogram is Ksh 25 per kilogram. The farmers delivered a total of 30 tons of pawpaw and the
gross profit is 666,335
Table 5: AVERAGE TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS FOR PAWPAW CROP.

Production Activity/Acre Cost Cost/ Cost/ Cost/ Cost/ Cost/

(Kshs) Acre Acre Acre Acre Acre

Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4 Year5

Pawpaw seedlings 700 100/= 7,000 0 0 0 0

Manure 40kg/hole 1000/ton 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000

Fertilizer (DAP 200g/hole) 50/kg 6,000

Nematicide(15g/hole) 550/kg 5,000 0 5,000 5,000 5,000

Land preparation 8,000 0 0 0 0

Digging holes (18man days) 700XKsh 7,000 0 0 0 0

. 10

Sowing/planting (14man 135/ 1,890 0 0 0 0

days) person-
day

Irrigation (1man 135/ 6,480 6,480 6,480 6,480 6,480

days/weekx12) person-
day

Weeding (6man daysx4) 135/ 3,240 3,240 3,240 3,240 3,240

person-
day

Thinning (3man 135/ 1,215 0 0 0 0

daysx3/year) person-
day

Harvesting (3man 135/ 9,720 9,720 9,720 9,720 9,720

daysx24/year) person-
day

Chemicals 6,500 6,500 6,500 6,500 6,500

(insecticides/fungicide
 Fertilizer (UREA or CAN 50/kgX2 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000
300g/stoolx2splits)

Miscellaneous 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500

TOTAL 83,645 43,940 50,565 50,565 50,565

Farm gate price Ksh 25/kg

Gross profit Margin

COP=Ksh. 83,645

Average production 30 tons per acre/year

30,000 Kgs X Ksh.25=Ksh. 750,000

Gp= 750,000-83,645=Ksh. 666,355

Figure 1: Economic analysis of crops grown in P.I.S, 2022/2023

Source: Field Data, 2023
Figure 2: 2022/2023 Gross profit margin

Source: Field Data, 2023

5.3The nexus between the development Perkerra irrigation scheme and enhancement of rural
livelihood

5.3.1Land Ownership
Baringo south sub-county falls under the Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL) region. The land
within the irrigation scheme is government owned so most farmers lease the farms. This has
impacted on the growth of the area, especially because of the farmers who are leasing the land as
they have to get some form of accommodation in the area. This raised demand for land and also
rental facilities, especially in Marigat town, and hence raising the economic status of the area.
There was also another class of farmers who were using irrigation but were outside the Perkerra
irrigation scheme. The land outside the scheme however needs some form of machinery and
hence only financially able farmers can be able to access it.
 5.3.2Gender Analysis
There were 104 respondents in total. Out of these 87% of them were male while 13% of them
were female.

Figure: Gender among respondents

Source: Field data, 2023
 5.3.3Population demography and education
The survey indicated a normal population distribution with over 53 of the farmers
less than 40 years as shown in the figure below.

Figure: Age demographics for the respondents

Source: Field data, 2023

However, about 48% of the farmers are educated up to the secondary school level, while
31% of the farmers are educated up to primary school level. Only 11% and 5% of the
farmers have attained college and university education level. This clearly showed that
most of the farmers are not very educated and may not appreciate issues of
environmental degradation, soil and nutrition, water and air pollution among other
emerging issues.
 Figure: level of education

Source: (Field study, 2023)

5.3.4 Farming Purpose
The administered questionnaires to the beneficiaries were also structured in a

manner that it was possible to determine the farming purpose. The purpose

was either, subsistence, commercial or both. It is hence clear that most of the

farmers that did irrigation were doing it for commercial purposes. From the

visit to the site, irrigation comes at an added cost, when using the canal, then

a farmer has to invest for pipes so that water can easily reach to all the crops.

For those along the riverbanks, diesel pump is mostly applicable. Small scale

subsistence farmers hence can’t handle this cost.

5.3.5 Income analysis
The survey sought to determine the level of income from the various

respondents. 30% of all the respondents in Marigat town earn over Ksh60,000,

which is very impressive, 51% earned over Ksh30,000., while over 61 % of

the population earned over ksh20,000. According to the Kenya Gazette

Supplement No. 1 of 2019, the minimum wage in Kenya has been capped at

Ksh13,572.90. This shows that most of the farmers then in the irrigation

scheme are earning above the minimum wage. From our assessment, this can

be attributed to the existence of Perkerra scheme.

Figure: Monthly household average income for farmers

Source: (Field study, 2023)

The survey was also designed in a way that it captured the farmer’s income from the various
economic activities in the area. The spectrum of other economic activities was wide that included
Boda-boda riders, livestock keeping, businessmen, beekeeping, poultry and retail. 62% of the
famers in Perkerra irrigation scheme fully depend on farming. Livestock keeping came in second
at 11% while retail business came in third at 7%.

43% of all the famers earn below Kshs10,000 while 37% of them earned between Kshs10001-
Kshs20000. This analysis was mainly for the farmers who used irrigation for farming. These
shows that the farmers have the potential in engaging in other economic activities.
5.3.6 How Perkerra irrigation Scheme has impacted livelihoods of the residents.

a) Education

Most of the respondents who were interviewed said that the irrigated farming has really assisted
them in educating their children, especially those in private schools. Most of the interviewed
farmers confirmed that it would have been an uphill task to cater for education needs without the
irrigation agriculture. Perkerra irrigation scheme has ensured that more produce is produced and
hence more income for the farmers. Access of the exporters in the scheme has also been of help,
as the farmers can easily sell their produce.
b) Food Security and better nutrition

Food security is a vital aspect to the community, as it is entrenched in the CIDP, and Kenya
Vision 2030. The farmers inside the settlement practice both subsistence and commercial
farming. This means that they can feed for themselves. By extension, the community around the
settlement can access food at a much cheaper price as compared to other areas. Despite the slight
environmental issues on water quality, the scheme also ensures that the farmers can grow a
variety of crops in their farm and hence the nutritional well-being is guaranteed. The area, as it is
an ASAL, has a lot of fruits further improving on the nutrition. The food produce from Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme is also sold to the people in neighboring towns such as Marigat and Kabarnet
town thus enhancing their food security.

c) Better Livelihood, improved health & Economic Growth (Livestock and building the
house, higher source of income)

The existence of the scheme has major impacts on the economic growth for the area. Some of
these farmers have bought or rented some property in the area for their own. Owing to this
factor, the farmers has influenced the demand of the various facilities in the area, and hence more
investors in real estate. Most of the farmers confirmed that the value of land increased. Other
farmers also confirmed that through farming they have been able to construct better houses for
their families, while others confirmed they were investing in other urban areas.

The health aspect is also a major impact. Farmers can now afford better health services for their
family. Initially they depended on government hospitals but now can afford private hospitals that
have better services.

d) Creation of Employment and Business Opportunities.

Perkerra irrigation scheme has created employment both for the farmers and also for the
community. Most large-scale farmers employ people around Perkerra to assist them in farming.
This creates employment. The business men selling farm inputs in Marigat town also need
employees, as well as the exporters who come to pick the produce in the farms.Various
businesses have also been born from proceeds from irrigated farming, for example the several
agrovets and shops in Marigat town. Transport business has also grown as the produce has to be
transported to other town or exported out of the country hence creating more employment
opportunities

e) Better Infrastructure

Most of the roads in and around the scheme are well maintained, to enhance the transport system,
as the vehicles need to access the farm. The road to Perkerra town is well tarmacked. There is
also good network connectivity some farmers use to market or connect their produce to other
markets.

5.4 Safety, Health and Environmental issues associated with the operation of Perkerra
Irrigation scheme

5.4.1Introduction

The operations of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme introduce various safety, health and environmental
considerations include:

5.4.2Invasive species (Prosopis Juliflora)

The whole environs of P.I.S has been largely invaded by a number of both alien and native plant
species which create very stiff and dangerous competition with the crops in terms of nutrients.
The most common invasive plant species in the area is the Mathenge, scientifically known as
Prosopis Juliflora. More than 50% of the farmers within the scheme complained about the
Mathenge plant since it makes farming more tedious and relatively expensive since the plant
requires more efforts and resources to control, failure to which the overall crop yield reduces.
Mathenge plant has xerophytic characteristics which makes it more adaptable in an ASAL area
like Marigat region, Baringo county and this makes it a big challenge for both farmers and other
stakeholders in the Scheme to control.
Plate: Prosopis Juliflora (Mathenge plant)

Source: Field survey 2023

5.4.3 Pesticides and chemical management.

According to the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme farmers’ cooperative society chairman, Mr. Sammy
Chebii and the farmers themselves, 60 % of the farmers within the scheme use pesticides among
other farms chemicals to control pests and diseases and also to increase the overall production
output. The pesticides and chemicals are required at varying stages of crops growth right from
planting to almost maturity. Besides their positive impacts on the crops, these chemicals subject
other elements of environment to degradation through various ways for instance, when spraying
the crops, some of these agrochemicals find their way to the water bodies which subsequently
leads to water pollution. Secondly, continuous use of inorganic fertilizers in the farms the farms
greatly contribute to soil pollution and infertility.

The chemicals are also a threat to the overall health of farmers who in some cases do not have
access to good quality or complete personal protective equipment’s while handling the chemicals
in the farms.
Plate. A farmer spraying

Source: Field survey 2023

5.4.4 Climate change.

Climate change has been a critical issue affecting the entire world. No one has been left out of
the effects, including the Perkerra irrigation scheme, where Kenya is digging for maize seeds.

The scheme in Baringo county has been a lifeline for many families who directly and indirectly
depend on the scheme for a living and transformative growth of the region. Since the inception
of the scheme, it has continued to depend on Perkerra river as the main source of water but
nowadays the water can no longer sustain the farming potentially like before especially during
the dry seasons. The reduction of water in R. Perkerra also impact on the frequently experienced
conflicts among the farmers in Perkerra Irrigation Scheme.

Climate change has had an impact on the Perkerra irrigation scheme. This impact includes;

5.4.4.1 Drought
The drought persists in Baringo as it hits the rest of the country. According to farmers the water
in river Perkerra reduce hence they have less water to do farming. When there is inadequate
water supply, people reap reduced yields. This leads to reduce income and food supply hence
hunger strikes that persist to drought.

5.4.4.2 Flooding

Lake Baringo has broken it barks due to rising water levels and washed away peoples’ farms and
displaced people from their homes. This affected Perkerra where it had a worst hit of 165 acres
of arable land submerged. (Plate)

Plate rising water levels of L. Baringo causing flooding of the scheme

Source: Field survey 2023

In view of all this struggles, the Government of Kenya has promised the construction of a multi-
billion-shilling Radat dam. This could solve the issue of water shortage in Perkerra irrigation
scheme and also the flooding of L. Baringo. In addition to this mega project, P.I.S has the
potential for expansion to 7200 acres from 5800 acres and also utilize the unirrigated 2050 acres
from the gazette area

5.4.5 General Soil and land degradation.

Soil contamination, soil pollution or land pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the
presence of xenobiotic chemicals or other alterations in the natural soil Environment. Perkerra
irrigation scheme has been experiencing a number of these challenges starting from the river
Perkerra catchment to the farms in the irrigation blocks. During times of heavy down pour in
the upstream water volumes tend to raise. Siltation occurs along the canals hence influencing the
growth of invasive species e.g., Mathenge degrading large tracts of land. Soil erosion in Perkerra
irrigation scheme specifically within the blocks is observable where water flow is not controlled.
The water sweeps away the top fertile soil hence leaving unfertile and unproductive soil layer.
The farmers by constructing ridges and furrows to direct water to control the speed of flowing
water especially during high fluctuations to ensure the top fertile soil is not eroded.

Salinity which is the salt content in the soil, frequently alters the quantity and quality production
of crops, this is attributed where R. Perkerra flows along the rich mineral containing valleys and,
in the process, carries along with it the weathered mineral elements which end up being
deposited in the farms as water is directed to the farms in Perkerra scheme through the intake.

Water stagnation and concentration in the canals for a long-time initiate salt build up which
decrease soil fertility and crops will be subjected to high transpiration.

Animals getting into the irrigated land, destroys the irrigation infrastructure within the scheme.
Sometimes destroying the nature of canals and structure, animals’ footprints wear out the shape
and structure of canals, water will be lost to unintended areas and collects in pools, this
eventually encourage the growth of unwanted plant’s species in the scheme. In points it gets to
flood up the footpaths and access ways which now degrade the land arable within the scheme.

Plate. canal construction.

Source: Field survey 2023

5.4.8Water and air pollution

To increase output, the farmers use herbicides to dress their crops and also pesticides to prevent
pests on their crops. When these agrochemicals get into the soil, they are carried away by the
water as they irrigate.

When the water is fed to a farm that has been sprayed or dressed with fertilizers, the water will
wash the fertilizers and carry them, thus polluting the water downstream.

Spraying emits pollutants such as hazardous air pollutants and volatile organic compounds.
These pollutants contribute to health problems that affect residents, the neighborhood, and the
community.

Siltation.

Water carries sediments and soil materials from upstream and deposits to the feeder canals. It
therefore leads to reduced depth of canals(shallowing) which is now the primary cause of water
shortage within the scheme. Perkerra irrigation scheme farmers experience problems of
unreliable water supply, this has attributed to water reduction within the canals before it reaches
to the far away blocks.

Desiltation is done regularly to ensure water reaches to all members. This mechanism employed
by the National Irrigation Authority in Perkerra irrigation scheme, shows that it has hiked the
costs of managing the canals due to siltation.

Salinity.

Due to reduced soil fertility attributed by the practice of monoculture, farmers are forced to use
inorganic fertilizers for crop nutrients improvement. Pesticides are also applied for pests control
and to prevent crop diseases invasion.

Accumulation of these chemicals in the soil over time, leads to increased soil salinity. This has
negatively impacted plant growth, reduced crop yields and harm the overall ecosystems.

Human diseases related to water.

Perkerra Irrigation scheme has influenced the prevalence of certain diseases to Marigat people as
a result of poor water management.
The diseases influenced are as follows;

1.Bilharzia

The area has poorly managed water flow. Stagnant water becomes a breeding ground for the
snails that host parasitic flatworms responsible for transmitting schistosomiasis. People who get
into contact with contaminated water during agricultural activities or daily chores contract the
disease. Proper water management of irrigation schemes could reduce such health risks.

2. Malaria

Poor maintenance of canals has contributed to stagnant water which provide ideal breeding
grounds for the mosquitoes that transmit the malaria parasite (Female Anopheles mosquitoes). It
carries and transmit the Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria. When individuals live or work
in close proximity to these water sources, they are at a higher risk of being bitten by infected
mosquitoes, leading to the transmission of malaria. Proper water management practices, such as
avoiding stagnant water, clearing bushes, using insecticide-treated bed nets.

3. Typhoid

Typhoid fever is primarily associated with contaminated food and water. In the context of
Perkerra irrigation scheme, the risk of typhoid transmission has risen from the use of
contaminated water in agricultural practices. When irrigation water comes from a source
contaminated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi, which causes typhoid fever, there is a
potential for the bacteria to be transmitted to human beings.

4.Cholera

Cholera had been associated with the irrigation scheme because contaminated water used for
irrigation spreads the Vibrio cholerae bacteria, which causes cholera. If the water used in
irrigation is contaminated with human feces containing the bacteria, crops can become
contaminated as well. When people consume these contaminated crops or water, they can
contract cholera, leading to the rapid spread of the disease within communities. Proper sanitation
and water treatment are crucial in preventing the transmission of cholera in irrigation schemes.

Displacement of people

Although, the project proponents envision increased agricultural productivity and economic
growth, its implementation has been accompanied by significant controversies, particularly
regarding the displacement of Indigenous communities from their ancestral lands. The expansion
of the Perkerra Irrigation Schemes has further exacerbated the displacement of Indigenous
communities, particularly the Pokot and Marakwet people. The construction of new dams i.e the
Radat dam, canals, and infrastructure has resulted in the loss of additional grazing lands and
agricultural fields, forcing more people to abandon their traditional livelihoods and relocate to
overcrowded camps. The expansion has also encroached upon sacred sites and cultural
landscapes, threatening the preservation of Indigenous cultural heritage. The displacement of
people in the context of the Perkerra irrigation scheme expansion raises critical questions about
the ethics and sustainability of large-scale development projects.

While economic development is important, it should not come at the expense of the rights and
well-being of marginalized communities. Governments and project developers have a
responsibility to ensure that affected communities are fairly compensated, consulted, and
resettled in a manner that respects their cultural identity and traditional livelihoods.

Inadequate water supply.

The inadequate water supply in Perkerra irrigation schemes is indeed a significant environmental
issue with a range of associated impacts. The primary concern being insufficient water
availability which lead to unsustainable water use practices, ultimately harming the surrounding
ecosystem. Inadequate water supply in Perkerra irrigation scheme also disrupts the natural
balance of water-dependent ecosystems i.e. River Perkerra. When water supply is inadequately
managed, contamination occur due to factors such as concentration of pollutants, reduced water
flow, or increased usage of agrochemicals. This compromised water quality harm aquatic life,
wildlife, and even human populations dependent on these water sources.

Changes in water availability due to hydrological alteration, not only affect the quantity of water
but also the timing and distribution. This disruption adversely impacts the natural cycles of
plants growth, breeding patterns of animals, and overall ecological resilience.

To address the issues in Perkerra irrigation scheme, comprehensive and sustainable water
management strategies are crucial. This includes cementation of canals, incorporating water-
saving technologies, implementing proper water allocation and distribution systems, and
considering environmental impacts while planning and implementing irrigation schemes.
Habitat alteration.

Habitat alteration is a significant environmental issue associated with the irrigation scheme.
When implementing large-scale irrigation projects, it often involves modifying the natural
landscape to create channels, reservoirs, and canals, which has led to the alteration or destruction
of natural habitats.

Perkerra irrigation scheme in its initial construction phase has directly influenced loss of
biodiversity-rich habitats such as extensive plains which used to be grazing lands for the pastoral
Il Chamus community. These areas have been converted into agricultural lands, causing the
displacement or extinction of numerous plant and animal species.

Perkerra Irrigation scheme often involve diverting water from natural source i.e. River Perkerra,
this alteration in water availability has affected the hydrological cycle of Marigat and have
cascading effects on surrounding habitats. The reduced water flow in River Perkerra has
impacted aquatic ecosystems, affected fish populations and disrupted the natural balance.

Mitigating this environmental issue associated with the irrigation scheme requires careful
planning, sustainable water management practices, and implementing measures to minimize
habitat alteration. Balancing the needs of agricultural production with environmental
conservation is crucial to ensuring the long-term sustainability of irrigation project.
Pest and diseases

A high percentage of respondents agree that pest and diseases have negatively impacted crop
yields in the scheme which overtime has greatly affected their income levels. Further, they
pointed out that the NIA has failed to upscale level of preparedness of farmers in terms of pest
and diseases management that lead to reduction of crop production. The common pests that were
pointed out during the survey are: Aphids, rats, mites and whiteflies. For instance, Corn leaf
aphid infestations usually start in the plant whorl. Heavy infestations may curl leaves and stunt
the plant. Later infestations may completely cover the tassels and upper leaves. Respondents also
confirmed presence of major diseases for example the tomato yellow leaf curl virus affects
tomatoes and peppers. It causes the leaves to curl and relatively causing reduce crop yields and
quality. This can be resolved by timely spraying and monitoring of the crops. The scheme
management has been empowering the farmers in ways of managing the diseases by provision of
affordable pesticides and providing timetables to ensure uniform application of herbicides in
more affected areas

Threats
1.Insufficient policy coordination frameworks in the water, agriculture, and irrigation sectors
hence leading to complex and siloed/compartmentalization approaches in the management of the
sectors.

2. Political influence and pressure leading to supply driven approach in the implementation of
some irrigation projects since principles of effective project design, demand driven, and
sustainability are not duly taken into account.

3. Limited public sector financing due to competition from other social sectors of the economy
and the meagre national and county government budgetary provisions on the irrigation sector, for
both developmental and recurrent expenditure. In other words, the water, agriculture, and
irrigation sector plans and policies are not matched with budgetary provisions for
implementation and coordination.

4. Frequent changes in the key personnel in the sector in irrigation and water sectors hence
leading weak institutional memory and strategic focus.

5. Widespread catchment integrated development challenges leading to increased levels of water

insecurity, food insecurity, and environmental degradation among others

6. Negative effects of climate change and its implications to drought and flood management
situation in the country.

7. Slow approaches in development and enactment of relevant water and irrigation sector-based
policies and plans

8. Negative effects of climate change

9. Insecurity in some areas of the country

10. Conflicts over limited natural resources

11. Inadequate coordination framework between the county and national government over
management of natural resources
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
  Increased food  Infrastructure Vs.  Loans from  Invasive Spp. (

security maintenance gaps SACCOS Prosopis

Juliflora).
 Poverty reduction  Technological  Impetus for

gaps. change e.g  Gender bias in

 Income generation
Proposed Dam participation
 Water
 Infrastructure (Radat dam process.
management
development project).
challenges.  High population
 Home market  Crop dependency ratio
 Improper
diversification
 Increased relationship  Land
Agricultural between different  Public private degradation, soil
productivity stakeholders. partnerships erosion

(PPP).
 Community  Inconsistency of  Climate change
engagement in key land tenure  Investing in
 Market
decision making system. modern
fluctuation
Technology
 Government will  Increased
and farming  Infrastructure Vs.
power on Research production cost.
methods. maintenance
and collaborations
 Lack of credit
 Crop  Insecurity
access
diversification
 Pests and
 Siltation
 Cultivation diseases

with

aquaculture.

Thorough SWOT analysis of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme reveals a balance of strengths that
contribute to its success, weaknesses that require attention, opportunities for further
enhancement, and threats that need proactive management. This analysis serves as a valuable
tool for strategic planning and decision-making to ensure the scheme's continued positive impact
on the local community and agricultural productivity.

CHAPTER SIX

6.0 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research study. In doing
so, it provides recommendations in an action plan that may be adopted to assist small-scale
farmers in Perkerra Irrigation Scheme and its potentials and prospects for sustainable
development of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme to enhance rural livelihood in Marigat, Baringo
county.

6.2 Summary of the findings

Agriculture is a key pillar of economic prosperity. The purpose of this study was to determine
how the potential of the Perkerra Irrigation Scheme may be maximized for long-term benefit of
rural communities. The study investigated the role of PIS in improving rural livelihoods by
documenting parameters such as paw paw, seed maize, and green grams production,
consumption and sales, land ownership, occupation and earning, income benefit, and others. It
also evaluates water supply and demand concerns related with PIS operations and its
contribution to rural livelihood improvement.

The study focused on environmental concerns related to PIS operations and strategies for
managing and controlling them. It documented various factors, including diseases related to
water, conflicts over resource use, social issues, pest infestation, water scarcity, new types of
weeds emerging, flooding, infrastructure, open canal danger, and occupational health and safety
concerns. In order to improve rural livelihood, the research assessed the responsibilities played
by key PIS stakeholders and created an integrated action plan for the PIS's sustainable
development. Information was gathered from primary and secondary sources.
The Perkerra Irrigation Scheme has improved food security, created business and job
possibilities, improved financial stability, and other aspects of the local population's quality of
life, according to data analysis. However, a number of obstacles still hinder the production of
different crops, such as limited credit availability, insufficient extension and advisory services,
unhygienic conditions and waste disposal within programme plots, high production costs, a lack
of fertilizers, bribery and corruption among NIA officials, pests and diseases, and a shortage of
water for domestic and programme use. Additionally, the effects of climate change are spreading
throughout the region, resulting in decreased rainfall and increased wind intensity and drought.

The low level of education among women, as none of the female respondents had tertiary
education, hindered their understanding of ownership rights and gender equality as enshrined in
the Kenyan Constitution of 2010, and contrary to available evidence, some farmers felt that the
scheme was not helping them improve their livelihood, and the existence of brokers in the farm
exacerbated the situation. Farmers who are the original owners of the plots in PIS strongly felt
that the government should issue them the title deeds for the land in the scheme to enable them
access the credit facilities in the banks and other vital services as well as to have a sense of
ownership which will increase the production level of the scheme.

The findings further showed that farmer participation in governance has a significant relationship
to production. Further the study found that the role of NIA also has a significant influence on
production. Also, the role of County government and Marigat Farmers Comparative has a
significant influence on production of the different types of crops.

6.3 Conclusion

Farming of various types of crops have high potentials for sustainable development of rural

livelihoods among the local farmers in Kenya. With huge tracts of arable land, cheap and

available labour in the rural areas, these potentials can be realized through irrigation. Irrigation

schemes are key to economic growth if serious investments are made in establishing, operating

and maintaining irrigation schemes. Use of improved crop varieties that are adaptable to different

agro-ecological zones as well implementing policies that govern development of irrigation

schemes and other strategies will help overcome challenges facing irrigation schemes especially

Perkerra Irrigation Scheme. Full dependency on government agencies to carry out operation and

maintenance of the irrigation scheme has often resulted in ineffective services which are difficult

to sustain leading to faster deterioration of infrastructure. Lack of stakeholder collaboration in

PIS has led to limited information exchange resulting in undermining of operational and

maintenance work in the scheme. Completion of the Radat dam which is expected to supply

water 280,000 cubic meters for irrigation development and is expected to solve the challenge of

water shortage in the scheme due to the rising number of farmers and surrounding towns and

cosmopolitan area that has grown as a result of the scheme.

6.4 Recommendations

6.4.1 Short term recommendations

 According to the research report, one of the problems causing resident tensions and
impeding production is the lack of water for both home and irrigation usage. To help with
their household water demands, residents should be encouraged to collect and store
rainwater throughout the rainy season. Water disputes will be reduced by appropriate
water supply rationing programme inside the plan that are closely adhered to, to
guarantee fair distribution of water.
 In order to reduce accidents, farmers should be made aware of the significance of
wearing protective gear when working in the paddies. Another tactic is to provide
crossing paths that connect different paddies, as this will improve visibility for
motorcyclists and other vehicles.
 A rigorous programme of upkeep for the infrastructure concerning road networks and
channel maintenance Within the irrigation plan, constructing moveable barriers and
making improvements might be a temporary solution to floods.
 In an attempt to limit and manage the growing forms of weeds, farmers should make sure
the seeds they are transplanting are free of weeds. Irrigation water screened at the intake
will remove any weeds that may be introduced.
  Adopting locally accessible information for managing emerging pests such as birds,
rodents, and snails should be promoted as relevant agencies investigate the mechanisms
underlying their remedies. In order to properly manage pests, farming operations should
be planned in a way that guarantees a consistent schedule for applying herbicides to
paddy fields.
 NIA to supply water harvesting facilities in association with IWUA.
 Baringo government should supply trash disposal infrastructure.
 The respondent brought up pollution as a key environmental problem. Adopting
appropriate solid waste disposal procedures, such as setting up garbage collection
locations, and changing citizens' attitude to refrain from littering will help decrease this.
Inform the locals on several methods of treating water in their homes, such as filtration,
slow sanding, chlorination, and the use of powdered disinfection. The irrigation scheme's
public health intuitions will be crucial in distributing this information.
 The price and production of inputs and outputs, land tenure, tax incentives for input
production, crop insurance, and incentives for farmers to promote food production are all
areas where policy support may maximize farmers' productivity and efficiency.
 Communities' involvement in the plan's equitable sharing, allocation, and management of
water resources.
 Research and monitoring of farms and their ecosystems are necessary in order to enhance
productivity. Additional testing must be done on the soil and water utilized.
 Environmental deterioration is the result of using agricultural chemicals that are not eco-
friendly.
 Using information technology in marketing and sales
 The riparian reserve should be fenced to minimize conflicts between humans and
animals.
 Monitoring and assessment of water sources.

6.4.2 Long term recommendations

 Effective irrigation technology must be introduced to assist farmers in raising yields,

enhancing crop quality, making optimal use of agricultural inputs, cutting waste, and
saving labour expenses. Since the present methods are ineffective, using cutting-edge
technologies, such as solar-powered water pumps and drip irrigation, will maximize the
use of available water and increase the project's sustainability. Applying fertilizer to
 crops with drips would ensure that no fertilizer is wasted and would also save manpower
costs.
 The introduction of crop types resistant to disease and the provision of certified seeds
appropriate for the agro-ecological zones of ASALs. Common agricultural inputs, such as
manure, farm chemicals, water, machinery, and seed application, must be developed.
 promoting value addition among farmers. The process of transforming a raw product into
one with increased value is known as value addition. There is no value addition employed
by the farmers in the Perkerra irrigation programme. Farmers that engage in value
addition can reap benefits such as increased revenue, expanded market reach, and the
development of innovative packaging and storage techniques that minimize waste and
enhance food safety.
 encouragement of community-based methods for managing and developing irrigation
systems. Participation in projects, planning, and policies pertaining to irrigation
development and management should be promoted among the community.
 Encouraging communities to collect rainwater to meet both inside and outside of the
scheme water requirements.
 The irrigation scheme's development of infrastructure, including roads and power.
 The scheme irrigation project encompasses a vast region, with certain parts of the route
being impassable.
 The county government need to concentrate on allocating more funds for rural
infrastructure. There is no electricity connected to the irrigation project. To supply
electricity to the region, the federal government may expand the national grid.
 Additionally, coordinated measures must be made to lessen pollution that affects the
River upstream.
 Encouraging farm mechanization that is energy efficient and technology so as to boost
output and enhance efficiency. This can be applied during land preparation, seed
planting, seedling transplanting, application of fertilizers and harvesting. Farm
mechanization reduces the cost of farm labour and its intensity. Investors who are into
farm tools and equipment could collaborate with the farmers and come up with a system
where the farmer can access the equipment with a structured payment plan. This way, the
farmers on the upper side of the canal can easily do farming with less labor-intensive
way, and maximize on the profits.
  To ensure sustainability of Perkerra scheme there is need to build a water reservoir
upstream. This would ensure there is adequate water all season and also it would help in
sedimentation and control of the pollutants that reach the farms.

6.5 Areas for further research

 Finding crop types that are resistant to pests and diseases

 conducting a soil test to assess the quality of the Perkerra irrigation scheme
 River Perkerra restoration and rehabilitation

REFERENCES
APPENDICES

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF SPATIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

FARMERS QUESTIONNAIRE

We are students from Kenyatta University, pursuing their undergraduate degree programme in
Environmental Planning and Management. As a requirement of this programme, we are
undertaking a field course entitled: Revitalization Plan for Sustainable Development of Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme to enhance Rural Livelihoods in Marigat, Baringo County. We would
appreciate if you could provide the information required in this questionnaire. The data collected
from this survey will strictly be used for academic and research purposes only. Your information
will be kept strictly confidential.

1. Fill the information required in the table;

 Name
(Optional)

Ward

Sub-County

County

GPS Coordinate X Y

2. Household Characteristics

Household Age( Education Main Earnings per month

Member(optional) Sex yrs.) Level Occupation from main occupation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
 7.

8.

9.

10.

3. What other occupations do you engage in and how much do you earn from them per month?

Other Occupation Monthly Earnings

4. Please indicate the total monthly income of your household (Ksh)

[ ] ≤ 10,000 [ ] 10,001 – 20,000 [ ] 20,000– 30,000 [ ]30,001 – 40,000

[ ] 40,001 – 50,000 [ ] 50,001 – 60,000 [ ] Over 60,000

5. (a) Do you practice irrigation? Yes [ ] No [ ]

(b) If yes in 5 (a) above, what type of irrigation do you practice?

[ ] Drip [ ] Overhead [ ] surface [ ] Pivot [ ] Any other (Specify) --------------------------

(c) What problems do you encounter with irrigated agriculture?

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 (d) If no in 5 (a) above,

(i) Do you rely on rain-fed agriculture? Yes [] No []

(ii) Indicate the problems associated with rain-fed agriculture

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(e) Do you farm for commercial, subsistence or both?

Commercial [ ] Subsistence [ ] both [ ]

6. (a) What crop varieties do you grow?

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--------------------------------------------------------------------

(b) Please fill in the information required in the table

The amount
Price per
The Area produced Amount for
Amount unit Total sale per
under crop per season own
season (Ksh)
Type of crop (in acres) (tons) consumption for sale (Ksh)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
7. Comment on the adaptability of the crops grown given the climatic elements in the area.

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8. a. (i) Indicate land ownership.

Leasehold [] Freehold [] Trust Land [] Private []

(ii) If leasehold, indicate the amount paid (per acre/year)?

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b. What is the size of land in acres?

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9. Do you practice value addition for farm produce at farm level?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

If yes, indicate the value addition carried out and the price of the final Product.

Crop Value addition Price of the product

after value addition

10. (a) What are the emerging environmental issues associated with the operations of irrigation
scheme?
 Categories Environmental Issues Comments for their
management and control
Bio-physical

Socio-economic

Any other (Specify)

(b). What Safety and Health issues have you experienced as a result of the operations within

the Scheme?

Safety and Health Frequency of Current Proposed

Issues (please specify) Occurrence Interventions Interventions

11. What measures need to be put in place by the following stakeholders in order to promote the
development of the irrigation scheme?

Stakeholders Role Comments

1 Relevant Government Agencies

(Specify)
2 County Government

3 NGOs/CBOs (Specify)

4 Others (Specify)
12. How has the Perkerra irrigation scheme impacted your livelihood?

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13. How has Perkerra Irrigation Scheme influenced the growth of local trading centres?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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14. In your opinion, what measures need to be put in place in order to enhance the operations and

performance of the scheme in line with its initial objectives and targets?

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--------------------------
 KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF SPATIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

BUSINESS QUESTIONNAIRE

We are students from Kenyatta University, pursuing their undergraduate degree programme in
Environmental Planning and Management. As a requirement of this programme, we are
undertaking a field course entitled: Revitalization Plan for Sustainable Development of Perkerra
Irrigation Scheme to enhance Rural Livelihoods in Marigat, Baringo County. We would
appreciate if you could provide the information required in this questionnaire. The data collected
from this survey will strictly be used for academic and research purposes only. Your information
will be kept strictly confidential.

1. What type of business do you operate?

o Retail
o Wholesale
o Manufacturing services
o Private consulting firms
o Hotels/Restaurants
o Transport (Matatu/Bus, Boda-boda, Trucks etc.)
o Hawking
o Others (Specify)
2. What type of business ownership do you operate?
o Sole proprietorship
o Partnership
o Limited liability Private Company
 o Limited liability Public Company
o Others (Specify)
3. (a) What was the source of your starting capital for your business?
o Farming within Perkerra Irrigation Scheme
o Saccos
o Merry-go-round (Chamas)
o Others (Specify) -------------------------------------------------------------

(b). Please indicate the total monthly income for your business Ksh)

[ ] ≤ 10,000 [ ] 10,001 – 20,000 [ ] 20,000– 30,000 [ ]30,001 – 40,000

[ ] 40,001 – 50,000 [ ] 50,001 – 60,000 [ ] Over 60,000

4. a) Is your business related to Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

o Yes
o No
b) If yes, please indicate how
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5. a) What problems do you encounter in running your business at Marigat?
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b) What measures have you taken in solving the problems mentioned in (a) above?
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6. In your opinion, please comment on the contributions of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme to
the enhancement of rural livelihoods in
Marigat ?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF SPATIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INSTITUTIONS

We are students from Kenyatta University, pursuing their undergraduate degree programme in Environmental
Planning and Management. As a requirement of this programme, we are undertaking a field course entitled:
Revitalization Plan for Sustainable Development of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme to enhance Rural Livelihoods in
Marigat, Baringo County. We would appreciate if you could provide the information required in this
questionnaire. The data collected from this survey will strictly be used for academic and research purposes only.
Your information will be kept strictly confidential.

Name of Interviewee and Designation

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

1. a) What is the role of your institution in relation to Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
b) What problems do you encounter as you execute your roles?
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c) Indicate the role of other institutions relevant to development of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

Name of Institution Role

2. (a). What are the problems constraining the operation and performance of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?
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(b) What measures need to be put in place for the management and control of the problems mentioned (a)
above
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3. a) What legal instruments do exist in relation to the development of irrigation schemes in Kenya?

Policy/Legal Instruments Provision in relation to the Comments on effectiveness

development of Irrigation
Schemes

b) To what extent have these policy/legal instruments been complied with in Perkerra Irrigation
Scheme?---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4. (a) Please list crop varieties grown in the scheme?
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(b) Please fill in the information required in the table

Price per unit

The Area under crop The amount produced per
Type of crop (in acres) season (tons) (Ksh)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

5. a) What are the contributions of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme to the enhancement of rural livelihoods?

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b) Indicate measures that need to be put in place in order to enhance the benefits of Perkerra Irrigation
Scheme?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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6. Fill in the information required in the table

Problems Encountered by Current Interventions Proposed Interventions

farmers
 7. What are the Safety and Health issues associated with the operations of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

Safety and Health Frequency of Current Proposed

Issues Occurrence Interventions Interventions

8. What are the Environmental issues associated with the operations of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

Categories of Frequency of Current Proposed

Environmental Issues Occurrence Interventions Interventions
Bio-physical

Socio-economic

Others (Specify)

9 a). What kind of land tenure system is found in Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

 Freehold
 Leasehold
 Public
 Communal

b). How does the land tenure system influence Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

10. Please fill in the SWOT analysis information in relation to Perkerra Irrigation Scheme as required in the table
below:
 STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

11. In your opinion, what measures need to be put in place in order to enhance the operations and performance
of Perkerra Irrigation Scheme?

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PLANNING MATRIX

Critical Current Propose Responsibi Estimat Time Expected Follow up

emerging interventi d lities ed cost frame results measures
issues in on interven (Actors) in
P.I.S measures tion (Ksh.)
measur
es

Water - Periodic - - N.I.A 2,000,00 Long -Reduced - Monitoring water

pollution desilting reduced 0 term water quality
use of - County pollution
agro- government -Pollution control
chemica and waste
ls management Audit
the scheme
-
monitori
ng of
water
quality

-
Reduced
use non-
biodegra
dable
material
s (e.g.
plastic
bottles
and
bags)

Pests and - -Use of - KARLO 3,000,00 ✔️ - Increased -Use of Extension

diseases Integrated biologic 0 crop yields services to monitor
pest al - Kenya on use of pest and
manageme control Seed Board diseases control
nt methods measures
departmen
t under -
KARLO Facilitati
on
 through
funding

-
Subsidiz
ed
prices of
herbicid
es and
pesticide
s.

- seed
treatmen
t before
planting

-
introduc
tion of
resistant
crop
varieties

Invasion of - Giving - - KARLO _ 3,000,00 Long - Reduced -Inspection

prosopis permits to Introduc integrated 0 term prosopis
Juliflora burn tion of pest Juliflora -Monitoring and
prosopis gypsum manageme species evaluation
Juliflora in the nt
for soil to department
charcoal alter the
soil pH - County
make it government
less - N.I.A
conduci
ve for - Kenya
their forest
growth. service

Liming
to
alkalize
saline
soils
 -
Biologic
al
control
methods
( e.g.
beetles)

Flooding - - -County 5,000,00 Long - Reduced - Monitoring

Rising Constru government 0 term flood levels
levels of L. ction of
Baringo the - Kenya
Radat forest
dam to service
regulate - N.I.A
water in
Perkerra

-
Desiltin
g canals

-
mainten
ance
canals
and
embank
ments to
control
the
water.

-
Afforest
ation
and
reforesta
tion
program
along
the
catchme
nt of L.
 Baringo

Poor - periodic - -National 1,000,00 Short - Improved - -Inspection

maintenanc desilting Building irrigation 0 term water
e of canals of better authority conveyance - Annual E.A
concrete to the
canals - Irrigation irrigated
Users blocks
- Association
Repairin - Flood
g the control
existing
canals

-
Regular
desilting

Unreliable - - -National 10,000,0 Long -Improved -Monitoring and

water Rationing Constru government 00 term water evaluation
supply ction of supply
more -County
dams government

-
Reconstr
uction
of sluce
gates to
raise
level of
water

Unregulated - Marigat -The -County 2,000,00 Short - Fair prices Monitoring and
pricing and farmers Sacco to government 0 term evaluation
marketing Sacco is come up -Ready
currently with - Marigat market
assisting better farmers
Sacco -Increased
the strategie profit
farmers to s for
market marketin
their g and
produce pricing
Inadequate - Limited -More -Financial 5,000,00 Long -Enhanced -monitoring and
credit credit is banking institutions 0 term financial evaluation
facilities given by facilities stability
the to give - County
farmers more government
Sacco credit to
farmers

-
promoti
ng the
culture
of
saving
among
farmers

Water -Proper -County 3,000,00 Long -Reduced -environmental

related sanitatio government 0 term disease auditing
diseases n incidences
- Ministry - monitoring
-Access of health
to more and
medical sanitation
facilities

-
provisio
n of
clean
drinking
water
points

High cost of - -National 5,000,00 Long -Increased -evaluation

production Provisio government 0 term profit
n of
subsidiz
ed farm
inputs

Poor - -National 10,000,0 Long -Better -Regular inspection

maintenanc Maintai government 00 term access roads of access roads
e of access ning that
roads roads - County facilitate
through government good
pothole transportati
repair on of goods
and road
resurfaci
ng