Chapter Four :

Theory of neutralization :

Neutralization in acid-base solutions :

Electrolytes: electrolytes are solutes which ionize in a solvent to produce an

electrically conducting medium. Or its ionizable substances
which are gives positive ion and negative ionic the solvent .

Strong electrolytes : are ionized completely in the solvent .

Weak electrolytes : are only partially ionized in the solvent .

HCl + H2O → +
H3O + Cl
-

HCl is a strong electrolyte which is completely ionized.

NH3 + H2O → +
NH4 + OH
-

NH3 is a weak electrolyte which is partially ionized.

Amphiprotic : is a term refers to substance because it exhibits both acidic

and basic properties depending on the solute such as : water ,
methyl alcohol , ethyl alcohol .
- +
HNO2 + H2O NO2 + H3O

acid base
+ -
NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH

base acid

1
Conjugate acids and basis :

After donating a proton by the acid , the species that remains is capable to
accepting a proton to reform the original acid.
+ -
acid1 H + base1 , H2O H+ + OH

acid conjugate base

+ - +
base2 + H+ acid2 , NH3 OH + NH4

base conjugate acid

conjugate acid conjugate base

-
HCN CN
-
HCl Cl

CH3COOH CH3COO-
+
NH4 NH3
-
H2CO3 HCO3

Hydrogen ion exponent (pH) :

pH = power of hydrogen

+
pH = -log [H3O ] or pH = + log10

-pH
[H3O+] = 10

-
pOH = - log [ OH ] or pOH =+ log10

- -pOH
[OH ] = 10

2
In neutral sol.
+
[H3O ] = [ OH ]
-
→ pH = 7

In acidic sol.
+
[H3O ] > [ OH ]
-
→ pH > pOH

In basic sol.
+
[H3O ] < [ OH ]
-
→ pH < pOH

Ionization constant of water (Kw) :

H2O → +
H + OH
-

+
H + H2O → H3O+
+
H + 2H2O → H5O2
+

+
H + 3H2O → H7O3
+

+
H + 4H2O → H9O4+

K=

+ -
Kw = [H3O ][ OH ]
-14 + -
10 = [H3O ][ OH ] (x –log)

14 = pKw = pH + pOH

pH + pOH = 14

EX. Calculate pH and pOH for each of :

a) 0.001M HCl

b) 0.001M NaOH

c) 0.001M NaCl

HCl → H
+
+ Cl
-

3
0.001 0 0

0 0.001 0.001
-3
[H+] = 0.001M = 10 M
-3
pH = - log 10 = 3

pOH = 14 – 3 = 11

NaOH → Na
+
+ OH
-

0.001 0 0

0 0.001 0.001
- -3
[ OH ] = 0.001M = 10 M
-3
pOH = - log 10 = 3

pH = 14 – 3 = 11

NaCl → Na
+
+ Cl
-

+ - -7
[H3O ] = [ OH ] = 10

pH = pOH = 7

Calculation of pH :

1) weak acid and base :

a) for weak acid :

+ -
HA H3O + A

Ka =

[HA] = Ca

4
 + -
[H3O ] = [A ]

Ka =

+
[H3O ]=
+
pH = - log [H3O ]

b) for weak base :

+ -
B + H2O BH + OH

Kb =

= Cb
- +
[OH ] = [BH ]

Kb =

-
[OH ] =
-
pOH = -log [ OH ]

pH = 14 – pOH
-5
EX. Calculate pH for benzoic acid sol. , Ka= 6.3x10 , Ca= 6.1gm/L,

M.wt.= 122gm/mole ?
+
pH = - log [H3O ]

+
[H3O ]=

Ca = = 0.05 mole/L

5
 +
[H3O ]= =

pH = - log =

2) salts solutions :

Salts can be classified into :

a) salt derived from strong acid and strong base, NaCl :

NaCl → +
Na + Cl
-

+ - -7
[H3O ] = [ OH ] = 10

pH = pOH = 7

b) salt derived from strong acid and weak base, NH4Cl :

+ -
NH4Cl NH4 + Cl
+ +
NH4 + H2O NH3 + H3O

Ka =

[NH4] = Cs
+
[H3O ] = [NH3]

Ka =

+
[H3O ]=

Kw = KaKb

6
 +
[H3O ] = (x –log)

pH = ½ ( pKw – pKb – log Cs)

EX. Calculate pH for 0.2M of NH4Cl sol. , pKb = 4.72 ?

pH = ½ ( 14 – 4.72 – log 0.2)

pH =

c) salt derived from weak acid and strong base, NaCN:

+ -
NaCN Na + CN
+
Na + H2O → no ionized
- -
CN + H2O HCN + OH

Kb =

[CN] = Cs

[HCN] = [ OH- ]

Kb =

- 2
[ OH ] = KbCN

= Cs

+2
[H3O ] = (x –log)

7
 +
[H3O ] =

pH = ½ ( pKw + pKb + log Cs)

d) salt derived from weak acid and weak base, NH4F :

+ -
NH4F NH4 + F
+ +
NH4 + H2O NH3 + H3O
- + -
F + H2O HF + OH

+
[H3O ] =

pH = ½ ( pKw + pKa - pKb)

Buffer solution :

Buffer solution is defined as a solution that resist change in pH as a result

of either dilution or addition of acid or base .

Buffer solution is a mixture of :

a) weak acid and its salt , CH3COOH + CH3COONa

b) weak base and its salt , NH3 + NH4Cl

Q : why buffer sol. resist the change in pH value in case of dilution or

adding acid or base to sol. ?

1) When adding a strong acid , like HCl :

HCl → H3O+ + Cl
-

+ -
CH3COOH H3O + CH3COO

8
 + -
CH3COONa Na + CH3COO
+ -
H3O + CH3COO CH3COOH

From the equation , pH value is not change or it change very little

-
because the hydronium ion from HCl react with CH3COO to produce
CH3COOH that is ionized very little , therefor , pH not decrease .

2) When adding a strong base , like NaOH :

+ -
CH3COOH H3O + CH3COO
+
CH3COONa Na + CH3COO-

NaOH → +
Na + OH
-

+ -
H3O + OH H2O
- +
OH from the base (NaOH) react with H3O from the acid to produce H2O
, and that lead to more dissociation of CH3COONa to substitute the losses
+
in H3O that mean , the sol. will resist the change in pH value when adding
a strong base while the sol. still acidic (contain CH3COOH molecules)
nonionized .

EX. Calculate the pH change that takes place when 100ml of (a) 0.05M
NaOH and (b) 0.05M HCl are added to 400ml of a buffer solution that is
0.2M in NH3 and 0.3M in NH4Cl ?

The initial pH of the solution is obtained assuming that :

[NH3] = M NH3 = 0.2

+
[NH4 ] = M NH4Cl = 0.3

And substituting into the dissociation constant expression for NH3

9
 -5
= 1.76 x 10

- -5
[OH ] = 1.17 x 10
-5
pH = 14 – (- log 1.17 x 10 ) = 9.07
+
a) addition of NaOH converts part of the NH4 in the buffer to NH3 :
+
NH4 + OH
-
→ NH3 + H2O
The analytical concentrations of NH3 and NH4Cl then become :

MNH3 = = = 0.170

MNH4Cl = = = 0.230

When substituted into the dissociation constant expression , these values

yield :

-
[OH ] = = 1.30 x 10-5

pH = 14 – (- log 1.30 x 10-5 ) = 9.11

and :

∆ pH = 9.11 – 9.07 = 0.04

b) addition of HCl converts parts of the NH3 to NH4+ ; thus :

NH3 + H3O
+
→ NH4+ + H2O

MNH3 = = = 0.150

10
MNH4Cl = = = 0.250

-
[OH ] = 1.76 x 10-5 x = 1.06 x 10-5

pH = 14 – (- log 1.06 x 10-5 ) = 9.02

∆ pH = 9.02 – 9.07 = - 0.05

It is of interest to contrast the behavior of an unbuffered solution with a pH

9.07 to the buffered ones just considered . it is readily shown that the
additions of the same quantity of base would increase the pH to 12 – a
pH change of 2.93 units . The addition of acid , on the other hand , would
decrease the pH by slightly over 7 units .

Buffering capacity :

Buffering capacity depends on :

a) The ratio between concentration of both acid and base.

b) The total concentration of each acid and salt.

Maximum buffering capacity can observed when pH = pKa ( ratio of salt to

acid is equal to 1.0)

Calculation of pH for buffer solution :

1) weak acid and its salt , (CH3COOH + CH3COONa)

+ -
CH3COOH H + CH3COO ………….(1)

Ka = ………………………...(2)

+
[H ] = Ka ………………….(3)

+ -
CH3COONa Na + CH3COO ……….(4)

11
From equation (1) :
+
[CH3COOH] = [CH3COOH] - [H ]
- +
[CH3COO ] = [H ]

From equation (4) :

- +
[CH3COO ] = [Na ]
- +
[CH3COO ] = [CH3COOH] + [H ]
- +
[CH3COO ] = [H ]

Substitution in equation (3) :

+
[H ] = Ka

+
Because of the value of [H ] is very small , then it can be negligible .

+
[H ] = Ka

+
[H ] = Ka (x –log)

pH = pKa + log ………… Henderson- Hasselbach

2) weak base and its salt , (NH3 + NH4Cl)

+ -
NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH ………(1)

Kb = ……………………..(2)

12
 = Kb ……………………..(3)

+ -
NH4Cl NH4 + Cl ……………..(4)

From equation (1) :

-
[NH3] = [NH3] - [OH ]
- +
[OH ] = [NH4 ]

From equation (4) :

+
[NH4Cl] = [NH4 ]
+ -
[NH4 ] = [NH4Cl] + [OH ]

Substitution in equation (3) :

-
[OH ] = Kb

-
[OH ] = Kb (x –log)

pH = pKb + log

EX. Calculate pH for a solution prepared by adding 10ml of 0.1M acetic

-5
acid to 20ml of 0.1M sodium acetate , Ka = 1.75x10 ?

we should calculate the conc. of acid and salt , final vol. = 30ml

for CH3COOH :

M1V1 = M2V2

0.1m.mole x 10ml = M2 x 30ml

M2(HOAc) = 0.033 m.mole / ml

13
For CH3COONa (OAc-) :

M1V1 = M2V2

0.1 m.mole x 20ml = M(OAc-) x 30ml

M(OAc-) = 0.067 m.mole/ml

pH = pKa + log

pH = 4.67 + log

pH= 4.67 + log 2

pH = 5.06

EX. Calculate the vol. of concentrated ammonia and weight of ammonia

chloride (NH4Cl) that is needing to prepare 100ml of buffer sol.

with pH = 10 salt conc. = 0.2M , pkb = 4.67 ?

we need to prepare 100ml of 0.02M of NH4Cl :

m.moles NH4Cl = 0.2m.mole/ml x 100ml = 20 m.moles

-3
mg(NH4Cl) = 20m.moles x 53.5 mg/m.mole = 107 x 10 mg

thus , we need 107 mg of NH4Cl

we can calculate the conc. of NH3 from :

pOH = pKw – pH

pOH = 14 – 10 = 4

pOH = pKb + log

14
4 = 4.67 + log

log = - 0.67 (x –log)

log = 10
-0.67
→ 10-1 x 100.24 = 1.7 x 10-1 = 0.17

[NH3] = = 1.2 m.mole/ml

Acid – Base indicators :

Acid-base indicators are weak organic acids or bases , most of indicators

have two colors , one is appear in acidic medium and the other is appear in
basic medium ( that means, the indicator will change its color when acid or
base were adding to sol. ) .

We can symbolize to the typical reaction of an acid-base indicator as

follows :
+ -
H2O + HIn H3O + In

acid color base color

- + -
In + H2O InH + OH

base color acid color

Where : HIn = acidic indicator

In = basic indicator

Ka = ………….(1)

+
[H3O ] =

15
Kb = …………(2)

The best indicator is the indicator whose change its color in equivalent
point .

The change in color of indicator can observed in the region where the ratio
various from a tenfold excess of one form to other , therefore, acidic color
can be observed when :

And the basic color when :

Some indicators requires smaller ratio changes and others longer.

If equation (1) is multiplying by (- log) , then :

[H3O+] = (x –log)

pH = pKa – log

when = or

pH = pKa – log

pH = pKa – 1

and ,

16
pH = pKa + log

pH = pKa + 1

= pH basic – pH acidic = (pKa+1) – (pKa – 1) = 2

That means , when we assume that pKa = 5 , the change in color of

indicator occur when the pH value variant from (5-1) to (5+1) e.g. (4-6).

Some important Acid-Base indicators

Common name transition range,pH acid color base color

Methyl yellow 2.9 – 4.0 red yellow

Methyl orange 3.1 – 4.4 red orange

Bromocresol green 3.8 – 5.4 yellow blue

Methyl red 4.2 – 6.3 red yellow

Bromothymol blue 6.2 – 7.6 yellow blue

Phenol red 6.8 – 8.4 yellow red

Phenolphthalein 8.3 – 10.0 colorless purple

Thymolphthalein 9.3 – 10.5 colorless blue

Types of acid-base indicators :

The table above shows many acid-base indicators that are used in
analytical routine work .two common indicators are described in the
following paragraphs:

17
1) phthaline indicators : the best known phthaline indicator is
phenolphthalein , it is organic weak acid , colorless in acidic sol. and
exhibit a variety of colors in alkaline media .

Significant concentrations for color ion is appear in the pH range between

8.0 and 9.8 .

2) Azo indicators : most azo indicators exhibit a color range from red to
yellow with increasing basicity . the best known azo indicators is methyl
orange , it is a weak base has sulphonic group SO3H and dimethylamin
.

Choice of indicators for titration of acid and base :

End point detection in a neutralization titration based upon the change in

color of indicator in equivalent point .

The selection of an appropriate indicator require knowledge the pH

changes which occurs throughout titration. Thus, we need to know how
neutralization titration curves are derived .

For any sol. to know the pH change throughout titration , it must be plotte
titration curve that show the pH change according to the amount of acid or
base that will be adding to the sol.

There are two methods to detect titration curves :

1) Calculated method : in this method , pH values are calculated from

amount of acid or base that was added to the sol.

2) Practical method : in this method , pH values can be calculate by using

an instrumental called " pH- meter ".

The advantages of titration curve are :

1) Detect the end point of titration .

18
2) Choice the suitable indicator for titration .

1) Titration of strong acid with strong base :

This type can be expressed by titration of 50ml of 0.1N HCl with 50ml of
0.1N NaOH :

a) before adding the base :

HCl → H + Cl
+ -

0.1 0.1 0.1

+
pH = - log [H ] = - log 0.1

pH = 1

b) after adding 10ml of NaOH :

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

(50x0.1) (10x0.1) 0

5 1 0

4 0 1

+
[H3O ] = = 0.066

pH = - log 0.066 = 1.18

c) when adding 50ml of NaOH :

19
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

(50x0.1) (50x0.1) 0

5 5 0

0 0 5
+ - -14
[H3O ] = [OH ] = 10
+2 -14
[H3O ] = 10
+ -7
[H3O ] = 10
-7
pH = - log 10 =7

d) after adding excess of NaOH (60ml) :

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

(50x0.1) (60x0.1) 0

5 6 0

0 1 5

-
[OH ] = = 0.009

pOH = - log 0.009 = 5

pH = 14 – 5 = 9

The figure shows that the range of pH change at equivalent point

is 4 -10 , therefore , both of ph.ph and M.O can be use successfully.

2) Titration of strong base with a strong acid :

20
( gives as H.W for students) .

3) Titration of weak acid with a strong base :

-5
100ml of 0.1N CH3COOH with 100ml of 0.1N NaOH , Ka = 1x10 .

a) before adding NaOH :

- +
CH3COOH CH3COO + H

+ -3
[H3O ] = = = 10
-3
pH = - log 10 =3

b) after adding 10ml NaOH :

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

(100x0.1) (10x0.1) 0

10 1 0

9 0 1

Note : the product from this reaction is weak acid and it's salt , therefore , it
is buffer sol. :

pH = pKa + log

pH = 5 + log

pH = 4.05

c) when adding 50ml of NaOH :

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

21
 (100x0.1) (50x0.1) 0

10 5 0

5 0 5

pH = pKa + log

pH = 5 + log

pH = 5

d) when adding 80ml of NaOH :

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

(100x0.1) (80x0.1) 0

10 8 0

2 0 8

pH = pKa + log

pH = 5 + log

pH = 5.6

e) at end point , when adding 100ml of NaOH :

at end point m.mole of NaOH = m.mole of CH3COOH

22
Cs = = = 0.05N

Because of the salt is derived from weak acid and strong base , therefore,

pH = (pKw + pKa + log Cs)

pH = (14 + 5 + log 0.05 )

pH = 8.85

f) when adding 120ml of NaOH :

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

(100x0.1) (120x0.1) 0

10 12 0

0 2 8

-3
[OH-] = = = 9.1x10

-3
pOH = - log [OH-] = - log 9.1x10 = 2.04

pH = 14 – 2.04 = 11.96

Note 1 : Effect of concentration :

The concentration of analyte and reagent are affects on neutralization

titration curves. For example:

The titration of acid or base with 0.1M (curve A) shows that pH change at
equivalence point region is large , while the titration with 0.001M shows that
the pH change is less but still pronounced (curve B) .

23
Note 2 : Effect of acid :

Figure below shows the effect of acid conc. measured in Ka value on

neutralization curves . at equivalence point region, when Ka is decreased
the range of pH change is decrease too. and the titration can be done if Ka
-6
= 10-6 or more. while when Ka < 10 the titration cannot be done,
because it cannot using any types of indicators .

24