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EXPERIMENT NO:-

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff Current Law.

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

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Observation Table:

Sr No. Practical Values Theoretical Values

I(mA) I1(mA) I2(mA) I(mA) I1(mA) I2(mA)
1
2
3

Calculation:

Conclusion

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EXPERIMENT NO:-

Aim: To verify Kirchhoff Voltage Law.

Circuit Diagram:

Theory:

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Observation Table:

Sr No. Practical Values Theoretical Values

V(Volt) V1(Volt) V2(Volt) V(Volt) V1(Volt) V2(Volt)
1
2
3

Calculation:

Conclusion

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EXPERIMENT NO:-

AIM: To demonstrate the working of C.R.O.

APPARATUS:

(1) C.R.O.
(2) Function Generator

THEORY:

C.R.O. provides a visual presentation of voltage waveforms. The block diagram of C.R.O. is
shown in fig. 1. Cathode Ray Tube is the heart of oscilloscope, which has following three
basic parts.

(1) Electro Gun: It produces the sharply focused beam of electrons, which are accelerated to
high velocity.
(2) Deflection System: It deflects the electron beam electrostatically or electromagnetically.
(3) Fluorescent Screen: It is a part of C.R.O. on which the beam of electron produces a spot
of visible light. The whole assembly is placed inside a funnel shaped glass envelope. The
detailed construction and working of the above parts are as follows.

(1) Electron Gun:

Electrons are emitted from the indirectly heated cathode with cylindrical shape having a
surface layer made of barium or strontium oxide. Amount of electron flow from cathode is
determined and controlled by means of negative bias grid. Grid is usually a nickel cylinder
with centrally located hole, which is coaxial with C.R.T. axis. The negative bias on it controls
the amount of electron flow and there by the intensity.

The electrons emitted pass through and accelerated by the high positive potential to the pre-
accelerating and accelerating anode. The electron beam is focused by "focusing anode" which
is at the potential less than the accelerating anode as shown in figure. Thus electron passing
through the openings in accelerating electrons are focused into a sharp electron beam by
combined effect of focusing anode and fine accelerating anode.

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(2) Deflection Assembly :

Electrostatic deflection is used in C.R.O. If electronic potential is applied across the plates
through which the electron beam will have the resultant path i.e. Vector sum of forward
velocity of electron beam and transverse velocity of applied voltage. There are two pairs of
deflecting plates from which one deflects the beam up and down i.e. in vertical direction
known as "vertical deflecting plates" Another deflects the beam left and right i.e. in
horizontal direction and known as "horizontal deflecting plates" Due to combined effect of
the field applied to these plates, the beam moves on the screen.

If a.c. voltage are applied simultaneously to the two sets of deflecting plates various patterns
are formed on the screen depending on the relative magnitude, frequency and phase angle of
given voltage waveforms. These patterns are called " Lissajous Figures"

When a time variant voltage is applied across the plates, the plot on the screen oscillates at
the center of the screen in a simple harmonic motion. If a frequency is greater then 16 Hz, it
is visible stationary. To examine waveforms, it is required that the motion be stretched across
the screen by applying following waveform known as "saw tooth waveform".

The frequency of sawtooth waveform can be controlled and changed by time selector switch.
This is compared with frequency of input signal and when both are same a steady Lissajous
figure can be seen on the screen.

(3) Fluorescent Screen:

Adjusting the grid bias and type of fluorescent materials called phosphoresce can control the
intensity of the spot. The commonly used phosphoresce materials are:

(1) Willamette: It gives predominate green light.

(2) Zinc oxide: Blue colour
(3) Zinc berelium silicate or zinc sulphite: Yellow colour

Aquadag coating provides resistance path to electrons otherwise the magnetic charge
accumulating screen will repel arriving electrons. The coating is applied on the inner wall of
the C.R.T.

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FRONT PANNEL CONTROL OF C.R.O.

(1) ON POWER (1) It is a toggle switch meant for switching on power. In On position power
is supplied to the instrument and the neon lamp. (3) Glows.
(2) INTEN (2) It controls the trace intensity from zero to maximum.
(3) FOCUS (4) It controls the sharpness of the trace. A slight readjustment of this control
may be necessary after changing the intensity of the trace.
(4) X MAG: (5) It expands the length of the time base from 1 to 5 times continuously and
makes maximum time base to 40 ns/ Cm.
(5) SQ.WAVE: (6) This provides a square wave of 2V (p-p) amplitude to enable one to check
the Y- calibration of the scope.
(6) SAW TOOTH WAVE: (7) This provides a saw-tooth waveform output coincident to
sweep speed switch with an output of 5V (p-p) .The load resistance should not be less
than 10 kohms.

VERTICAL SECTION:

(1) XPOS (10) this control enables the movement of the display along the Y-axis.
(2) Y-INPUT(13) It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through AC-DC-GND
coupling switch (14)
(3) AC-DC-GND coupling switch (14) It selects coupling to the vertical amplifier. In DC
mode it directly couples the signal to the input in AC mode, it couples the signal to the
input through a 0.1-microfarad, 400V capacitor. In GND position, the input to the
attenuator (12) is grounded whereas Y- input is isolated.
(4) Volts/ cm (Attenuator) (12) It is a 10 position attenuator switch, which adjusts sensitivity
of vertical amplifier from 50 mV/cm to 50 V/cm in 1,2,5,10 sequence.
(5) x1, x0.1 switch (9) When switched in x0.1 position, it magnifies basic sensitivity to 5
mV/cm.
(6) CAL. Switch (8) When pressed a dc signal of 15mV or 150 mV is applied to vertical
amplifier depending upon the position of X1-X0. 1 switch (9) position.
(7) DC BAL (1) It is a preset control on panel. It is adjusted for no movement of the trace
when either X1-X0. 1 switch (9) is pressed or the position of AC-DC-GND coupling
switch (14) is changed.

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HORIZONTAL SECTION:

(1) X-POS (21) This control enables the movement of display along the X-axis.
(2) TRIGG LEVEL (18) it selects the mode of triggering. In AUTO position, the time base
line is displayed in the absence of input signal. When the input signal is present, the
display is automatically triggered. The span of control enables the trigger point to be
manually selected.
(3) TIME BASE (19) This selector switch selects sweep speeds 50 ms/cm to 0.2 micro s/cm
in eleven steps. The position marked EXT is used when an external signal is to be applied
to the Horizontal input (24)
(4) VERNIER (22) This control is a fine adjustment associated with the time base sweep
selector switch (19) . It extends the range of sweep by a factor of 5. It should be turned
fully clockwise to the CAL position for calibrated sweep speeds.
(5) SYNC Selector (15, 16, 17 ) The INT/EXT switch (15) selects internal or external trigger
signal. The positive or negative switch (16) selects whether the waveform is to be
triggered on the positive or negative ramp. NORM/ TV switch (17) permits normal or TV
(line frequency frame)
(6) STAB (20) It is a preset control on the panel. It should be adjusted so that you just get
the base line in AUTO position of trigger level control (18) In any other position of the
trigger level control, you should not get the base line.
(7) EXT CAP(23) This pair of connectors enables the time base range to be extended beyond
50 ms/cm by connecting a capacitor at these connectors.
(8) HOR INPUT (24) It connects the external signal to Horizontal Amplifier.
(9) EXT SYNC (25) It connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization .

"LISSAJOUS FIGURES"
Lissajous figures or patterns are formed when two sine waves are applied simultaneously to
the horizontal and vertical deflecting plates of a CRO from two signal generators.

In general the shape of Lissajous patterns depends upon

(1) Amplitude
(2) Phase difference
(3) Ratio of frequency of the two waves.

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APPLICATION OF C.R.O.

(1) To trace and measure a signal through the RF, IF and AF channels of radio and television.
(2) To test the distortion in the signal
(3) To trace transistor curves.
(4) Measurement of ac/ dc signals.
(5) Finding B/H curves for hysteresis loop.
(6) To measure non-electrical quantity using appropriate transducers.

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EXPERIMENT NO.:-

AIM: To obtain the characteristics of P-N junction diode.

THEORY: P-N JUNCTION DIODE:

The P-N junction diode can be operated in two regions, namely forward biased region and
reverse biased region. The previous operation is known as forward biasing and later is known
as reverse biasing.
Forward biasing:
As shown in figure (a), when the positive terminal of battery is connected to P type
semiconductor and negative terminal of battery is connected to N type semiconductor; the PN
junction diode is said to be in forward bias condition. The V-I characteristic is shown in
figure (b).

Figure (a) Figure (b)

Figure
Under forward bias condition the applied voltage is in opposition to the internal potential at
the junction of P and N type semiconductor (this junction potential is also known as barrier
potential). When applied voltage is more than barrier voltage the depletion layer disappears
and diode starts conducting. This enables the flow of current through diode.

Reverse Biasing:
As shown in figure (c), when the negative terminal of battery is connected to P type
semiconductor and positive terminal of battery is connected to N type semiconductor; the PN
junction diode is said to be in reverse bias condition. The V-I characteristic is shown in figure
(d).

Figure (c) Figure (d)

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Under reverse bias condition the applied voltage is in same direction of the barrier potential
and hence the resultant barrier potential increases. This prevents the flow of charge carriers in
either direction. This means ideally no current flows in the external circuit. But in practice
certain charge carriers those are highly excited, able to cross the junction and constitute a
very small current of order of microamperes or even less.

During reverse bias condition if applied voltage is more than break down voltage (also known
as Peak Inverse Voltage – PIV) of diode then the avalanche breakdown take place and diode
fails.

PROCEDURE:
PN - JUNCTION DIODE
1. First connect the circuit for forward bias condition as shown in figure.
2. Gradually vary the supply voltage and note down the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
3. Plot the graph of current Vs voltage.
4. Now connect the circuit for reverse bias condition as shown in figure.
Repeat steps 2 and 3.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing
Sr. V I Sr. V I
No. (Volt) (mA) No. (Volt) (mA)

Conclusion:-

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EXPERIMENT NO:-

Aim:To design Series RL circuit and find out the current flowing through each component.

Apparatus:
Resistor, Inductor, AC power source, ammeter, voltmeter, connection wire etc..

Theory:
When we apply an ac voltage to a series RL circuit as shown below, the circuit behaves in some
ways the same as the series RC circuit, and in some ways as a sort
of mirror image. For example, current is still the same everywhere in this
series circuit. VR is still in phase with I, and VL is still 90° out of phase
with I. However, this time VL leads I — it is at +90° instead of -90°.

For this circuit, we will assign experimental values as follows: R = 25Ω,

L = 1 H and VAC = 10 Vrms. We build the circuit and measure 9.29 V
across L, and 3.7 V across R. As we might have expected, this exceeds
the source voltage by a substantial amount and the phase shift is the
reason for it.

The vectors for this example circuit are shown to the right. This time the composite phase
angle is positive instead of negative, because VL leads IL . But to determine just what that
phase angle is, we must start by determining XL and then calculating the rest of the circuit
parameters.

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This can be easily verified using the simulator, by creating the above mentioned circuit and
measuring the current and voltages across the resistor and inductor.

Applications

These circuits exhibit important types of behaviour so they are fundamental to analogue
electronics. It has wide applications in Electronic filter topology and Piezo electric shunt
damping system.

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Observation Table:

Sr No. Vin VR VL √(VR2 + Z θ

VL2 )
1

Calculation:

Conclusion:

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EXPERIMENT NO:-

Aim: To design Series RC circuit and find out the current flowing thorugh each component.
Apparatus:
Resistor, Capacitor, AC power source, ammeter, voltmeter, connection wire etc..
Theory:
When we apply an ac voltage to a resistor and capacitor in series, as shown in the schematic
diagram below, the capacitor will constantly charge and discharge as the input voltage is
constantly changing.

Essentially, R and C in this circuit now form a voltage divider for ac. We
can expect that part of the applied voltage will appear across R, and part will
appear across C. But how much voltage will appear across each component?

As a practical example of such a circuit, assume VAC = 10 Vrms at a frequency of 10 Hz. C

= 0.01 f and R = 15ohms. If we were to build this circuit with an accurate audio frequency
generator, we would measure a voltage of 3 Vrms across the resistor, and 9.54 Vrms across
the capacitor. This of course adds up to considerably more than the 10 Vrms supplied by the
generator. How is this possible?

The question is compounded by the fact that C will cause a phase shift between voltage and
current. Since this is a series circuit, the current must necessarily be the same everywhere in
the circuit. Therefore the voltage across the capacitor will lag that current by 90°, while at the
same time the voltage across the resistor will be in phase with the current. How can we deal
with such a mess?

The real problem here is the 90° phase shift between VC and VR. Since they are not in phase
and some voltage is dropped across each component, the phase relationship between
generator voltage and generator current must be somewhere between the two extremes. We
need to be able to determine that relationship, as well as to determine the combined effect of
R and XC in this circuit.

One solution is to map the component voltages graphically, as shown to the right. Using X-Y
coordinates axes, the positive X axis is defined as the zero-degree reference, and counter-
clockwise rotation is defined as the direction of increasing positive angles.

Since the circuit current is necessarily the same throughout the circuit, it is used as the
reference phase angle. Resistive voltage, vR, is in phase with the current as shown in red.
Capacitive voltage, VC, is at -90° as shown in blue. In this way, we can represent the
voltages across R and C as vectors, having direction as well as magnitude. Now it is clear that
the composite voltage comprising both VR and VC must be the vector sum of the two, as
shown in violet.

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To find the composite voltage, we must apply the formula for the diagonal of a rectangle, and
find the square root of the sum of the squares:

Another point to consider here is that this circuit contains both resistance (R) and reactance
(XC). This is neither a pure resistance or a pure reactance. We need a name for this combined
characteristic and a means of calculating it.

The name is easy enough; the combined characteristic is named impedance, and is
represented by the letter Z. To calculate Z, we must first note that, in accordance with Ohm's
Law, R = VR/I and XC = VC/I. But we already know that the voltages are 90° out of phase.
Since the circuit current, i, is the same everywhere, and then R and XC must be 90° out of
phase as well. Thus, we must apply the same method for finding Z as we did for finding the
composite voltage. The full set of calculations for this circuit then, using the circuit values
given above is:

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The actual phase angle between generator current and generator voltage is (with voltage
lagging current):

= arctan(XC /R) = arctan(15.92/5) = arctan(3.184) = 72.56°

Thus, all circuit values and calculations remain consistent with each other and with actual
measurements made on experimental circuits.

This can be easily verified using the simulator, by creating the above mentioned circuit and
measuring the current and voltages across the resistor and capacitor.

Applications
 Variable tuned circuits
 Integrator
 Differentiator
 Filters
 Used as Pulse discharge circuit

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Observation Table:

Sr No. Vin VR VC √(VR2 + VC2 ) Z θ

1

Calculation:

Conclusion:

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