Environmental Science

Module 1: An Introduction to Environmental Science

Environment: the total of our surroundings
- all the things around us with which we interact:
Living things (animals, plants, forests, fungi etc.)
Non-Living Things (continents, oceans, clouds)
Our built environment (buildings, human-created living centers)
Social relationships and institutions

Humans exist within the environment and are part of nature.

- our survival depends on a healthy, functioning planet
The fundamental insight of environmental science is that we are part of the natural world
- our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal

Humans depend completely on the environment for survival.

- Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, health, mobility, leisure time
But natural systems have been degraded
- Pollution, erosion, and species extinction
- Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival
Environmental science is the study of:
- How the natural world works
- How the environment affects humans and vice versa
- With environmental problems come opportunities for solutions

Nature resources: vital to human survival

- substances and energy sources needed for survival

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Renewable resources:
- Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy
- renew themselves over short periods of time: timber, water, soil (these can be destroyed)
Non-renewable resources: can be depleted
- Oil, coal, minerals

Global human population growth

- more than 6.7 billion humans
Why so many humans?
Agricultural revolution (stable food supplies)
Industrial revolution
Urbanized society powered by fossil fuels
Sanitation and medicines
More food

Thomas Malthus and human population

- population growth must be controlled, or it will outstrip food production
- starvation, war, disease

Neo-Malthusians
- population growth has disastrous effects
- Paul and Anne Ehrlich, the population bomb (1968)
- Agricultural advances have only postponed crises

Resource consumption exerts impacts

- Garret Hardin's "tragedy of the commons" (1968)

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 Unregulated exploitation causes resource depletion
Grazing lands, forests, air, water
No one has the incentive to care for a resource
Everyone takes what he or she can until the resource is depleted.

Solution?
Private ownership
Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use
Governmental regulations

The "ecological footprint"

- the environmental impact of a person or population amount of biologically productive land and
water for resources and to dispose/recycle waste
- Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth's capacity to support us

Environmental science can help us avoid mistakes made by past civilizations

- human survival depends on how we interact with our environment
- our impacts are now global
- many great civilizations have fallen after depleting resources

Environment impacts humans and vice versa

- its goal: developing solutions to environmental problems
- an interdisciplinary field
Natural Sciences: information about the natural world (environmental science programs)
Social Sciences: study human interactions and behavior (environmental studies programs)

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Environmental science is not environmentalism
Environmental science
The pursuit of knowledge about the natural world
Scientists try to remain objective

Environmentalism
Environmental activism
A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural world

Science
- A systematic process for learning about the worlds and testing our understanding of it
- The accumulated body of knowledge that results from a dynamic process of observation,
testing, and discovery
Essential:
- to sort fact from fiction
- to develop solutions to problems we face

Applications of science
- policy decisions and management practices
- technology

Science test ideas

- Scientists examine how the world by observing, measuring, testing (involves critical thinking
and skepticism)
- Observational (descriptive) science: scientists gather information about something not well
known or that cannot be manipulated in experiments (astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy,
molecular biology)

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 - Hypothesis-driven science: research that proceeds in a structured manner using experiments
to test hypotheses through the scientific method
The scientific method
- a technique for testing ideas

Testing predictions
Experiment: an activity that tests the validity of a hypothesis
Variable: conditions that can be manipulated and/or measured
- Independent variable: a condition that is manipulated
- Dependent variable: a variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
Controlled experiment: one in which all variables are controlled
- Control: the unmanipulated point of comparison
- Treatment: the manipulated point of comparison
Data: information that is generally quantitative (numerical)

Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis

Manipulative experiments yield the strongest evidence
- reveal causal relationships: changes in independent variables causes changes in dependent
variables
- but many things can't be manipulated: long-term or large-scale questions (i.e., global climate
change)
Natural experiments show real-world complexity
- only feasible approach for ecosystem or planet-scale
- results are not so neat and clean, so answers aren't simply black and white
The scientific process is part of a larger process
Peer-review: other scientists provide comments and criticism
- Guards against faulty science
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Conference presentation improve the quality of the science
- scientists interact with their colleagues
Grants and funding come from private or government agencies
- can lead to conflict of interest if the data show the funding source in an unfavorable light
- the scientist may be reluctant to publish or doctor the results

Theory
- a consistently supported hypothesis
- widely accepted explanation of one or more cause-and-effect relationships
- has been extensively and rigorously tests (extremely strong confidence; e.g. Darwin's theory
of evolution, atomic theory, cell theory, big bang theory, plate tectonics, general relativity)
- differs from the popular meaning of theory, which suggests a speculative idea without much
substance

Paradigm shift
- with enough data, can change the dominant view

Ethics
- study of good and bad, right and wrong
- the set of moral principles or values held by a person or society that tells us how we ought
to behave
- people use criteria, standards, or rule when making judgments
- different cultures or worldviews lead to different values, which lead to different actions

Relativists: ethics vary with social context

Universalists: right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations

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Ethical standards: criteria that help differentiate right from wrong
- classical standard = virtue
- the golden rule: treat others as you want to be treated
- utility: something right produces the most benefits for the most people

Environmental ethics: application of ethical standards to relationships between human and non-human
entities
- hard to resolve; depends on the person's ethical standards
- depends on the person's domain of ethical concern

Three ethical perspectives

Anthropocentrism: only humans have rights
- costs and benefits are measured only according to their impact on people
- anything not providing benefit to people has no value
Biocentrism: certain living things also have value
- All life has ethical standing
- Development is opposed if it destroys life, even if it creates jobs
Ecocentrism: whole ecological systems have value
- values the well-being of species, communities, or ecosystems
- holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections

The preservation ethic

- Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own inherent value (protecting the
environment in a pristine state, because it promotes human happiness and fulfillment)
- John Muir

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The conservation ethic
- Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the most people (a utilitarian
standard that calls for prudent, efficient, and sustainable resource extraction and use)
- Gifford Pinchot

The land ethic

- Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts
- Aldo Leopold believed that human should view themselves and the land as members of the
same community
- obligation to treat the land ethically (helps guide decision making)

Ecofeminism
- in the 60's and 70's, feminist scholars saw parallels in how people treated nature and how men
treated women (degradation, social oppression)
- a patriarchal (male-dominated) society is a root cause of both social and environmental
problems
Female worldview: interrelationships and cooperation
Male worldview: hierarchies, competition, domination, and conquest

Environmental justice
- involves the fair treatment of all people with respect to the environment, regardless of race,
income, or ethnicity
- the poor and minorities are exposed to more pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation
- despite progress, significant inequalities remain

Sustainability
- a guiding principle of environmental science
- living within our planet's means

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 > the earth can sustain humans and other organisms for the future
> leaving our descendants with a rich, full world
> developing solutions that work in the long term
> requires keeping fully functioning ecological systems
- we are increasing our burden on the planet each year (population growth, affluence,
consumption)
Natural capital: the accumulated wealth of Earth
*We are withdrawing our planet's natural capital 30% faster than its being produced

- human population growth amplifies all environmental problems

- our consumption of resources has risen even faster
> rising consumption increases the demands we make on our environment
> the rise in affluence has not been equal. the gap between rich and poor has doubled in
the past 40 years

Ecological footprints are not all equal

- vary between countries greatly
> the U.S. footprint is much greater than the world's average
> developing countries have much smaller footprints than developed countries

The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

- the most comprehensive scientific assessment of the condition of the world's ecological
ecosystems
- major findings include:
> humans have drastically altered ecosystems
> these changes have contributed to human well-being and economic development, but
at a cost
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 > environmental degradation could get much worse
> degradation can be reversed, but it requires work

Sustainable development: using resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future
availability of resources
Involves:
- renewable energy sources
- soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, organic agriculture
- pollution reduction
- habitat and species protection
- recycling
- fighting global climate change

Sustainable solutions must meet:

- environmental goals
- economic goals
- social goals

Requires that humans limit our impact while promoting economic well-being and social equity
- apply science to solve problems

Conclusions:
> Finding ways to live sustainably on Earth requires a solid ethical grounding and scientific
understanding of our natural and social systems
> Environmental science helps us understand our relationship with the environment and
informs our attempts to solve and prevent problems
> Identifying a problem is the first step in solving it
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 > Solving environmental problems can move us toward health, longevity, peace, and prosperity
- Environmental science can help find balanced solutions to environmental problems.

Module 2: Population
Population
- group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the same area
Natality: The number of individuals added to a population through reproduction over a particular time
period
Mortality: The number of deaths in a population over a particular time period

Survivorship curve
- shows the proportion of individuals likely to survive to each age
Three types of survivorship curves can be recognized:
>species with high mortality in young
>species with mortality equitable among age classes
>species with mortality high only in old age

Population growth rate

- birth rate minus death rate
- in human population studies, it is often expressed as a percentage of the total population

Sex ratio
- refers to the relative number of males and females in a population
> the number of females is important because females determine the number of
offspring produced in sexually reproducing populations

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Age distribution
- number of individuals of each age in the population
>greatly influences the population growth rate

Population Density
- number of individuals per unit area
> high population density injures all individuals within the population because they
compete severely from necessary resources
*Dispersal: movement of individuals from densely populated locations to new areas
*Emigration: movement from an area
*Immigration: movement into an area

Biotic potential
- inherent reproductive capacity of a species (biological ability to produce offspring)
- much above replacement level (natural tendency for increase)

Population growth follows a pattern consisting of a lag phase, an exponential growth phase, a
deceleration phase, and a stable equilibrium phase
*Lag phase: first portion of the curve, slow population growth

Exponential Growth Phase (log Phase)

- more organisms are reproducing, causing accelerated growth; this continues as long as birth
rate exceeds death rate

Deceleration Phase: The population rate slows as the death rate and birth rate come to equal one
another

Stable Equilibrium Phase: The death rate and birth rate become equal and the population stops growing
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Limiting Factors
- prevent unlimited population growth
- collectively known as environmental resistance
Extrinsic limiting factors
- come from outside the population (e.g. predators, loss of food source, lack of sunlight,
accidents of nature)

Intrinsic limiting factors

- originate within the population and exercise control over it (behavioural changes amongst the
population cause lower birth rates and higher death rates

Density-dependent limiting factors

- become more effective as the density of the population increases

Density-independent limiting factors

- population-controlling influences that are not related to the density of the population

For most populations, limiting factors recognized as components of environmental resistance can be
placed into four main categories:
>Raw material availability
>Energy availability
>Accumulation of waste products
>Interactions among organisms

Carrying Capacity
- maximum sustainable population for an area
- not an inflexible number; can be influenced by environmental differences like:
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 >successional changes
>climate variations
>disease epidemics
>forest fires, floods, or natural disasters
>nutrient levels in aquatic ecosystems

Two broad categories of species based on their reproductive strategies:

K-strategies: Organisms that typically reach a stable population as the population reaches the carrying
capacity (controlled by density-dependent limiting factors)
>usually occupy relatively stable environments
>large organisms
>long lived
>produce few offspring
>provide substantial parental care
>reproductive strategy is to invest a great deal of energy in producing a few offspring that
have a good chance of living to reproduce
r-strategists: Typically, these are small organisms that have a short life, produce many offspring,
exploit unstable environments, and do not reach a carrying capacity (controlled by density-
independent limiting factors)
>small, short-lived organisms
>produce many offspring
>little if any parental care
>exploit unstable environments
>usually do not reach carrying capacity (boom-bust cycles)
>Reproductive strategy is to produce large numbers of offspring to overcome high mortality

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Human Population Growth
- has a long lag phase followed by sharply rising exponential growth phase that is still rapidly
increasing
- a major reason for the increasing human population growth rate is an increase in medical care,
and a consequential decrease in death rates
- the doubling time for the human population is calculated by = 70/annual rate of increase (%)

Human Population Characteristics and Implications

- the world can be divided into two segments based on economic development
> more-developed countries typically have per capita income exceeding $10,000
*Europe, Canada, the U.S., Japan, Australia, New Zealand
*Combined population of 1.2 billion
*relatively stable populations
*expected to grow 3% by 2050
>less-developed countries typically have a per capita income less than $5,000
*All other remaining countries of the world
*combined population of 5.3 billion
*nearly 3 billion live on less than $2 per day
*high population growth rates
*expected to grow 52% by 2050 (8 billion people, or 86% of the world's population)

- Human population growth is tied to economic development and is a contributing factor to nearly all
environmental problems

Population density
- relates the size of the population to available resources

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*Countries with abundant resources can sustain higher population densities than resource-poor
countries
- the degree of technological development and affluence is also significant; people in highly
developed countries consume huge amounts of resources

Ecological footprint
- a measure of the land is required to provide the resources and absorb the wastes of a
population
- most of the more-developed countries of the world have a much larger ecological footprint
than is represented by their area
*Japan is highly developed but has few resources; its ecological footprint is 5 times larger than its
locally available resources
*the ecological footprint of the U.S. is 1.5 times larger than the locally available resources

Factors that influence human population growth

- unlike other kinds of organisms, humans are influenced by social, political, economic, and
ethical factors
- we can make conscious decisions based on the likely course of events and adjust our lives
accordingly

Biological Factors
- Demography: study of populations and their characteristics, how those characteristics
affect growth, and the consequences of the growth
>the most important determinant of the rate at which human populations grow is
related to how many women in the population are having children and the number of
children each woman will have
>Total fertility rate of a population: the number of children a woman has during her
lifetime
>Replacement fertility: total fertility rate of 2.1, where parents produce 2 children who
will replace the parents when they die
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 >Zero population growth: the birth rate equals death rate
>Age distribution: number of people of each age in the population

Social Factors
- Reducing fertility rates would be advantageous, especially in LDCs, but not everyone agrees
- Several factors (religious, traditional, social, and economic) influence the number of children
a couple would like to have
- the major social factors determining family size are the status and desires of women in the
culture
- in male-dominated cultures, traditional role of women is to marry and raise children
- Early marriages foster high fertility rates
- Child rearing practices also influence population growth rates
>In countries where breast feeding is practiced, several benefits accrue (breast milk is
an excellent source of nutrients and antibodies; during the months a woman is breast
feeding, she is less likely to become pregnant again)
- Lack of education opportunities for women reduces their options
- When the level of education increases, fertility rates fall
>Financial independence leads to marriage later in life
>Better-educated women are more likely to have access to and use birth control
- In some cultures, women desire large families:
>In countries where infant mortality is high, it is traditional to have large families since
several of a woman's children may not live to adulthood
>Parents are more secure when there are many children to look after their own needs in
old age

Economic Factors
- In less developed countries, the economic benefits of children are extremely important

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 >Even young children can be given jobs that contribute to the family economy, such as
protecting livestock, gathering firewood, or carrying water
- In the developed world, large numbers of children are economic drain
>they are prevented from working
>they must be sent to school at great expense
>they consume large amounts of the family income

Political Factors
- Governments can either reward or punish high fertility rates
- Several European countries are concerned about low birth rates and have instituted policies
to encourage couples to have more children
>Paid maternity leave and guaranteed job availability upon the mother's return to work
>Childcare facilities make it possible for both parents to work
>Child tax deductions provide an indirect payment to families
- Most developing countries are concerned that population growth is too rapid and have
instituted programs to limit growth:
>They provide information on family planning and maternal and child health
>Sometimes governments provide free or low-cost contraceptives

Immigration Policies
- Birth rates are so low in some countries that immigration is encouraged to offset a potential
decline in the number of working-age citizens
- Developed countries are under intense pressure to accept immigrants
>The higher standard of living is a magnet for refugees or people who seek a better life
than is possible where they currently live.

*Inverse relationship between a country's growth rate and its average standard of living
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Standard of living
- a difficult concept to quantify since various cultures have different desires
- factors usually included in an analysis of standard of living:
>economic well-being
>health conditions
>social status and mobility

*An important economic measure of standard of living is the average purchasing power per person

Gross national income (GNI) is an index of purchasing power measuring total goods and services
generated by citizens of a country
*Gross national income purchasing power parity (GNIPPP) is used to account for varying prices of
goods and services between countries

As human population grows, so does the demand for food:

1. Most people in developed countries must purchase their own food
2. Most people in less-developed countries must grow their own food

Human populations can only increase in size if other plant and animal populations decrease in size

People in less-developed countries generally feed at lower trophic levels than those in the developed
world
- People in less-developed countries must eat plants themselves instead of feeding the plants
to animals and eating the animals
- a lack of protein in the diet can lead to malnutrition
Many people in more-developed countries suffer from overnutrition
- 50% of North Americans are overweight, and 25% are obese

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In countries where food is in short supply, agricultural land is already being exploited to its limit and
there is still a need for more food
Many more-developed countries are net food exporters
Improved plant varieties and agricultural techniques have dramatically increased food production in
some parts of the world
Political activities such as war, repayment of foreign debt, corruption, and poor management often
determine food availability

Solving the problem of food distribution is not an easy question

Humanitarian food aid provides an excellent service, but:
- it provides a temporary relief of symptoms
- it works against self-reliance
- the emphasis must be on self-sufficiency

Demographic Transition
- model of population growth based on historical, social, and economic development of Europe
and North America
*Initially, countries have a stable population (high birth and death rates)
*The death rates falls and the population grows
*Industrialization occurs and the birth rate falls
*Death rates and birth rates find equilibrium (low birth rates and low death rates)
- this is a comfortable model, because it suggests industrialization will naturally lead to
population stabilization
- can be applied to less-developed countries where resources are no longer abundant and huma
population is growing much faster than before

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Four basic factors in improving carrying capacity
1. Available raw materials
- not limited to the amount of food available
- dependence on technology
- lifestyles tied to use of other resources such as irrigation water, genetic research, and
antibiotics
2. Available energy
- increases in energy efficiency and the development of renewable fuel can reduce dependence
on fossil fuels
3. Waste disposal
- Pollution is the waste product of huma activity
- lack of adequate sewage treatment and safe drinking water causes large numbers of deaths
4. Interactions with other organisms
- converting land to meet our needs displaces other species from their habitats
- what today seems like an unimportant organism may one day be seen as an important link to
our own survival

Social Factors Influence Human Population

- Current technology and medical knowledge are available to control human population growth
and improve the health of the people of the world
- But humans are social animals who have freedom of choices and frequently do not do what
is considered "best" from an unemotional, uninvolved, biological point fo view
- People make decision based on history, social situations, ethical and religious considerations,
and personal desires

*If the world continues to grow at its current rates, population will surpass 12 billion by 2060
- the human population is subject to same biological constraints as other species
- the human population will ultimately reach a carrying capacity and stabilize
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Module 3: Matter and Energy
Science
- attempts to discover order in the natural world and use that to predict
Scientists
- collect data, form hypotheses and develop theories, models and laws about how nature works
* Scientists use models or simulations to find out how systems work and to evaluate ideas or
hypothesis

A system is a set of components that function in some regular manner

Most systems have
>Inputs (from the environment)
>Flows or throughputs
>Outputs (to environment)

Matter
- anything that has mass and takes up space
Two forms:
1. Elements: building blocks of matter
2. Compounds: 2 or more elements held together by chemical bonds

Atom: the smallest unit of matter

Ion: an electrically charged atom
Molecule: a combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements
An atom is made up of a cloud of electrons that surrounds a nucleus containing protons and (in most
cases) neutrons

Centre of the atom is the nucleus

Equal number of protons and electrons. So, no net electrical charge
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1. Protons (positively charged)
2. Neutrons (uncharged)
3. Electron (negatively charged)

Each element has a specific atomic number (equal to the number of protons in the nucleus)
Atomic Mass = P+N in its nucleus

Isotopes: Elements with different Neutron numbers

Atoms of some elements can lose or gain electrons to form ions

Metals: Electron givers

Non-metals: Electron receivers

Hydrogen ions in a solution are measure of how acidic or basic it is

The pH of a solution is a measure of its concentration of hydrogen ions

Neutral pH is 7; acids solutions are below 7; and basic solutions are above 7

Chemical formulas are a type of shorthand to show the type and number of atoms/ions in a compound

1. Each element in the compound is represented by a symbol

2. Subscripts show the number of atoms/ions in the compounds
3. Compounds made of uncharged atoms are called covalent (or molecular) compounds

Organic compounds contain carbon atoms combined with one another and with various other atoms.
Only methane (hydrocarbon) has one carbon atom
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Chlorinated hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine atoms

Simple carbohydrates: specific types of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms

All compounds without the combination of carbon atoms and other elements' atoms are inorganic
compounds

e.g. Water, Carbon monoxide, Ammonia, Sulfuric Acid

Matter exists in four states: solid, liquid, and gaseous physical states and fourth state known as
plasma

1. Eater exists as ice, liquid, or water vapor depending on its temperature

2. Plasma is a high-energy mixture of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons. it is
the most abundant from of matter in the universe, but very little is found on Earth
3. Scientists make artificial plasmas in fluorescent light, arc lamps, neon signs, gas discharge lasers,
and TV and computer screens

Energy is the capacity to do work and transfer heat: it moves matter

Kinetic energy has mass and speed; wind and electricity are examples
Potential energy is stored energy, ready to be used: e.g. an unlit match
Can also be changed to kinetic energy: e.g. drop an object
Electromagnetic Radiation
- energy that travels as a wave, a result of changing electric and magnetic fields
- each form has a different wavelength and energy content
- the electromagnetic spectrum describes the range of electromagnetic waves that have
different wavelengths and energy content

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Heat
- the total kinetic energy of all moving atoms, ions, or molecules in a substance
- can be transferred from one place to another by convection, conduction, and radiation
- temperature is the average speed of motion of atoms, ions, or molecules in a sample of
matter
- energy quality is measured by its usefulness. high energy is concentrated and has high
usefulness. low energy is dispersed and can do little work

The Law of Conservation of Matter

When matter has a physical change, its chemical composition has not changed; the molecules are
organized in different patterns
in a chemical change, the chemical composition of the elements/compounds change. Shorthand
chemical equations represent what happens in the reaction

The Law of Conversation of Matter states that no atoms are created/destroyed during a physical or
chemical change. The same is true for energy
1. Atoms are rearranged into different patterns/combinations
2. Atoms can have physical or chemical changes, but they are never created nor destroyed

Chemical Equations
- used to verity that no atoms are created or destroyed in a chemical reaction
- the number of atoms on one side of the equation must be equal the number of atoms on the
other side of the equation

Harmful Pollutants
- Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant's harmful effects: chemical nature,
concentration, and persistence
- Dilution of concentration of a pollutant is only a partial answer

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 - Pollutants are classified into four categories based on persistence: degradable, biodegradable,
slowly degradable, and non-degradable

Energy Laws
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can
be converted from one form to another
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that energy is changed from one form to another, there
is always less usable energy. Energy quality is depleted
In changing forms of energy, there is a loss on energy quality: heat is often produced and lost
In living systems, solar energy is changed to chemical energy, then to mechanical energy energy/ High
quality energy degrades to quality heat
Energy efficiency/productivity measures the amount of useful work by a specific input energy.
Overall, energy efficiency is very poor - about 16% of energy produces useful work
41% is unavoidable waste energy, and 43% is unnecessarily wasted energy. (A change in habits can
further reduce this waste)

Energy Laws and Environmental Problems

A. Resources use automatically adds some heat/waste matter to the environment
B. Advanced industrialized countries have high-throughput (high waste) economies
C. Resources flow into planetary sink (air, water, soil, organisms) with accumulation to harmful levels
*Eventually consumption will exceed capacity of the environment to dilute/degrade wastes
Recycling/reusing more of the Earth's matter resources slows depletion of non-renewable resources
and reduces environmental impact
Shifting to a more sustainable, low-throughput (low-waste) economy is the best long-term solution to
environmental problems

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