Stability of Structuresh
Stability of Structuresh
So far in our studies, we have been concerned with the equilibrium of structures.
Once equilibrium is established, the next level involves ascertaining the stability
of the equilibrium state. In this chapter we consider only static stability; dynamic
stability analysis, which takes into account the inertia forces and oscillations, is
also an important topic. A simple way to demonstrate the concept of stability is
to consider a ruler in the vertical position, as shown in Fig. 6.1. Using statics, we
W W
R R
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
P P
k
θ
L
O O
M
v P
L x
is zero at the point x = L/2. This point is called a node. So, we have one node
for the second mode. For the n th mode there will be (n − 1) nodes. Thus, we can
identify the mode based on the number of nodes.
This derivation was done by Euler and it is known as Euler’s theory of buckling
of beams or columns.
C
σy
L/ρ
Figure 6.4 Domain of safe stresses in the stress versus slenderness ratio plot.
Below the Euler hyperbola and the horizontal line indicating the yield stress,
any state of stress is safe, except near the corner C, where plastic deformation
and buckling occur simultaneously. As our derivation of the Euler buckling load
does not take into account plastic strains in bending, the corner area should not
be considered as safe. There are improved theories that smooth the transition
between buckling and plastic flow.
M
v
L x e
P
This formula, known as the secant formula, shows the amplification of the stress
P/A by a factor that depends on the eccentricity ratio, (ec/ρ 2 ), the slenderness
ratio, (L/ρ), and the strain, (P/E A).
So far we have assumed the beams in question are perfectly straight. In reality, a
beam may have preexisting imperfections in the form of small deviations of the
neutral axis from the ideal straight line. In other words, we may assume there is a
deflection v0 (x) of the neutral axis before the axial load is imposed. This is shown
in Fig. 6.6. If the elastic deflection v(x) is superposed on the existing, nonelastic
deflection v0 , the change in curvature is v .
v
P v0 P
x
E I v + Pv = −Pv0 . (6.32)
From these,
A1 A2 A3
B1 = , B2 = , B3 = ,..., (6.36)
Pcr
P
−1 4Pcr
P
−1 9Pcr
P
−1
where
π2E I
Pcr = , (6.37)
L2
is the Euler buckling load. As in the case of eccentric loading, the amplitudes, Bi ,
of the elastic deflection begin to increase as the load is increased. Finally, when
P = Pcr , it becomes unbounded.
Neglecting the higher order Fourier coefficients, the elastic deflection at the
midpoint of the beam
δ = v(L/2) = B1 = A1 /(Pcr /P − 1). (6.38)
This can be rearranged to get
δ
δ = Pcr
− A1 . (6.39)
P
A plot of δ versus δ/P will have Pcr as its slope. This plot is called the Southwell
plot and it provides a nondestructive means of obtaining the critical load.
P
v δ
x
Then
λL = π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, . . . . (6.47)
The critical load is obtained as
π2E I
Pcr = , (6.48)
4L 2
corresponding to the lowest value of λ.
The mode shapes are given by
v(x) = δ(1 − cos λx/L). (6.49)
(a) P
(b) P
R
tan λL = λL . (6.56)
20.19E I 2.046π 2 E I
λL = 4.4934, Pcr = 2
= . (6.57)
L L2
The mode shapes are given by Eq. (6.55), for different values of λL.
tan x
x
Figure 6.9 A sketch of the location of the roots of the equation tan x = x , vertical lines are spaced at π/2.
Let us consider a beam with both of its ends clamped. As shown in Fig. 6.10, the
free-body diagram shows a vertical force R and a moment M0 when the clamp is
released at the end x = L. The differential equation of equilibrium is
(a) P
M0
(b) P
Figure 6.10 A clamped-clamped beam (a) and its free-body diagram (b).
Energy method provides a means for approximating the critical loads in buckling.
When the beam buckles, the applied compressive load moves. First we want to
obtain the potential energy involved in this movement. We neglect the shortening
of the beam due to compressive stress and attribute the shortening to bending. As
shown in Fig. 6.11, a small triangle at x consisting of the sides x, v, and s
θ
θ0 Δs
Δx Δv δ
P
Figure 6.11 The distance moved by the compressive load during buckling.
shows
s 2 = x 2 + v 2 . (6.79)
Assuming the curved length of the beam along s is L,
2
dx dv
= 1− . (6.80)
ds ds
The shortening, δ, can be expressed as
⎡ ⎤
L L 2
dx ⎣1 −
dv ⎦ ds.
δ= 1− ds = 1− (6.81)
0 ds 0 ds
Assuming dv/ds to be small, we use the binomial theorem to expand the inte-
grand, to arrive at
1 L dv 2
δ= ds. (6.82)
2 0 ds
With this, the potential energy of the force Pcr is
L 2
1 dv
V = −Pcr δ = − Pcr ds. (6.83)
2 0 ds
Including the strain energy of bending, the total potential energy is
1 L! "
= E I (v )2 − Pcr (v )2 ds, (6.84)
2 0
where the primes indicate differentiation with s. The difference between using
s and x as the variable is negligible under the assumption dv/ds is small. The
true buckling mode makes the total potential energy a minimum. Any other mode
shape that satisfies the displacement boundary conditions will give a higher value
for . For example, for Euler buckling, instead of the true mode
v(x) = D sin π x/L , v(s) = D sin πs/L , (6.85)
if we use an approximate mode
v(s) = Ds(L − s), (6.86)
we have
v = −2D, v = D(L − 2s). (6.87)
L
1
= [E I (2D)2 − Pcr D 2 (L − 2s)2 ]ds = 2D 2 L[E I − Pcr L 2 /12].
2 0
(6.88)
Setting this expression to zero, we find
12E I
Pcr = . (6.89)
L2
This approximate critical buckling load is above the exact value of π 2 E I /L 2 . We
may improve the approximation using functions with more degrees of freedom.
When the applied load is above the critical load, our small deflection theory
predicts indefinite maximum deflections. However, we have to use large deflection
theory with the exact expression for the curvature of the beam to proceed with
the post-buckling calculations. The exact curvature is given by
dθ
κ= . (6.90)
ds
The geometry of the deflected beam is shown in Fig. 6.11. The tangent to the
neutral axis makes an angle θ with the horizontal at an arbitrary point s. This
angle at s = 0 is denoted by θ0 . We also have
dv dx
= sin θ, = cos θ. (6.91)
ds ds
The equilibrium of the beam under an applied compressive load P requires
dθ
EI + Pv = 0. (6.92)
ds
Here, when v is positive, the curvature is negative. At this point, it is advantageous
to introduce nondimensional quantities
d 2θ
+ μ2 sin θ = 0. (6.95)
ds 2
We can convert this to a first-order differential equation by multiplying by dθ/ds
and integrating.
dθ d 2 θ dθ
2
+ μ2 sin θ = 0, (6.96)
ds ds ds
1 dθ 2
− μ2 cos θ = C, (6.97)
2 ds
where C is a constant of integration. From Eq. (6.92), at s = 0, we have v = 0
and dθ/ds = 0. Then
This leads to
dθ √ +
= − 2μ cos θ − cos θ0 , (6.99)
ds
where we have taken the negative square root to get negative curvature. We
rearrange this equation to separate the variables in the form
√ dθ
2μds = − √ . (6.100)
cos θ − cos θ0
Similarly, from d x/ds = cos θ and dv/ds = sin θ, we get
√ cos θdθ
2μd x = − √ , (6.101)
cos θ − cos θ0
√ sin θdθ
2μdv = − √ . (6.102)
cos θ − cos θ0
Integrals of the preceding expressions are:
√ θ0
dθ
2μs = √ , (6.103)
θ cos θ − cos θ0
√ θ0
cos θdθ
2μx = √ , (6.104)
θ cos θ − cos θ0
√ θ0
sin θdθ
2μv = √ . (6.105)
θ cos θ − cos θ0
At this juncture, we make a few observations. The first integral gives us an
equation for μ as a function of θ0 , if we assume the deflection is symmetric with
respect to the point s = 1/2 and θ = 0 at this point. Then,
θ0
μ dθ
√ = √ . (6.106)
2 0 cos θ − cos θ0
The second integral can be written as
√ θ0 + √
2μx = cos θ − cos θ0 dθ + 2μs cos θ0 . (6.107)
θ
of application of the load moves from x = 1 toward the left, eventually moving
past the origin. Along the way, the deflected beam forms a loop. The numerical
calculations were made using the software Mathematica by Wolfram.
When thin-walled beams are subjected to a compressive load, they have a tendency
to buckle in torsion. We will limit our discussion of this topic to thin-walled open
sections with one axis (the z-axis) of symmetry. Let t denote the thickness of
the section and the s-coordinate describe the mid-plane in the counter-clockwise
sense. As shown in Fig 6.12, an element of length x and cross-sectional area
Δs
σ + Δσ
y σ
σ v
z
x
Δx
dfy
rs θ
dfz
rs y
θ
z
S e C
= −σ [θ I S + Aev ],
(6.124)
where I S is the polar second moment of the area about the shear center,
I S = I yy + Izz + Ae2 = A(ρ 2 + e2 ), (6.125)
with ρ being the radius of gyration. For a compressive applied load P,
σ = −P/A, (6.126)
and
dTB IS
f y = −P[v + eθ ], f z = −Pw ,
= P θ + Pev . (6.127)
dx A
Using the distributed forces in the deflection equations, we get
E Izz v = −P[v + eθ ], E I yy w = −Pw . (6.128)
From Chapter 4, Eq. (4.55), we have the torque relation
G J θ − Eθ = TB , (6.129)
where is the Wagner torsional-bending constant for the cross section, which
arises from the warping constraint. We introduce dTB /d x, by differentiating this
equation, to get
G J θ − Eθ = P(ρ 2 + e2 )θ + Pev . (6.130)
ρ2
P2 − P[Pv + Pθ ] + Pv Pθ = 0. (6.143)
ρ 2 + e2
The solutions of this quadratic, P1 and P2 , give two more critical loads. Of course,
we have to use the lowest value of these critical loads as the buckling load. Note
that when e = 0, Pv and Pθ are the solutions as the system becomes uncoupled.
A split circular cross column with radius R, thickness t, and length L is shown
in Fig. 6.14. The ends of the column are built into two rigid plates, preventing
π R3t
I yy = Ix x = I = , e = 2R,
2
2 2
J= π Rt 3 , = R 5 t[π 3 − 6π]. (6.144)
3 3
The differential equation for w is not coupled to the other variables and the
buckling load is
2
4π 2 E I 2π 3 R 3 t E R
Pw = = = πEA , (6.146)
L2 L2 L
where A = 2π Rt, the cross-sectional area. The constants Pv and Pθ are obtained
as
2
R
Pv = π E A , (6.147)
L
1 4π 2 E
Pθ = 2 + GJ ,
ρ + e2 L2
G EA R 2
= 4π(π − 6π) +
3
, (6.148)
E 15 L
where ρ = R. Using the further assumption E/G = 2(1 + ν) = 2.6, we get the
numerical values
2 2
R R
Pv = Pw = 3.14E A , Pθ = 10.21E A . (6.149)
L L
For the critical load for the coupled bending-torsional instability we have to solve
the quadratic
ρ2
P2 − P[Pv + Pθ ] + Pv Pθ = 0. (6.150)
ρ 2 + e2
The roots of this equation are:
2 2
R R
P1 = 2.495E A , P2 = 64.255E A . (6.151)
L L
From this, we conclude that the minimum load for buckling is 2.495E A(R/L)2 ,
with a coupled bending-torsional mode of instability.
k1 k2
θ
C G v
V c1
c2
k1 k2
b
We may assume this setup as a long wing section suspended in a wind or water
tunnel. Let C denote the aerodynamic center at quarter chord and G the center
of mass.
With a lift force L acting through C, the equations of motion are:
m v̈ = L − 2k1 (v + c1 θ) − 2k2 (v − c2 θ), (6.152)
I θ̈ = −M + Lb − 2k1 c1 (v + c1 θ) + 2k2 c2 (v − c2 θ), (6.153)
where the dots indicate time derivatives and m is the mass of the wing, I is the
moment of inertia about the point G, and
1 1
L=ρV 2 SC Lα θ, M = ρV 2 ScC Mα θ, (6.154)
2 2
with ρ the fluid density, V the flow velocity, S the plan-form area of the wing,
C Lα , and C Mα the lift and moment curve slopes, and c the wing chord. We may
shorten these expressions for the lift and the moment to have
1
ρV 2 SC Lα .
L = L θ θ, Lθ = (6.155)
2
1
M = Mθ θ, Mθ = ρV 2 ScC Mα . (6.156)
2
Using harmonic solutions of the form
v = Beiωt , θ = Ceiωt , (6.157)
the equations of motion reduce to
mω2 − 2(k1 + k2 ) L θ − 2(k1 c1 − k2 c2 ) B 0
= .
−2(k1 c1 − k2 c2 ) I ω + Mθ + L θ b − 2(k1 c1 + k2 c2 )
2 2 2
C 0
(6.158)
For a nontrivial solution of this system the determinant of the matrix has to be
zero. This gives a quadratic equation for the square of the angular frequency ω.
If ω2 is positive, we have oscillatory motions for v and θ. If ω2 is negative or
complex, we may have unstable solutions, which may be grouped as (a) growing
in time without oscillations and (b) growing in time with oscillations. The group
(a) behavior is called divergence and the group (b) behavior is called flutter.
The model we presented here is overly simplistic. In the case of a real wing
attached to a plane, bending and torsional stiffnesses of the cantilevered structure
replace our springs. We also have to distinguish locations of the neutral axis,
shear center, center of mass, and aerodynamic center (usually the forward quarter
chord). Additionally, the lift L and the moment M are not just functions of the
angle of attack θ; they both depend on v, v̇, v̈, θ̇ , and θ̈.
FURTHER READING
Curtis, H. D., Fundamentals of Aircraft Structural Analysis, Irwin (1997).
Fung, Y. C., An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity, Dover (1969).
Megson, T. H. G., Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students, Butterworth-
Heinemann (2007).
Rivello, R. M., Theory and Analysis of Flight Structures, McGraw-Hill (1969).
EXERCISES
6.1 Two rigid bars, each of length L, P
are under a compressive load of P,
as shown in Fig. 6.16. There are L
three pin connections – two at the k
top and bottom supports and one
L
in the middle. A spring of stiff-
ness k resists the sideways deflec-
tion. Sketch the perturbed state for
Rigid bars under
this configuration. Balancing the Figure 6.16
compression.
moment, obtain the critical load for
the instability of this structure.
6.2 A simply supported beam has a 2EI
EI
bending stiffness of E I on the left L
P
L
half of its length 2L and a stiffness
of 2E I on the right half. This is A beam with varying
Figure 6.17
shown in Fig. 6.17. Find the critical stiffness.
load for the buckling of this beam.
6.3 A cantilever beam with bending P
L
stiffness E I has a tip support with k
spring stiffness k as shown in
Fig. 6.18. Find an equation for the
A cantilever beam with a
critical load for the buckling of this Figure 6.18
spring support.
beam.
6.4 For the beam and spring arrangement shown in Fig. 6.18, obtain the spring
stiffness k in terms of E I and L if its critical buckling load is three times
larger than that for the cantilever beam without any spring support.
6.5 A built-in beam has a bending P
stiffness of E I and a central sup- L L
k
port with a spring stiffness of k (see
Fig. 6.19). Find an equation for the
critical load for the buckling of this A built-in beam with a
Figure 6.19
central support.
beam.
6.6 The simply supported beam in Fig. 6.20 is subjected to a compressive load
P. It has a bending stiffness E I and length L. The left end of the beam
has a torsional spring with spring
k P
constant k = 2E I /L. The function
of this spring is to exert a resistive L
moment proportional to the slope.
Beam with a torsional
Obtain a transcendental equation Figure 6.20
spring.
for the constant μ = λL where
λ2 = Pcr /E I . Find the smallest root of this equation and compare it to
the Euler value.
1 ρV 2 SC Lα I b
λ= , μ= , ν= , Mθ = 0.
2 mc mc2 c