Human Physiology:

Digestive system

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reserved.
 Key Takeaway

Nutrients 1

2 Digestive system

Mouth 3

4 Buccal cavity

Pharynx 5 Tongue

Teeth

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 Oesophagus 6

7 Stomach

Muscles
Small intestine 8

9 Large intestine

Functions
Layers of the alimentary
canal 10

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 Digestive glands 11

Salivary glands
12 Digestion
Liver
In oral cavity
Pancreas
In stomach
Gastric glands
In small intestine
Intestinal glands

Digestive hormones 13

14 Absorption of nutrients
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 Assimilation of nutrients 15

16 Egestion

Balanced diet 17

Disorders of the digestive

18
system

Summary​
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 Nutrients

 The word ‘nutrient’ is derived from the Vitamins

Latin word ‘nutritio’, which means ‘to
nourish’.

 Nutrients are the chemical substances

Water Carbohydrates
present in food.

 They are required by living organisms for Food

the growth and maintenance of bodily
Minerals Lipids
functions.

 Nutrition is the process by which a living

organism obtains nutrients that are
necessary for their growth and Proteins
maintenance.

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 Nutrients

Types of nutrients

Based on
constituents

Organic

 These are the compounds that contain carbon.

 These include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and vitamins.

Inorganic

 These are the compounds that contain metal and other elements.
 These include minerals and water.

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 Nutrients

Based on amount
required

Macronutrients

 These are required by the body in large quantities.

 These are involved in the synthesis of various compounds
required by the body.
 Examples: Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Micronutrients

 These are required by the body in less or minute quantities.

 These are involved in the regulation of metabolism.
 Examples: Vitamins and minerals.

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 Digestive System
Digestion is the breakdown of large food molecules into small food molecules.

Alimentary canal Associated glands

Mouth

Buccal cavity

Pharynx

Oesophagus

Stomach

Small intestine

Large intestine
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 Mouth & Buccal Cavity

 It is a transverse opening to the alimentary canal present below

the nose and above the chin.
 It is bound by two movable lips , the upper and the lower lips.
 Mouth leads to the buccal cavity or the oral cavity.

Parts of the buccal cavity

Palate Tongue Teeth

Roof of
the buccal cavity

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 Buccal Cavity
Tongue

 It is a freely movable muscular organ that occupies the floor of the mouth.
 It is flat, voluntary, and sensory in function.

Frenulum Papillae Taste buds

 The tongue is  They are projections  They are the receptors of taste
attached to the on the upper surface that are present within some
floor of the mouth of the tongue. papillae.
by the lingual  Some of them bear  They are capable of sensing all
frenulum. taste buds. four tastes (bitter, sour, salty,
and sweet) and sending
messages to the brain to
generate the sensation of taste.
 An average person has about
10,000 taste buds.

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 Buccal Cavity
Tongue

Functions Myth buster box

 It helps in chewing the food.  The common assumption that the human
tongue is divided into different taste areas
 It aids in swallowing the food.
is a myth.
 It is an organ of taste.
 The ability to sense different tastes - sweet,
 It acts as a brush to clean the teeth. salty, sour and bitter - is not allocated to
 It plays an important role in speech. different parts of the tongue.
 The taste receptors that pick up these
tastes are actually distributed all over the
tongue.

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 Buccal Cavity

 They are hard Teeth

structures that Crown
are present in the  Exposed part of the tooth
form of two  Projects above the gums
semicircles
Enamel
embedded in the
socket of the jaw  Hardest part of the human body
 Covers the crown
bone.  Characteristics: Acellular, avascular
Parts of a (not supplied by blood vessels) and
 They are ecto- tooth non-regenerable
mesodermal in  Helps in the mastication of food
origin.
 They have several Neck
uses such as
 Middle part of the tooth
gripping, cutting,  Surrounded by the gums
gnawing, tearing,
and crushing. Root
 Basal part of the tooth
 Embedded in the jaw bone
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 Buccal Cavity
Teeth

Types of dentitions Types of human teeth

Heterodont Homodont Incisors Premolars

Presence of Presence of a  Eight in number  Eight in number

different types single type of  Chisel shaped  Bicuspid ( two cusps at the crown)
of teeth in the teeth in the
 Shaped for cutting  Shaped for chewing and crushing
oral cavity oral cavity

Example: Human Example: Dolphins

beings, cheetah. Canines Molars

 Four in number  Twelve in number

Note: In elephants, the upper  Upper jaw has 3 roots and lower
 Dagger shaped
incisors are modified into jaw has 2 roots
 Shaped for ripping
curved tusks. and shredding
 Shaped for chewing, crushing,
and grinding
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 Buccal Cavity
Teeth

Types of teeth based on placement in jaw

Thecodont Pleurodont Acrodont

Teeth on the
Teeth in bony Teeth on the
terminal part of
socket of jawbone. lateral side of
jawbone.
E.g.: Man, jawbone.
E.g.: Amphibians,
crocodile. E.g.: Reptiles.
fish.

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 Buccal Cavity
Teeth

Monophyodont Diphyodont Polyphyodont

 Teeth appear only  Bear two sets of teeth  Teeth which appear
once in life during the life, one set of more than twice in
 E.g. Last molar in temporary teeth which are life.
man (wisdom teeth). replaced by permanent teeth.  E.g. – Sharks.

Temporary/Milk/Deciduous teeth Permanent teeth

 Fully developed by the age of  Replace the temporary teeth
two to three years.  32 in number with eight incisors, four
 20 in number, eight incisors, four canines, eight premolars and 12 molars
canines and eight molars.  Once broken, cannot be replaced naturally.
 Premolars are absent.  Start forming at the age of six and completely
replace the temporary teeth by the age of 12.

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 Pharynx

 The oesophagus and trachea open into the pharynx.

 Functions
o It is the common passage for food and air.
o It helps in swallowing.
▪ Muscles of the pharynx contract, raising and
expanding the pharynx, thus helping in swallowing.
o It has the tonsils.
▪ Tonsils are the first line of defense against illness. Pharynx

 Epiglottis
o It is a cartilaginous flap located in the throat.
o It prevents the food from entering the glottis
(opening of the windpipe) while swallowing.

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 Oesophagus

 It is a narrow muscular tube.

 It extends posteriorly through the neck, thorax,
and the diaphragm.
 It is also known as the food pipe, or the food tube. Oesophagus
 It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach
by peristalsis.

o Peristalsis is a series of wave-like muscle

contractions that move food.
 Muscles in the oesophagus prevent entry of air
into the digestive tract.
 Muscular gastro-oesophageal sphincter
regulates its opening into stomach.

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 Stomach

 It is a J-shaped bag located in the upper-left part of the abdomen.

 It is a hollow organ that holds the food.
 It is also known as ‘gaster’ and plays an important role in digestion.

Cardiac Fundus Body Pylorus

 The oesophagus opens  This region is  This is the main  It is also known as the
into the stomach in this filled with air and part of the pyloric part.
region. gas. stomach where  It opens into the
 It is present near the  It is also known the food is broken intestine, i.e.,
heart, hence it is known as the fundic down into smaller duodenum.
as the cardiac region. region. particles, as the  The opening is
 The opening is guarded enzymes act here. guarded by pyloric
by cardiac/gastro- sphincter.
oesophageal sphincter.

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 Stomach
Muscles of stomach
 The churning action in the stomach is brought in by the muscles of the stomach.
o Physical breakdown of food in the stomach.
o Formation of chyme.

Oblique muscle layer

Longitudinal muscle  Unique muscle present
 Runs lengthwise. only in the stomach
 Aids in digestion

Circular muscle
 Present in a ring-like
arrangement. Rugae
 Irregular folds present
in the innermost layer
which disappear when
distended.

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 Small Intestine

Duodenum
 It is the shortest and widest part of the small intestine.
 The opening of stomach into duodenum is regulated by
pyloric sphincter.
 It is C shaped.

Jejunum
 It is the middle part of the small intestine
 It is highly coiled.

Ileum
 It is the longest part of the small intestine.
Parts of small  The wall of ileum is thinner than that of jejunum.
intestine

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 Small Intestine

Other parts of small intestine

Villi
 Finger-like projection.
present in the small intestine
 Composed of mucosa layer
 Increase the surface area for
absorption
 Covered by epithelium, and
have lacteal (lymph capillary)
and blood capillaries.
Mucosa

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 Small Intestine

Other parts of small intestine

Microvilli
Villi
 Microscopic projections Microvilli
present in a single villus
 Give a brush border
appearance
 Increases the surface area Entrocyte
for absorption of food

Crypt

Structuring of microvilli
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 Large Intestine

It is known as the large intestine because of its large diameter. It is about 1.5 m long.

Caecum Colon Rectum

 Pouch-like structure into which  Reabsorbs fluids
 Last part of the digestive tract
ileum opens
 Processes waste
 Descending colon open into
 Host to symbiotic microbes products and
rectum
 Small blind sac that opens into the prepares for
elimination from the  Ends in anal canal that opens
colon.
body. through anus
 Has narrow finger-like projection
 Has the following four  Anus has two sphincters that
known as vermiform appendix
parts: control bowel movement:
o Vestigial organ o Ascending colon o Internal anal sphincter
o Residual part from ancestors o Transverse colon o External anal sphincter
with no known function
o Descending colon  Voluntary
o Well- developed in herbivores
o Sigmoid colon
o Inflammation of appendix is
known as appendicitis

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 Large Intestine

Functions

 Absorption of water and electrolytes

Transverse
o In large intestine, digestion does not occur colon
LEFT

rather absorption occurs. RIGHT

o Colon absorbs water, minerals and some drugs. Ascending
colon
 Elimination of solid waste Descending
colon
o Rectum eliminates the food that is not
digested as solid waste.
o Most of the water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
Caecum
 Secretion of mucus
Mucus helps in adhering the waste particles Sigmoid
colon
together and lubricating for an easy passage. Rectum

Large intestine structure

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 Layers of the Alimentary Canal

Serosa Free surface

Serosa
Muscularis
Muscularis
Alimentary Submucosa
canal
Mucosa
Submucosa
Lumen
Mucosa

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 Layers of the Alimentary Canal

Serosa Muscularis
 Outermost layer of the stomach.  Formed by smooth muscles
 Often known as visceral peritoneum.  Arranged into inner circular and outer
 It is made up of thin squamous longitudinal layers
epithelium also called mesothelium.
Mucosa
 Innermost lining of the lumen of alimentary canal
Submucosa  Contains secretory and absorptive cells
 Made of loose connective tissues  Forms irregular folds known as rugae in stomach
 Contains the following:  Also forms villi and crypts of Lieberkühn in small
o Nerves intestine.
o Blood vessels
o Lymph vessels  Has mucus-secreting goblet cells.
 In duodenum, glands are present in  Mucus helps in lubrication.
submucosa as well.  Villi have microscopic projection called ‘microvilli’.
 Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete
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 Digestive Glands

Types of digestive glands

Digestive glands within

Accessory digestive glands
alimentary canal

Salivary glands Gastric glands

Liver

Pancreas Intestinal glands

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 Salivary Glands

Components of saliva
 These glands secrete saliva into
the oral cavity. Water
o Saliva is a watery substance  Prevents drying of mouth
produced in the mouth of  Taste buds can sense the taste
certain animals, including only when the food is moist
humans.
Electrolytes
o It is slightly acidic (6.8 pH) and
1-1.5 L is secreted per day.  Act as buffering agents

Lysozyme
 Has antimicrobial properties

Salivary amylase
 Helps in the digestion of starch

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 Salivary Glands

There are three pairs of salivary glands at different locations.

Parotid glands

 Located just in front of the ear, in cheeks

Submandibular/Submaxillary glands

 Located in the lower jaw

Sublingual glands

 ’Located below the tongue

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 Liver

 It is the largest gland of the human body (weight: 1.2-1.5 kg in adults).

 It plays a crucial role in digestion.
 It is located in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity.

Lobule consists of cells known as hepatocytes

 Hepatocytes are arranged in cords - hepatic cords
Falciform  Space between hepatic lobule - hepatic sinusoid
Structure of the liver ligament  Blood flows through the sinusoids
Left  Lined by endothelial cells and macrophages
lobe known as Kupffer cells

Right
Divided into two lobes lobe Each lobe is divided into lobules
Lobes are separated by
 Structural and functional units of the liver
falciform ligament
 Lobules are connected by a thin sheath of
connective tissue - Glisson’s capsule
Liver (characteristic feature of the mammalian liver)
 Cells present in it - hepatocytes
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 Liver

Liver converts toxic substances into

harmless substances.

Detoxification
Process by which Process of blood
amino group is formation. Liver
Deamination Haemopoiesis
removed from produces RBC in
amino acids. embryo.
Functions
of liver
Kupffer cells Stores fat in the
engulf disease form of glycogen.
Phagocytosis
causing microbes Storage
Carbohydrate It also stores bile in
and dead cells. the gall bladder.
Metabolism

Glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, glyconeogenesis

are involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

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 Bile

 It is secreted by the liver cells or hepatocytes.

 It is stored in the gallbladder.
Gallbladder
o It is a pear-shaped organ attached to the
posterior surface of the liver by the Liver
connective tissues.
o It acts as a concentrating reservoir for bile.

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 Pancreas

 The pancreas secretes enzymes and hormones that help in digestion.

 The pancreas is a compound organ, i.e., it functions as both an exocrine
and endocrine gland.
 The exocrine pancreas
○ The exocrine part of the pancreas secretes an alkaline pancreatic
juice.
○ Composition of the pancreatic juice
• Sodium bicarbonate • Pancreatic lipase
• Trypsinogen • DNase
• Chymotrypsinogen • RNase
• Procarboxypeptidase

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 Ducts of the Liver and the Pancreas

1. The bile stored in the gallbladder is

transported into a common bile
duct that is formed by the joining Liver
of hepatic duct (duct of the liver)
and cystic duct (duct of the
gallbladder). Hepatic
duct
Common
Cystic duct Bile duct
2. The common bile duct and the
pancreatic duct join together to Gallbladder
form the hepato-pancreatic duct. Pancreatic duct
It is guarded by sphincter of Oddi.

Small Intestine

3. The bile flows through the hepato- Hepato-

pancreatic Pancreas
pancreatic duct into the
duct
duodenum.

Ducts of the bile and pancreatic juice

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 Gastric Glands

Mucosa
 They are part of the Parietal cell
alimentary canal.
 They are present in Gastric
the mucosal regions. pit

 They are tubular Gastric

glands formed by the gland
epithelium of the
stomach.
 These are the glands Sub mucosa Chief
that secrete enzymes cell
necessary for
Muscularis
digestion. Entero-
externa
endocrin
e cell
Serosa

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 Gastric Glands
Goblet/ Mucus neck cells
 Present throughout the epithelium Pepsinogen
 Secrete mucus
 Mucus protects the stomach lining  Pepsinogen is an inactive
from the strong acids in the stomach enzyme.
Chief/ Peptic cells  The common term given to
 Secrete the enzyme pepsinogen the inactive precursor of an
 Secretions of the chief cells aid in the
enzyme is zymogen and
Cells of the digestion of proteins
pepsinogen is a zymogen
mucosa Oxyntic/ Parietal cells released by the chief cells.
 Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 HCl provides the acidic environment  Pepsinogen is activated by
required for the activation of the acidic medium provided
pepsinogen by HCl.
 Oxyntic cells also secrete the Castle’s
intrinsic factor
 The intrinsic factor helps in the
Gastric juice = Mucus +
absorption of vitamin B12
Pepsinogen + Hydrochloric
Enteroendocrine cells acid
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 Intestinal Glands

Epithelial cells of the small intestine are

modified into intestinal glands

Crypts of Lieberkuhn Brunner’s glands

 Simple tubular structures  Found only in the submucosal layer of
 Occur throughout the small intestine the duodenum
between the villi  Synthesise and secrete the non-
 Cells found in the lining enzymatic alkaline secretion of the
intestinal juice
i. Enteroendocrine cells (Produce
hormones)  Also secrete enzymes and mucus

ii. Goblet cells (Secrete mucus)  Mucus protects the duodenal wall from
the effects of digestion
iii. Paneth cells (Unicellular cells found
in the mucosal layer of the crypts of  Open into the crypts of Lieberkuhn
Lieberkuhn of the jejunum and they
secrete antimicrobial proteins)
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 Digestion
 The process of mechanical and chemical breakdown of the complex nutrients into
simpler nutrients is known as digestion.

Types of digestion

Chemical digestion Mechanical digestion

Involves 4 classes of  The digestion that involves the mechanical

digestive enzymes breakdown of food is known as mechanical
digestion.
Carbohydrases
 It does not involve enzymes.
Proteinases  It helps to reduce the size of the food
particles. This aids in the smooth movement
Lipases of the particles through the alimentary canal.
 Mouth and the stomach aids in the
Nucleases
mechanical digestion.
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 Digestion in Oral Cavity
Mechanical digestion
Food
Food is chewed
and broken down
into smaller pieces. Mastication- Food + Saliva
It is the process of
chewing food by teeth,
and mixing it with the
help of tongue and saliva.
It is mixed with
Bolus
saliva with the help
of the tongue.

Deglutition- It is the Pharynx

process that allows the
bolus to pass from the
Saliva holds the
mouth to the pharynx
chewed food
and into the oesophagus. Oesophagus
together and
forms the bolus.
Bolus Bolus consists of water, food,
electrolytes, enzymes and bacteria
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 Digestion in Oral Cavity

Digestion in oesophagus

 The process of contraction Area

above the
and relaxation of the
bolus
oesophagus to move the constricts
bolus down the Food bolus
oesophagus is known as moves
peristalsis. down

 Breakdown of food does

not occur in the
oesophagus.

Process of peristalsis
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 Digestion in Oral Cavity

Chemical digestion

Chemical digestion in the oral cavity

Carbohydrates  Carbohydrates are long chains of sugar molecules (polysaccharides).
 Saliva contains enzymes like salivary amylase.
 It breaks down polysaccharides into simpler forms like monosaccharides.
 30% of ingested starch is hydrolysed to disaccharide maltose in this step.
Proteins  Proteins are chains of amino acids.
 They are not digested in the oral cavity.
Lipids  Lipids are made up of glycerol and fatty acids.
 They are not digested in the oral cavity.
Nucleic acids ● Nucleic acids are made up of nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups
held by hydrogen bonds.
● They are not digested in the oral cavity.

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 Digestion in Stomach

Mechanical digestion
Mechanical
 The stomach stores food for about 4–5 hours.
digestion
 The inner wall of the stomach is convoluted
o Stomach folds up when empty. Bolus enters the
o It swells up like a balloon as it fills with food.
o The infolded rugae of the stomach allow it to expand to
stomach
many times its empty size.
It mixes with
gastric juices with
the help of the
Gastric Mucus cells or neck cells
churning of the
glands stomach wall.
have 3 Chief cells or peptic cells
types of
This results in the
cells Parietal cells or oxyntic cells formation of
chyme.
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 Digestion in Stomach

Chemical digestion

Carbohydrates  Carbohydrates are not digested in the stomach.

Proteins  Proteins are digested by the action of the enzyme known as pepsin.
 Pepsin converts some proteins into proteases and peptides.

Lipids  Lipases are secreted by the gastric glands that bring about little digestion
of lipids.
 Lipases act on lipids and break it down into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Not all lipids are broken down in stomach.

Nucleic acids  They are not digested in the stomach.

Milk proteins  Soluble milk proteins present in the stomach are digested by an enzyme
known as rennin/chymosin.
 It acts on soluble milk protein and converts it into insoluble milk protein.
 Further, the insoluble milk proteins are digested by pepsin.
 Rennin is present in the gastric juice of infants.
 As the individual grows up, the quantity of rennin is reduced and pepsin
functions as the major enzyme that digests milk proteins.

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 Digestion in Small intestine

Mechanical digestion
 Chyme enters the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.
 The movement of the walls of the small intestine allows the chyme
to mix thoroughly with the secretions of the intestine

Chemical digestion
 Pancreatic juice and bile are released into intestine via hepato-
pancreatic duct.

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 Digestion in Small intestine
Components of pancreatic juice

Trypsinogen

Lipases
Inactive
enzymes
Components Chymotrypsinogen
of the
pancreatic Nucleases
juice

Amylases

Procarboxypeptidases

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 Digestion in Small intestine
Activation of pancreatic juice
Step 1:
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin
 It converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin.
 It is secreted by intestinal mucosa.
 It is component of intestinal juice.

Step 2:

Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin

Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase
Trypsin
Inactive amylase Active amylase
It activates inactive
Inactive lipase pancreatic enzymes. Active lipase

Inactive nuclease Active nuclease

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 Digestion in Small intestine
Bile juice

Components of bile juice

 The bile juice is the
other component of the
hepatopancreatic juice.
 It does not contain any Bile Water Bile salts Fats
enzymes but it plays an pigments
important role in the
digestion of fats.
 Bile juice does not
contain any enzymes. Orangish yellow
Bilirubin Cholesterol
in colour
 Bile helps in
emulsification of fats.
 It also activates lipases.
Green in colour and
Biliverdin Phospholipids
is oxidised form of
bilirubin
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 Digestion in Small intestine
Chemical digestion by hepatopancreatic juices

Carbohydrates  Remaining 70% of the polysaccharides are broken

down into disaccharides
 Achieved with the help of Pancreatic amylase
Proteins  Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase digests
proteins, proteoses and peptones
Lipids  Digestion of lipids by the hepatopancreatic juices
occurs in two stages.
 Step 1 : Emulsification
 Step 2 : Action of hepatopancreatic juices
Nucleic acids  Nucleic acids are broken down by nucleases in
the pancreatic juice.
 They act on nucleic acids to form nucleotides.
 Some nucleotides are broken down into
nucleosides
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 Digestion in Small intestine
Action of intestinal juice

 Intestinal juice/succus entericus is secreted by the goblet cells and

the brush border cells of the intestinal mucosa.

Disaccharidases

Dipeptidases

Lipases
Intestinal
juice
Enterokinase

Nucleotidases

Nucleosidases
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 Digestion in Small intestine
Chemical digestion by intestinal juices

Maltose Maltase Glucose + Glucose

Lactase
Carbohydrates Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Dipeptidase
Proteins Dipeptides Amino acids

Di and Lipases
Lipids monoglycerides Glucose + fatty acids

Nucleotidases Nucleosidases
Nucleic acids
Nucleotides Nucleosides Sugar+ bases

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 Digestive Hormones

 Hormones are chemical

messengers which act on
specific targets.
 Hormones are chemical  They can have stimulatory or
messengers that are produced inhibitory effect on target.
in small amounts in our body.
 They control and coordinate
various activities in the body.
Hormone
 The process of digestion is also Source Target
coordinated by several digestive
hormones.
Effect

Stimulatory Inhibitory

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 Digestive Hormones

Source Hormone Target Action

Stomach Gastrin Stomach  Stimulates secretion of gastric juice

 Stimulates gastric mobility

Duodenum Enterogastrone/ Gastric Stomach  Inhibits secretion of gastric juice

inhibitory peptide  Inhibits gastric motility

Duodenum Secretin Pancreas  Stimulates release of bicarbonates

into pancreatic juice

Duodenum Secretin Liver  Stimulates secretion of bile

Duodenum Secretin Stomach  Inhibits gastric secretion and motility

Small intestine Cholecystokinin/ Pancreas  Stimulates release of pancreatic juice

Pancreozymin Gallbladder  Stimulates release of bile

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 Digestive Hormones

Source Hormone Target Action

Stomach Serotonin Stomach  Causes contraction of stomach

muscle

Stomach, Somatostatin Stomach  Inhibits gastric secretion

Duodenum Small  Inhibits intestinal absorption
intestine  Inhibits contraction and bile
Gallbladder release
and liver

Stomach Histamine Stomach  Stimulates parietal cells to

release HCl

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 Absorption of Nutrients

 It is the process by which the products of digestion are passed on from the
mucosa of the digestive organs to the blood or lymph vessels.
 The small intestine is the principal organ for the absorption of nutrients.
 The nutrients absorbed in the small intestine are as follows:
o Glycerol
o Fatty acids
o Fructose
o Glucose
o Amino acids

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 Absorption of Nutrients
Intestinal Villi are small finger-like projections
villi that increase the surface area for the
absorption of nutrients.

These are small projections on

the surface of the villi that
further help in increasing the
surface area of absorption.

Microvilli
Blood vessels Blood vessels and lacteals (lymph
vessel) are located close to the
Lacteals microvilli. The nutrients from the
microvilli are transported to the
blood vessels and lacteals.
Internal
structure of
villus

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 Absorption of Nutrients

Mechanism of absorption in the small intestine

Transportation from the Transportation from the

intestinal lumen to the intestinal cells to the blood
Nutrients
epithelial cells vessels/lacteal

Facilitated diffusion into the

Fructose Facilitated diffusion
blood vessels
Carbohydrates
Glucose Active transport coupled with Facilitated diffusion into the
Galactose transport of sodium ions. blood vessels

Amino acids Active transport Simple diffusion

 Inside the cells, the

 In the lumen, lipid droplets
micelles form small
(containing fatty acids and
protein-coated fat
glycerol) combine with bile
Fatty acids and glycerol globules known as
salts to form micelles.
chylomicrons, which
 Micelles enter epithelial
are released into the
cells by simple diffusion.
lacteals.

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 Absorption of Nutrients

Buccal cavity
Stomach
 Not much absorption occurs
here.
Alcohol, water and
 Certain drugs are absorbed into simple sugars
the blood capillaries, lining the
mucosa of mouth and the
lower side of the tongue.
Large intestine

Water, minerals
and some drugs

Mucosa of Lower side of

the mouth the tongue

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 Assimilation of Nutrients

 It is the process by which absorbed substances reach tissues in the body that
utilise them in carrying out various functions.

Assimilation of nutrients

Proteins and amino acids Fats Carbohydrates

 Amino acids are used to form proteins  Used as reserve material  Stored in liver and
o These proteins contribute to growth  Fats stored in adipose muscles in the form of
and repair. tissue provide thermal glycogen
 Majority of enzymes are also protein in insulation  Produce energy
nature.  Acts as packaging
 Amino acids can also be converted to material
glucose by deamination.
o The deamination occurs only during
fasting conditions when there is
shortage of sources of glucose.

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 Egestion
 It is the process by which undigested wastes are removed from the body.
 As chyme passes through the large intestine, it gets converted into the
semi-solid faeces that enter the rectum through the sigmoid colon.

Sigmoid colon
Rectum

Internal anal
sphincter

Anus External anal

sphincter

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 Egestion

Large intestine

 The rectum opens into the anus, which is guarded by the internal and
external anal sphincters.
 As the faeces reach the rectum, they cause a movement of the rectal wall.
 This initiates a neural reflex known as defecation reflex, causing an urge
or desire for its removal.
 The involuntary relaxation of the internal anal sphincter and a voluntary
relaxation of the external anal sphincter causes defecation.
 It occurs with the help of a mass peristaltic movement.

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 Calorific Value

 The calorific value of food is the total amount of energy that the body could generate
during the metabolism of food.
 Calorific value is expressed in the units of calorie (cal) or joule (J).
 One calorie or one joule is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1o C.
 Calorific value may also be expressed in kilocalorie (kcal/calorie) or kilojoule (kJ/joule).
 One kilocalorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water by 1°C.

1000 cal/J = 1 kcal/1kJ = 1 calorie/joule

 The actual amount of energy of combustion of 1 g of food is the physiologic value of

food.

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 Calorific Value

Proteins Carbohydrates Fats

Gross calorific/energy 5.65 kcal/g 4.1 kcal/g 9.45 kcal/g
value
(Amount of heat
liberated from the
complete combustion
of 1 g of food in a bomb
calorimeter)
Physiological 4.0 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g 9.0 kcal/g
calorific/energy value
(Actual amount of heat
liberated from the
complete combustion
of 1 g of food)

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 Balanced Diet

 A balanced diet is a diet that fulfils all of an individual’s nutritional needs.

Components of a balanced diet

Nutrients Source
Grains like wheat and rice,
Carbohydrates
fruits, and vegetables.
Cooking oils, nuts, milk,
Fats
egg yolk.
Proteins Milk, eggs, meat, fish, pulses.
Fruits, vegetables, milk, pulses,
Vitamins and minerals
eggs, meat.

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 Disorders of the Digestive System

 Digestive system disorders include:

 Inflammation of the intestinal tract that may be caused due to bacterial,
viral, or parasitic infections (tapeworm, roundworm, threadworm,
hookworm, pinworm, etc.)
 Liver dysfunction
 The deposition of bile pigments causes the yellowing of the skin and eyes

Disorders of digestive system

Vomiting
 It is the emptying of the contents of the stomach through the
mouth.
 It may be preceded by the feeling of nausea (uneasiness in the
stomach).
 The reflex action of vomiting is controlled by the vomit centre
in the medulla of the brain.
 Causes: Food poisoning, infections, overeating etc.
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 Disorders of the Digestive System

Disorders of digestive system

Jaundice
 Liver dysfunction
 Yellowing of skin and eyes observed due to deposition of bile pigments

Diarrhoea
 It is the abnormal frequency of bowel movement.
 Faecal matter appears watery
 Reduces absorption of food
 Causes: Food poisoning, imbalance in microbiota etc.
Constipation
 This is a condition when hard faeces are retained in the colon.
 Bowel movements occur irregularly
 Causes: Dehydration, lack of exercise etc
Indigestion
 It is the improper digestion of food.
 It may also generate the feeling of fullness.
 Causes: Inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, overeating,
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spicy food etc.
 Protein-Energy Malnutrition
Protein-energy malnutrition
 Dietary deficiency of proteins and calories
 Prevalent in underdeveloped countries

Effects of PEM in children

Marasmus Characteristics Characteristics Kwashiorkor

Impaired replacement Wasting of muscles,

of tissue proteins. thinning of limbs.
Failure of growth and
Skin: Dry, thin and wrinkled.
brain development.
Decline of growth rate However, some fats is
and body weight. still left under the skin.
Impaired development of Extensive oedema
brain and mental facilities. and swelling.

 Simultaneous deficiency of proteins and calories.  Deficiency of proteins unaccompanied by the

 Cause: Substitution of mother’s milk early in the deficiency of calories.
child’s life with foods that are poor in both proteins  Cause: Substitution of mother’s milk with a high
and calories. calorie and low protein diet in a child of more
than one year in age.
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 Summary

Macronutrients Organic

 Required in large  Carbon-containing

quantities Based on compounds
 Includes - constituent  Includes -
Carbohydrates, carbohydrates,
fats and proteins lipids, proteins and
Nutrients vitamins.

Inorganic
Micronutrients
 Compounds
 Required in less or containing metal
minute quantities and other elements
 Includes vitamins,  Includes water and
minerals minerals

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 Summary
Digestive system
Oesophagus
Pharynx
 Narrow muscular tube
 Transfers food from pharynx to
Alimentary canal  Common passage for food and air
 Helps in swallowing
stomach by peristalsis

Mouth
(Opening to the alimentary canal)

Teeth
Tongue
 Hard structure
 Muscular organ
Palate  Tooth has three parts: crown, neck
 Attached to the floor of the mouth
 Roof of the buccal cavity and root
by the frenulum
 Types of human teeth: incisors,
 Has papillae that bear taste buds
canines, premolars and molars

Characteristics of human teeth

 Heterodont
 Thecodont
 Diphyodont
 Temporary teeth (dentition - 2102)
 Permanent teeth (dentition - 2123)
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 Summary

Duodenum
 Shortest and widest part of the small intestine
 C shaped

Jejunum
 Middle part of the small intestine and is coiled

Ileum
 Longest part of the small intestine
Parts of small
intestine

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 Summary
Layers of alimentary canal

Serosa
Inner-circular

Outer- Muscularis
longitudinal

Sub-mucosa
Lumen
Mucosa

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 Summary
Parotid gland
Salivary glands
Submandibular gland
Secrete saliva(It
has salivary Sublingual gland
amylase that
converts starch
to glucose)

Liver
It helps in deamination, detoxification, haemopoiesis,
Accessory digestive storage, carbohydrate metabolism and phagocytosis
gland (Not part of the Secretes bile that
alimentary canal) is stored in the
gallbladder
(a) Chief cells: Secrete pepsinogen that helps in the
digestion of proteins
Digestive glands Pancreas (b) Goblet cells: Secrete mucus that protects stomach
(Exocrine gland) lining from strong acids
Secretes (c) Oxyntic cells: Secrete HCl that provides acidic
pancreatic juice environment

Digestive glands Gastric glands

within the alimentary (a) Brunner’s gland
canal (b) Crypts of Lieberkuhn
Intestinal
glands

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 Summary
Mechanical digestion Carbohydrases
Carbohydrases
Polysaccharides Monosaccharides
 Reduction in size of
food particles
 No use of enzymes in Proteinases
digestion Proteolytic Enzymes
Proteins Aminoacids
Types of  Occurs in mouth and
digestion stomach

Lipases
Lipases
Chemical digestion Fats/Lipids Fatty acids + Glycerol

 Chemical breakdown Nucleases

of complex substances
Nucleases
to simpler substances Nucelic Acids Sugar + Nitrogenous Bases
 Enzymes are involved

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 Summary
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids

30% of polysaccharides
are digested into
Mouth monosaccharides by
salivary amylase.

Oesophagus

Some proteins are broken Some lipids are broken

Stomach down into polypeptides by down into glycerol and
pepsin. fatty acids by lipase.

Remaining 70% of Remaining proteins, Water-insoluble fats are Nucleic acids are broken
Small intestine carbohydrates are proteoses, and peptones are emulsified with the help down into nucleotides and
digested into broken down into of bile salts. They are nucleosides by the action of
(Hepatopancreatic disaccharides by dipeptides by trypsin, digested into di and nuclease.
juice) pancreatic amylase. chymotrypsin and monoglycerides by the
carboxypeptidase. action of lipase.

Disaccharides are Dipeptides are broken down Di and monoglycerides Nucleotides broken down into
broken down into into monopeptides by the are broken down into nucleosides by
Small intestine
monosaccharides by action of dipeptidase. glycerol and fatty acids nucleotidases which are
(Intestinal juice) disaccharidase. by lipase. broken down into sugars and
bases by nucleosidases.

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 Summary

 Assimilation: Process by
Stomach which absorbed
Buccal cavity substances reach tissues
Alcohol, water, and
in the body
Few drugs simple sugars
 Egestion: Process by which
undigested wastes are
Large intestine removed from the body
 Calorific value: Total
Water, minerals, and
some drugs
amount of energy that the
body can generate during
the metabolism of food.
Small intestine o One calorie or one joule
is the amount of heat
Glycerol, fatty acids,
fructose, glucose,
energy required to raise
amino acids the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1oC.

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 Summary
Disorders of digestive system

Vomiting
 Emptying of the contents of the stomach
through the mouth

Jaundice
 Liver dysfunction

Diarrhoea

 Abnormal frequency of bowel movement

Constipation
 Hard faeces being retained in the colon

Indigestion
 Improper digestion of food
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