Experiment # 03

1. Experiment Title:
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the given material of circular shaft.

2. Experiment Statement:
This experiment is designed to investigate and quantify the shear modulus, also known as the
modulus of rigidity, of a circular shaft. By applying varying loads to the shaft and measuring the
corresponding angular deformation, we intend to determine the material's ability to resist
shearing forces, which is a fundamental property in materials science and engineering.

3. Objectives:

 To produce the skills about the stress in a shaft.

 To determine the angle of twist for effective length of shaft.
 To determine the Modulus of rigidity of shaft using torsional deformation.

4. Apparatus diagram:
Dial
Angles
Shaft

Belt

Weights
Vernier Calliper

Pulley

Figure 1: Torsion testing Machine

5. Apparatus:

 Torsion Testing Machine.

 Vernier caliper.
 Weights in pounds.
 Brass shaft.
 Measuring scale
6. Theory
6.1. Introduction:
Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. This is true whether the shaft is rotating
(such as drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines) or stationary (such as with a bolt or
screw). The torque makes the shaft twist and one end rotates relative to the other inducing shear
stress on any cross section. Failure might occur due to shear alone or because the shear is
accompanied by stretching or bending.

Figure 2: Shaft

6.2. Shaft:
A shaft is a rotating machine element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from one part to another, or from a machine which produces power to a
machine which absorbs power.

Figure 3: Shafts

6.2.1. Types of Shaft:

They are mainly classified into four types.
 Transmission shafts are used to transmit power between the source and the machine
absorbing power; e.g. counter shafts and line shafts.
 Machine shafts are the integral part of the machine itself; e.g. crankshaft.
 Axle shaft.
 Spindle shaft.
 Figure 4: Working of Shaft

6.2.2. Materials:
The material used for ordinary shafts is mild steel. When high strength is required, alloy
steel such as nickel, nickel-chromium or chromium-vanadium steel is used. Shafts are generally
formed by hot rolling and finished to size by cold drawing or turning and grinding.

6.2.3. Stresses:
The following stresses are induced in the shafts.
 Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (due to torsional load).
 Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon the machine
elements like gears and pulleys as well as the self-weight of the shaft.
 Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads [1].

6.3. Torsion:
In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.
Torsion is expressed in either the pascal (Pa), an SI unit for newton’s per square meter, or
in pounds per square inch (psi) while torque is expressed in newton meters (N·m) or foot-pound
force (ft·lbf). In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section
is perpendicular to the radius.
In non-circular cross-sections, twisting is accompanied by a distortion called warping, in which
transverse sections do not remain plane [2]. For shafts of uniform cross-section unrestrained
against warping, the torsion is:

Figure 5: Torsion
 Figure 6: Components of Torsion

Where:
 T is the applied torque or moment of torsion in Nm.
 t (tau) is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface
 JT is the torsion constant for the section. For circular rods, and tubes with constant wall
thickness, it is equal to the polar moment of inertia of the section, but for other shapes, or
split sections, it can be much less. For more accuracy, finite element analysis (FEA) is the
best method. Other calculation methods include membrane analogy and shear flow
approximation [3].
 r is the perpendicular distance between the rotational axis and the farthest point in the
section (at the outer surface).
 ℓ is the length of the object to or over which the torque is being applied.
 φ (phi) is the angle of twist in radians.
 G is the shear modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity, and is usually given
in gigapascals (GPa), lbf/in2 (psi), or lbf/ft2 or in ISO units N/mm2.
The product JTG is called the torsional rigidity wT.

6.4. Torsion Testing machine

The Torsion Testing Machine is a compact machine,
ideal for classroom demonstrations and for safe use by
small groups of students. Its frame is a rigid, precision-
engineered alloy box-section, supported at each
end by adjustable feet. It carries two main parts:
A 'strain head' at one end.

6.5. Torque: Figure 7: Torsion testing Machine

The rotational equivalent of the linear force is called torque. Torque is also known as
turning effect of force or moment. The product of applied force and the moment arm
gives us torque. Moment arm is the perpendicular distance between the axis of rotation
of object and the point of application of force.
  Torque is a vector quantity.
 This term was introduced by James Thomson.
 It is denoted by Greek letter tau τ.
 Its SI unit is N.m
 Mathematically: torque = r×F
Where r = moment arm, F = applied force

6.6. Shear Modulus of Rigidity:

Shear modulus also known as Modulus of rigidity is the measure of the rigidity of the body,
given by the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. Often denoted by G sometimes by S or μ.
6.6.1. What is Shear Modulus?
Shear Modulus of elasticity is one of the measures of mechanical
properties of solids. Other elastic moduli are Young’s modulus
and bulk modulus. The shear modulus of material gives us the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain in a body.
 Measured using the SI unit pascal or Pa.
 The dimensional formula of Shear modulus is M1L-2T-2.
 It is denoted by G. Figure 8: Shear Modulus

It can be used to explain how a material resists transverse

deformations but this is practical for small deformations only, following which they are able to
return to the original state. This is because large shearing forces lead to permanent deformations
(no longer elastic body).

Table 1: Table of Shear Modulus

7. Polar moment of inertia:
It is a quantity used to describe resistance to torsional deformation (deflection), in
cylindrical objects with an invariant cross-section and no significant warping or out-of-
plane deformation.
 It is also known as second polar moment of
area.
 It has different formulae for different
shapes.
 It is denoted by “J”.

8. Procedure:

 Take the apparatus and place it on smooth plane to get accurate values.
 Measure the length of shaft between the two zeroes where angles are shown.
 Then, measure the diameter of pulley that is attached on one side of apparatus and also
measure the diameter of that brass shaft and also its thickness that is used.
 Thickness is important because the belt that is on the side of pulley in stuck inward of pulley.
 Put a hanger at the other side of belt that is hanged at pulley.
 Then we put some weight at that hanger and see the change in zeros (angle).
 We increase the weight step by step and measure the reading of torsion and also step down
the weight step by step.
 Take the average of loaded and unloaded angles.
 Calculate the “Modulus of rigidity” of the shaft.

9. Observation and Calculations:

Effective length of shaft (L) = 25 cm
Diameter of shaft (d) = 4 mm
Diameter of torque pulley (D) = 60.18 mm
Polar Moment of Inertia of the shaft = 27.74 mm 4
Least count of Vernier caliper = 0.1 mm
Least count of meter rod = 1/16 inches
Depth of pulley = 3.125 mm
No. Load Torque Angle of twist at 1st Angle of twist of 2nd Angle of Modulus
of measuring arm measuring arm twist for of
(W) (WR)
Obs effective rigidity
. (lb) (lb.mm) 𝜽𝟏 𝜽𝟐 length 𝑻𝑳
(rad) (rad) 𝜽= 𝑮 = ____
𝑱̅𝜽
𝜽 −𝜽
𝟏 𝟐

(rad)
Loading Unloading Mean Loading Unloading Mean (Mpsi)
(rad) (rad) (rad) (rad) (rad) (rad)

1. 1 60.16 0.061 0.069 0.065 0.0174 0.0174 0.017 0.048 11.2

2. 2 120.32 0.113 0.122 0.112 0.0349 0.0349 0.034 0.078 13.9

3. 3 180.48 0.174 0.174 0.174 0.0523 0.0436 0.047 0.127 12.8
4. 4 240.6 0.226 0.218 0.227 0.0610 0.0610 0.061 0.166 13.0
5. 5 300.8 0.279 0.279 0.279 0.0698 0.0698 0.069 0.210 12.9

10.Sample calculations:
G=TL/J0
G= (3.125)*(25) / (27.74)*(0.048)
G= 11.2 Mpsi

11.Load Extension Curve:

12.Graph Explanation:

 The slope of the line on the graph represents the modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) of the
circular shaft.
 As torque increases, the shaft undergoes greater angular deformation, which is represented by
the increasing values on the graph.
 The slope of the graph's linear portion represents the stiffness of the shaft material, which is
the modulus of rigidity (shear modulus). A steeper slope indicates a higher shear modulus,
meaning the material is more resistant to deformation under torsional forces.

13.Comments:
This experiment is pretty simple and easy to perform but results can deviate a little bit
due to some reasons that are stated below:
 The eye level of the observer may not be exactly in line with dial.
 The weights should not be applied abruptly or not thrown on the hanger
carelessly.
 The applied load must not exceed the proportional limit of the material.
 After applying load, hanger should not be touched.
 The person may be un-experienced.

14.Conclusion:
From this experiment, it is concluded that the modulus of rigidity of the material of
circular shaft is 11.8 Mpsi. It is also observed that the angle of twist is directly
proportional to the applied load. It means that by increasing force, torque is increased
(τ∝F) that increases angle of twist.
 References:

[1] M. K. a. R. K.Balaveera, Design data hand book, New-Delhi: CBS publishers and Distributors (P) ltd,
2015.

[2] P. Seaburg and C. Carter, Torsional Analysis of Structural Steel Members, American Institute of Steel
Construction, 1997.

[3] C. a. Chilver, Strength of Materials and Structures.

[4] https://byjus.com/jee/polar-moment-of-inertia/