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Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications

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DOI: 10.2174/1570180816666190112141857

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Current Alternative Energy, 2018, 2, 1-15 1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applica-

tions

Soyeon Kim, Muhammad Jahandar, Jae Hoon Jeong and Dong Chan Lim*

Surface Technology Division, Materials Center for Energy Convergence, Korea Institute of Materials Science (KIMS),
Changwon 51508, Republic of Korea

Abstract: Photovoltaic cells have recently attracted considerable attention for indoor energy harvest-
ing for low-power-consumption electronic products due to the rapid growth of the Internet of Things
(IoT). The IoT platform is being developed with a vision of connecting a variety of wireless electron-
ic devices, such as sensors, household products, and personal data storage devices, which will be able
to sense and communicate with their internal states or the external environment. A self-sustainable
power source is required to power such devices under low light indoor environments. Inorganic pho-
tovoltaic cells show excellent device performance under 1 Sun illumination and dominate the market
for outdoor applications. However, their performance is limited for indoor applications with low in-
ARTICLE HISTORY cident light intensities as they exhibit low photo-voltage. Among the emerging photovoltaic technol-
ogies, organic photovoltaics have unique advantages, including solution processibility, flexibility,
Received: October 10, 2018
Revised: December 04, 2018 and lightweight tailorable design; hence, they are considered the best solution for indoor light har-
Accepted: December 21, 2019 vesting applications due to their high photo-voltage, strong absorption of UV-visible wavelengths,
DOI: and a spectral response similar to that emitted by modern indoor lighting systems. In this review arti-
10.2174/1570180816666190112141857
cle, we discuss the factors affecting device performance of different photovoltaic technologies under
low incident light intensities or indoor conditions and provide a comprehensive analysis of future op-
portunities for enhancing indoor performance of the photovoltaic devices. Furthermore, we discuss
some of the results of semi-transparent organic solar cell which operated under complex environmen-
tal conditions like low illumination, incident light angle and etc. Based on the results, one can sug-
gest that semi-transparent organic solar cell is a more suitable case for progressive indoor solar cell.
After highlighting the factors that limit indoor device performance of photovoltaic cells, we discuss
potential applications of IoT devices powered by organic photovoltaic cells in indoor lighting envi-
ronments.

Keywords: Indoor lights, indoor photovoltaics, IoT, low-light intensity, photovoltaics, transparent OPV.

1. INTRODUCTION sunlight, different orientations, and different light source

spectra [2, 5, 7, 10]. The development of a light-harvesting
As society moves towards renewable energy sources in
technology that provides significant output power under low-
order to decarbonize electric power generation, photovoltaic
light intensity and indoor environments has great prospects
(PV) technologies are expected to play an important role.
for applications in the field of domestic and building man-
The continuous research and development of high-efficiency,
agement systems. Energy harvesting under low-light intensi-
low-cost, and solution-processible PV technologies can pro-
ty or indoor conditions has attracted considerable attention
vide an infinite source of energy and novel opportunities to
due to the unique requirements of the Internet of Things
exploit PV in energy harvesting applications from low-light
(IoT). The IoT concept promises a future where a wide varie-
intensity/indoor environments [1-13]. In such applications,
ty of devices, such as consumer electronics, sensors, house-
solar cell devices need to operate under very different condi-
hold products, and personal data storage devices will be con-
tions than those experienced outdoors, e.g., light illumination
nected through the internet and will be able to sense and
intensities that are typically 10-1000 times lower than direct
communicate with their internal states or the external envi-
ronment. Such devices will be integrated with wireless
*Address correspondence to this author at the Surface Technology Division, communication systems and are expected to be independent
Materials Center for Energy Convergence, Korea Institute of Materials of the electric grid, so self-powered systems are essential
Science (KIMS), Changwon 51508, Republic of Korea;
Tel/Fax: +82-55-280-3511, +82-55-280-3570; E-mail: [email protected] [14-18].

2405-4631/18 $58.00+.00 © 2018 Bentham Science Publishers

2 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (1). Illustration of the factors affecting indoor photovoltaic device performance.

Over the last decade, a tremendous increase in device indoor environments. In particular, in the case of emerging
performance of various PV materials, such as crystalline solution-processed PV technologies, there are very few re-
silicon (c-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium galli- ports of PV performance under such conditions and no
um selenide (CIGS), organic photovoltaics (OPV), perov- standard testing conditions or models have been developed
skite solar cells (PSC), and dye-sensitized solar cells [33-38]. Several researchers have studied the device perfor-
(DSSC), has been reported under outdoor and simulated AM mance of various PV technologies under low-light condi-
1.5G spectral conditions. Although c-Si, a-Si, and CIGS PVs tions, indoor artificial light sources, and various light intensi-
shown excellent device performance under 1 Sun conditions ties of different spectra. Some studies provided a basic un-
and dominate the market for outdoor applications, they ex- derstanding of the development of simulation tools and PV
hibit low photo-voltages and a significant drop in perfor- performance models for indoor conditions [39-41].
mance when used under low-light intensities or indoor con- It is a well-established fact that the output power of a PV
ditions [19-27]. Furthermore, as the PV industry has been device depends on the spectra and intensity of the incident
developed with the aim of mass producing Si-based devices light source, size of the PV module/device, and the distance
for outdoor applications, the options for customizing the between the device and the light source. A schematic illus-
device architectures, designs, geometries, and fabrication tration describing these factors is shown in Fig. (1). The
processes to suit new applications are limited. Among the most important factor, which can significantly affect the PV
emerging PV technologies, OPV, PSC, and DSSC technolo- device performance under indoor light conditions, is the
gies have the unique advantages of solution processibility, spectral response of the device. Fig. (2) shows the spectra of
flexibility, lightweight components, and the ability to cus- various light sources used to evaluate PV device perfor-
tomize the design and geometry. Hence, they are currently mance under standard measurement conditions and low-light
considered the best candidates for indoor light harvesting or indoor conditions.
applications due to their high photo-voltages and spectral
response in the visible region [28-32]. In general, PV device performance is characterized by
measuring I-V curves under standard testing conditions (AM
1.5G, 100 mW/cm2, 25°C). The fundamental difference be-
2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR OPTIMIZING
INDOOR PV PERFORMANCE tween indoor and outdoor applications is the spectrum and
intensity of the light source. The standard solar spectrum
The existing body of literature is limited regarding the (AM 1.5G) is shown in Fig. (2h), overlaid with the spectral
photovoltaic performance of PV devices under low-light or response of various PV technologies. The majority of light
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 3

Fig. (2). Spectra of the different indoor light sources. (a) Xenon lamp, (b) incandescent lamp, (c) fluorescent lamp, (d) halogen lamp, (e)
cool white LED, (f) warm white LED, (g) human eye sensitivity spectrum, and (h) AM 1.5G spectrum overlaid with spectral response of
various photovoltaic devices.

sources currently used for indoor lighting are fluorescent to the significant energy savings they provide, it is important
lamps, incandescent lamps, and white light-emitting diode to select a suitable PV material to match the indoor light
(LED) lamps. Both fluorescent and white LED lamps are source spectrum and intensity in order to optimize the output
used for indoor applications and they emit light in wave- power.
length ranges from 350 nm to 750 nm. While the size of the
To date, silicon-based solar cells dominate the market
device, distance from the light source, and light source inten-
share for outdoor PV applications due to their spectral re-
sity have significant effects on the output power in indoor
sponse designed to match natural sunlight. The spectral sen-
environments, the spectral response of the PV device under
sitivity mismatch of commonly used indoor lighting e.g.,
indoor light conditions is the most crucial factor determining fluorescent and LED lamps limits the performance of silicon
the output power. As indoor light sources emit radiation in solar cells for indoor applications. Li et al. studied polycrys-
the UV-vis spectral range, PV devices with good spectral
talline silicon and a-Si solar cells under different light
response in the visible region are suitable candidates for in-
sources (incandescent, fluorescent, and LED lamps) with 500
door applications.
lx light intensity to investigate the influence of the spectral
Besides, these considerations for efficient indoor PV de- response and suitability of the different solar cells for given
vice operation, the angle of incident light to the PV device or combinations of light source and intensity. Fig. (3) shows
the orientation of the PV device and transparency of the PV photographs of the different types of Si-based PV devices
device could also affect the device performance and need to used in the study and their output power under different light
be considered as an important factor. sources with a light intensity of 500 lx [42]. In general, the
polycrystalline (MC-SP0.8) and amorphous (AM-5608 and
3. CHOICE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MATERIALS FOR AM-1815) silicon solar cells showed maximum output pow-
INDOOR OPERATION er under an incandescent lamp illumination, followed by
compact fluorescent and white LED lamps. Among these
The major energy source available in buildings is light,
three types of silicon solar cells, the polycrystalline cell
which can be easily collected using PV devices. The availa-
showed a much higher output power under the incandescent
ble indoor light source can be either natural or artificial light
illumination compared to the compact fluorescent or LED
and there is a range of available PV technologies to suit dif-
lamps, which could limit the scope of such cells to only in-
ferent type of light sources and intensities. As the artificial
candescent light sources. The major factor restricting the use
light sources (with different spectral properties) are changing
of polycrystalline silicon solar cells in indoor environments
over time, from incandescent and fluorescent light to LED
is its poor spectral response under the UV-vis spectrum.
lights, which are currently attracting significant interest due
4 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (3). Photographs of Si-based photovoltaics: (a) polycrystalline (MC-SP 0.8), (b) amorphous (AM-5608), (c) amorphous (AM-1815), and
(d-f) their corresponding output power under various light sources at 500 lx.

Over the past few years, solution-processed OPV tech- PCDTBT. The high performance of these OPV blend sys-
nology has attracted considerable attention due to the simple tems under low-light intensity demonstrated the reasonable
processing method and the large-scale roll-to-roll manufac- potential to the other PV technologies regardless of much
turing process that allows upscaling of the technology. The lower device performance under 1 Sun condition. They also
development of new donor materials increased the power studied other device performance parameters in order to bet-
conversion efficiency (PCE) from less than 4% to over 11% ter understand the device behavior under low-light intensities
(under 1 Sun) in a short period of time [43-45]. With an in- and fabricated a 14 cm × 14 cm OPV module with a large
creasing interest in the development of PV technologies for active area of 100 cm2, which showed a PCE of 11.2% under
indoor applications, OPVs are becoming the most promising a low-light intensity of 300 lx, as shown in Fig. (4c-e).
contender as it is easy to tune their bandgap and they have a Recently, Aoki reported exciting device performance re-
well-matched spectral response to the UV-vis spectrum emit- sults for OPVs for indoor energy harvesting under fluores-
ted by common indoor fluorescent and LED lights. The dy- cent and LED light sources [50]. Fig. (5) shows a schematic
namic change in research trends from poly(3-hexylthiophene- of the developed OPV module and typical J-V curves of both
2,5-diyl) (P3HT) donor material to new poly[N-9′-hepta- OPV and a-Si solar cells under illumination of 50-1000 lx.
decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4′,7′-di-2-thienyl-2′,1′,3′-ben- Due to the well-matched absorbance spectrum of the OPV
zothiadiazole)] (PCDTBT), poly[[4,8-bis[(2-ethylhexyl)oxy] device with the emission spectrum of room light, the current
benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b′]dithiophene-2,6-diyl][3-fluoro-2-[(2-ethy- density of the device was much higher than that of a compa-
lhexyl)carbonyl]thieno[3,4-b]thiophenediyl]] (PTB7), and rable a-Si module. Furthermore, the device performance un-
several other novel donor materials, has extended the horizon der LED light was analyzed as it is currently the preferred
of highly efficient organic PVs and taken a step forward to- indoor lighting source. Daylight LED (color temperature
wards commercialization of low-cost PVs. To date, the de- 5000 K) and warm-color LED (color temperature 2700 K)
vice performance of most bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) systems light sources were used, while full white fluorescent light
has been evaluated under 1 Sun conditions. Recently, some (color temperature 5000 K) was used as a reference. OPV
few studies of organic PV systems have been performed, absorbers have narrow and broad external quantum efficien-
including polymer and organic small-molecule based devices cy (EQE) curves over the range of 370 to 720 nm, depending
for indoor applications [46-48]. on the material, and cover the full emission spectrum of
Harrison et al. studied three representative donor polymer LEDs, whereas a-Si has a peak in the EQE curve at 600 nm
materials (P3HT, PCDTBT, and PTB7) in blends with full- and lower EQE values for wavelengths <400 nm and >650
erene derivatives to investigate their response to low-light nm compared to OPV materials. Hence, the OPV showed
conditions using fluorescent lamps [49]. Among these three higher device performance under all tested indoor lights
systems, PCDTBT-based BHJ devices performed best, pro- (light intensity of 1000 lx) compared to the a-Si device.
ducing 13.9 µW/cm2 output power, corresponding to a PCE Most recently, Harrison et al. reported solution-
of 16.6% at 300 lx (Fig. 4b). On the other hand, PTB7-based processible small-molecule PV cells as a potential candidate
devices showed the highest efficiency under 1 Sun condi- for indoor energy harvesting [51]. They obtained a PCE over
tions (Fig. 4a), but the low open circuit voltage under low- 10% under standard measurement conditions (1 Sun, AM
light limited the overall device performance compared to 1.5G), and a PCE of over 28% under a fluorescent lamp with
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 5

Fig. (4). J-V characteristics of P3HT:PCBM, PCDTBT:PC71BM, and PTB7:PC71BM BHJ solar cells under (a) AM 1.5G and (b) fluorescent
lamp illumination. (c) Intensity dependent Voc and FF of the three devices under AM 1.5G illumination, and (d) intensity dependent Pmax and
Vmax/VOC ratio under fluorescent lamp illumination. (e) I-V curves of OPV solar cell modules.

Fig. (5). (a) Cross-sectional image and photograph of an OPV module of a wireless sensor network for energy harvesting, and (b) J-V charac-
teristics of OPV and a-Si modules under the fluorescent light with different light intensity.

a light intensity of 1000 lx, by optimizing the photoactive ergy harvesting is perovskite solar cells (PSC), due to their
layer using the solvent vapor annealing technique. These bandgap tunability and spectral response suitable for indoor
results are not only higher than Si-based PVs, but are also lighting spectra. In a short period of development, PSCs have
comparable to the performance of gallium arsenide PV cells achieved PCE values over 21%; however, their anomalous
(Fig. 6a, b). In addition, the ratios of the voltage at the max- hysteresis is a complex issue that makes reliable assessment
imum power point (MPP) to the open circuit voltage (OCV) of the device performance difficult [52, 53]. In order to ad-
were similar for indoor and 1 Sun conditions, which is dress these challenges, Ludmila et al. proposed two assess-
unique and allows a less-power-consuming method to track ment methods for measuring the PCE of PSC. The first
the MPP for a broad range of light intensities (Fig. 6c). Fur- method is the measurement of device performance using a
thermore, they estimated the charging time for rechargeable solar simulator based on an LED light source with a wide
batteries of different capacity under 1000 lx, as shown in range of light intensities (0.001 to 100 mW/cm2) (Fig. 7a-d)
Fig. (6d). Although the charging time was long, it could be [54]. As the overestimate error, the PCE of dye-sensitized
sufficient for electronics that consume less power than the solar cell (DSC) and PSC devices increase dramatically at
average output power of the indoor PV cells. low-light intensities due to the internal capacitance at the
interfaces of hybrid solar cells, the measurement of current
In addition, a solution-processible PV technology that below 0.01 mW/cm2 shows constant value given high PCE,
has recently attracted a great deal of attention for indoor en- which is related to the capacitive current and origin of the
6 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (6). (a) J-V curves of small molecule based BTR:PC71BM BHJ solar cells under different light intensities. (b) Pmax of BTR:PC71BM at
different illuminance values compared to other photovoltaic technologies in the literature. (c) Ratio of Vmax to VOC of the device showing
indoor and AM 1.5G conditions. (d) Simulated time required for charging different sizes of rechargeable batteries under different indoor ligh-
ting intensities (lx).

Fig. (7). (a-d) Photovoltaic parameters and (e) PCE curve (extracted from maximum power point tracking) of c-Si, PSC, and DSC at different
light intensities (closed circles: reverse scan condition and open circles: forward scan condition).

hysteresis (Fig. 7e). The author suggested using a combina- Although the device performance of OPV cells is signifi-
tion of the LED solar simulator and Pmax tracking as a stand- cantly lower than c-Si and PSC devices under standard simu-
ard to evaluate the PCE of these types of solar cell technolo- lated AM 1.5G illumination, it is superior under LED light,
gies. The current from the c-Si solar cell could not be meas- which is increasingly used as an indoor light source. Christie
ured at 0.001 mW/cm2 due to a lack of any photo response, et al. compared the device performance of silicon PV cells
while the DSC and PSC devices showed constant measurable under various illumination sources other than AM 1.5G and
current values, even below 0.001 mW/cm2. observed that changing the light source from AM 1.5G to
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 7

Fig. (8). (a) Comparison of PCE values of silicon and OPV devices under AM 1.5G (blue) and LED (red) light sources. (b) Percent increase
in PCE under indoor LED light vs. AM 1.5G simulated solar spectrum.

indoor lights changed both the intensity and spectrum of the side buildings and their variations in intensity and spectral
incident light [55]. The device performance of the c-Si PV characteristics. Indoor PVs must be optimized for specific
cells was strongly dependent on the light source intensity, illuminance conditions. Therefore, regardless of the device
with a weak dependence on spectrum. They showed that a type, general light management approaches for indoor PV,
PCE of over 20% can be achieved using OPVs with a white such as light trapping, use of the surface plasmonic effect,
LED light source, which was similar to the value obtained and spectrum matching with the light source, are also being
for polycrystalline silicon PVs, but higher than a-Si and intensively investigated. In this section, we discuss various
CIGS solar cells (Fig. 8). OPV devices have shown high approaches for improving the performance of indoor PV
PCE values under various indoor light sources and meas- devices.
urement conditions while having the unique advantages of
being flexible, lightweight, ultrathin, and semitransparent. 4.1. Light Trapping by Anti-reflection Coatings and Sur-
These promising properties demonstrate the high potential of face Texturing
OPV devices for indoor energy harvesting applications. Conventional light trapping methods used for silicon so-
Finally, Minnaert et al. proposed a technique for studying lar cells (application of anti-reflection coatings (ARC) and
the PV device performance for indoor applications by char- surface texturing), have already resulted in effective light
acterizing the devices under artificial light sources [56]. trapping performance. An ARC is an optical coating applied
Their study compared different types of PV technologies to the surface of a film to reduce reflection. ARCs consist of
under various indoor environments by simulating the effi- a thin layer of dielectric material, with a specific thickness
ciencies based on the quantum efficiencies of the different able to introduce interference effects in the coating; the wave
PV cells and the spectra of artificial light sources. The light reflected from the top surface of the ARC is out of phase
sources used in their study were a white fluorescent lamp with the wave reflected from the semiconductor surfaces.
(F2), broadband fluorescent lamp (F7), narrow tri-band fluo- These out-of-phase reflected waves destructively interfere
rescent lamp (F11), standard high-pressure sodium lamp with one another, resulting in reduced reflectance [57-61].
(HP1), standard metal halide lamp (HP5), cool LED, and The principle of light trapping was shown in Fig. (10).
warm LED. The spectrum of each light source and EQE Surface texturing involves roughening the surface of a
spectra of the various PV technologies are shown in Fig. (9). substrate or various layers in the PV structure to form an
The indoor light sources were categorized into three different uneven or pyramid-like pattern on the surface. The pyramid
classes according to the indoor PV device performance. pattern increases the light absorption due to scattering and
Hence, it is not necessary to test the devices under all artifi- multiple reflections from the sloping pyramid walls, where
cial light sources to demonstrate their potential for indoor some of the reflected light can impact other walls and be
lighting environments. Therefore, the PV cells can be meas- absorbed, rather than lost. This increased light absorption
ured under one light source, depending on their spectral re- results in higher cell efficiency. A recent study demonstrated
sponse, in order to characterize their suitability for indoor optical amplification using polystyrene particles on silicon
applications. surfaces [62].
Therefore, ARC and surface texturing methods can
4. PERSPECTIVES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE
OF INDDOR PV DEVICES achieve light trapping and reduce light reflectance. In addi-
tion, internal reflection from the back of the PV can increase
The design of PV devices for indoor applications is un- the length of the absorption path in the solar cell and the total
doubtedly a challenging task due to the range of different light absorption. Hence, these methods allow operation of
light conditions related to the various light sources used in- the solar cell with weak light intensity.
8 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (9). (a-c) Spectral irradiance of different light sources. (d) EQE of different photovoltaic technologies. (e) Calculated relative output
power of various photovoltaic cells under different light conditions compared to AM 1.5G spectrum as a reference.

Fig. (10). Light trapping by (a) surface texturing and (b) anti-reflection coating (ARC).
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 9

Fig. (11). Schematic diagram of the mechanism of the SPR effect in PV materials.

4.2. Surface Plasmonic Effect trum, rather than that of the sun. In the case of commercial c-
Si solar cells with an efficiency of 18% in standard test con-
Plasmons are the oscillations of coherent delocalized free
dition(STC) (generally, AM 1.5G spectrum (100 mW/cm2 (1
electrons in metals. In metal nanoparticles, the plasmons are
Sun)), the efficiency drops significantly to below 5% under
surface plasmons that exist locally on the particle surface.
indoor lighting; it is necessary to distinguish between the
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) refers to the resonant os-
spectrum and the intensity of light when analyzing factors
cillation of conduction electrons at the interface between
affecting efficiency. The loss according to the spectrum is
materials with a negative dielectric constant (e.g. metal) and
generated by thermal motion (thermalization) and spatial
positive dielectric constant when stimulated by incident
relaxation of charge carriers, and non-absorption of light.
light. SPR is an interaction between electromagnetic waves
The theoretically optimized Eg for the spectrum of AM 1.5G
and plasmons, which is usually observed in the visible to
is approximately 1.3 to 1.4 eV, while that for general interior
near-infrared wavelength range. The produced plasma-
lighting of the reference Fig. (12) has a wider Eg of about
polariton has the increased size than incident light and prop-
1.9 eV (650 nm), corresponding to a theoretical efficiency of
erties and shape of an exponentially decreasing extinction
up to 60% under LED light. In the case of sodium discharge
wave (evanescent wave) with distance at the vertical direc-
lamp, an optimum Eg of 2.1 eV (590 nm) gives a 70% effi-
tion from the interface [63]. The SPR phenomenon results in
ciency, while for a monochromatic light sourced an optimum
light energy being converted to surface plasmons and accu-
Eg of 3.5eV (350 nm) gives an 80% efficiency [67]. Com-
mulated on the surface of metal nanoparticles. Hence, light
paring the various materials available for indoor applica-
can be manipulated over dimensions smaller than the diffrac-
tions, wide-Eg materials such as Si, CdTe, perovskites, dye,
tion limit of light.
a-Si, GaInP, and OPV are potential candidates. Hence, it is
There are two types of SPR phenomena: propagating sur- expected that improved performance of indoor PV devices
face plasmon resonance, (PSPR) observed smooth plate- will be achieved via further materials research to match the
shaped metal (10-200 nm thick) and dielectric interface, and Eg of PV materials to the spectra of indoor light sources.
a Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) observed in Recent studies have demonstrated spectral matching for var-
metal nanoparticles. This photo-controlled SPR phenomenon ious materials [68-70].
can be useful for trapping light in solar cells. The SPR phe-
nomenon can be applied in solar cell in three different ways, 5. LOW-LIGHT INTENSITY OPERATION OF SEMI-
as shown in Fig. (11). The first method involves depositing TRANSPARENT ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS
metal nanoparticles on the light incidence surface to promote
Due to design flexibility and transparency with high
scattering and increase the length of the path of the light in
open-circuit voltages, organic photovoltaics obtained promi-
the device to enhance absorption.
nent attention for low-light intensity or indoor applications.
Second, the LSPR effect serves as a subwavelength an- Besides, the incident light spectra and distance of the photo-
tenna, which increases the electric field of light in the wave- voltaic device from the light source, the indoor light intensity
length range where LSPR occurs. This allows more electrical and orientation of the photovoltaic device to the incident
energy to be generated at a specific wavelength. Finally, the light are the major factors that could translate the photovolta-
third method involves the use of wave-shaped metal films ic device output power. To show the potential of organic
that trap light by surface plasmon-polariton excitation at the photovoltaics for indoor energy harvesting under 2000 lx
metal-semiconductor interfaces, increasing light absorption. with respect to the incident light angle, we designed the
Therefore, the SPR effect can also be effectively applied semi-transparent organic solar cells modules having
in solar cell research focusing on indoor environments [64- MoO3/Ag/MoO3 (OMO) semi-transparent electrode.
66]. Fig. (13a) shows the non-transparent and semi-trans-
parent 10 x 10 cm2 organic solar cell modules with an active
4.3. Spectrum Matching area of 40 cm2. Under standard measurement condition (1
As shown in Fig. (2), the spectrum of indoor light (in- Sun, 100 mW/cm2), the non-transparent and semi-transparent
cluding incandescent lamps, LEDs, and halogen lamps) is solar cell modules showed maximum output power of 321
mainly located in the visible region, so the energy band gap mW and 214 mW respectively. Whereas, under room light
of indoor PV devices needs to be optimized for this spec- with intensities of 2000 lx and 750 lx, the semi-transparent
10 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (12). Energy band gaps of various PV materials.

Fig. (13). (a) Photograph of non-transparent and semi-transparent OPV module (10 x 10 cm2). And (b) power change (normalized base on the
power obtained under 1sun) of non-transparent and semi-transparent OPV module at various light intensity (from 100,000 lx (1 Sun) ~ 750 lx).

OPV module shows relatively higher output power (Fig. illumination side are illustrated in Fig. (14b). In the case of
13b). The difference is clear, as under low light intensity, all light illumination from substrate side (bottom), the output
the light is absorbed by the active layer and there is a negli- power of non-transparent OPV module is higher than semi-
gible light reflection from the non-transparent silver elec- transparent OPV module. Whereas, in case of light
trode and re-absorption in the active layer. On the other illumination from the electrode side (top), the output power
hand, in the case of semi-transparent OPV module, there is a of semi-transparent OPV module is higher. We compared
direct light absorbance from the ITO/glass substrate side as output power of both type of OPV modules after the sum of
well as indirect/reflected light absorbance from semi- top and bottom sides and found that the power of semi-
transparent OMO electrode side that improves the overall transparent OPV module is higher than non-transparent OPV
output power of semi-transparent OPV module under low- module under low illumination.
light illumination as compare to non-transparent OPV mod-
ule. The phenomena of light absorbance in non-transparent To further investigate the potential of non-transparent
and semi-transparent OPV modules is illustrated schemati- and semi-transparent OPV modules for indoor light
cally in Fig. (14a) and the contribution of the output power applications, we measured the output power of both types of
under 2000 lx light intensity with respect to the OPV module modules with respect to the incident light angle under a light
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 11

Fig. (14). (a) Schematic illustration of the non-transparent and semi-transparent OPV device structure and bifacial absorption of light, (b)
Bifacial power of non-transparent and semi-transparent OPV module under low-light illumination (2000 lx).

intensity of 2000 lx (Fig. 15). On direct light illumination (θ

= 90°), the non-transparent OPV module shows higher
output power than semi-transparent OPV module whereas,
this difference reduces significantly at an angle of 45° and
semi-transparent OPV module outperforms at an angle of 0°
where no direct light is illuminated to the OPV module. Our
experimental results suggest that the semi-transparent
photovoltaics could perform better compare to non-
transparent photovoltaics under indoor environment,
especially when the photovoltaic devices are not directly
illuminated by the indoor lightening system.

6. APPLICATIONS
To date, most research groups have studied solar cells for
outdoor applications, such as streetlights and building inte-
grated PVs (BIPVs). As these solar cells are powered by the
sun, they obviously only generate power during the day (in-
tensive energy collection over a short period), while indoor
PV can generate power continuously. Due to their current
low efficiency under indoor light illumination and little ac-
tive research in this field, indoor PV products have not been
widely commercialized. However, continuous power genera-
tion using product-integrated PVs (PIPVs) driven by indoor
light is becoming increasingly attractive for powering small
appliances that do not have large power requirements. In this
section, we review the power requirements of applications in
indoor environments. To compare the power consumption,
Fig. (15). (a) Scheme of the angle dependence measurements. (b) we used commercially available PIPVs for which we com-
Power change of non-transparent and semi-transparent OPV modu- pared the maximum power under artificial irradiance with a
le with various incident light angle (angle dependence) under low- compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), as shown in Fig. (16a). In
light illumination (2000 lx). general, commercially available PIPVs have a power range
12 Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 Kim et al.

Fig. (16). (a) Power requirements of various applications with a built-in solar cells and (b) product-integrated PVs (PIPVs).

Fig. (17). Photographs of various potential indoor OPV applications. Lamp-integrated OPVs: (a) flexible type, (b) rigid type. (c) Various
kinds of Arduino UNO sensors. (d) Handrail UV cleaner (by CLEARWIN) linked to flexible OPVs (by KIMS & KOLON) which was exhibi-
ted at the KIMS Tech Fair 2018 in CECO.
Recent Progress in Solar Cell Technology for Low-Light Indoor Applications Current Alternative Energy, 2018, Vol. 2, No. 3 13

of 1 µW to 100 mW. These products are based on the physi- applications due to spectral mismatch of commonly used
cal measurement of artificial and natural light illumination in indoor lighting systems. Among the emerging PV technolo-
an indoor environment. A PV mouse (Bondidea) with a gies, organic photovoltaics have the unique advantages of
built-in a-Si solar cell had a power consumption of 0.41 mW solution processibility, flexibility, lightweight, and the abil-
under CFL light illumination. An a-Si solar cell remote con- ity to customize the design and geometry and have great po-
trol (Philips) had a power consumption of 0.77 mW, while a tential for indoor light harvesting applications due to their
kitchen scale with a built-in multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si) high photo-voltages and well-matched spectral response in
solar cell had a power consumption of 0.96 mW. Schematic the visible region. The better device performance of organic
diagrams of various potential indoor PIPV applications are photovoltaics under dim/low-light intensity compared to
shown in Fig. (16b), which all have a low power consump- other photovoltaic technologies opens a new untapped ave-
tion (<1 mW) [71]. nue for indoor energy harvesting applications.
Due to the outstanding performance of OPVs compared
to Si solar cells under indoor light illumination, they can CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
generate power more than Si solar cells. For example, a 10% Not applicable.
PCE OPV (10 cm × 10 cm) generated 5-10 mW under 0.5-1
mW/cm2 illumination (~500-1000 lx), whereas an a-Si cell CONFLICT OF INTEREST
of a similar size generated only 1-2 mW [72]. By taking ad-
vantage of OPV materials, our research group has produced None of the authors of this review paper has a competing
products that can be used in daily life. Such products include interests and financial relationship, direct or indirect, with
an OPV with an output power of 500 mW that directly ab- other people that could inappropriately influence or bias the
sorbs light from indoor lamps and can operate an Arduino content of the paper.
UNO microcontroller or mini air conditioner. Moreover, due
to the flexibility of the OPV, it can be used on flexible ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
curved surfaces like curtains, blinds, and lampshades, which S. Kim and M. Jahandar contributed equally to this work.
is not possible with rigid Si solar cells. Photographs of lamp- Moreover, this work was supported by Korea Institute of
integrated OPVs are shown in Figs. (17a-17c) shows various Materials Science (KIMS) and by the Korea Institute of En-
sensors with functions closely related to our daily activities ergy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant
that could be powered by an Arduino UNO, including a (i) funded by the Korea government (MOTIE) (2018201010
kit body, (ii) ultrasonic distance sensor, (iii) light flux sensor, 636A, Development of energy harvesting materials and
(iv) soil moisture sensor, (v) fine dust sensor, (vi) digital modules for independent power source for smart sensors and
humidity sensor, (vii) Bluetooth sensor, (viii) near-infrared 20173030014180, Development of transparent flexible metal
motion sensor, (ix) analogue temperature sensor, (x) ana- grid electrode films for solar cell application). The authors
logue humidity sensor, (xi) digital temperature sensor, (xii) would like to thank all members of Materials Center for En-
knock sensor, (xiii) vibration sensor, and (xiv) heart beat ergy Convergence under Korea Institute of Materials Science
sensor. The kit body (Fig. 17c (i)) requires a power con- (KIMS).
sumption of ~300 mW, while the others (Fig. 17c (ii)-(xiv))
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