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UNIT-3Overview of Brute-Force Q1) What is Brute force attack and

what are its types?A1)Brute Force AttackA Brute force attack is a well-
known breaking technique, by certain records, brute force attacks
represented ve percent of a rmed security ruptures. A brute force
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attack includes ‘speculating’ username and passwords to increase
unapproved access to a framework. Brute force is a straightforward
attack strategy and has a high achievement rate.A few attackers use
applications and contents as brute force devices. These instruments
evaluate various secret word mixes to sidestep con rmation forms. In

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di erent cases, attackers attempt to get to web applications via
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scanning for the correct session ID. Attacker inspiration may
incorporate taking data, contaminating destinations with malware, or
disturbing help. While a few attackers still perform brute force attacks
physically, today practically all brute force attacks are performed by
bots. Attackers have arrangements of usually utilized accreditations, or
genuine client quali cations, got through security breaks or the dull
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web. Bots deliberately attack sites and attempt these arrangements of
accreditations, and advise the attacker when they obtain
entrance.Types of Brute Force Attacks:
Dictionary attacks – surmises usernames or passwords utilizing a
dictionary of potential strings or phrases.
Rainbow table attacks – a rainbow table is a precomputed table for
turning around cryptographic hash capacities. It very well may be
utilized to gure a capacity up to a speci c length comprising of a
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constrained arrangement of characters.
Reverse brute force attack – utilizes a typical password or
assortment of passwords against numerous conceivable usernames.
Focuses on a network of clients for which the attackers have recently
acquired information.
Hybrid brute force attacks – begins from outer rationale to gure
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out which password variety might be destined to succeed, and
afterward proceeds with the simple way to deal with attempt numerous
potential varieties.
Simple brute force attack – utilizes an e cient way to deal with

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‘surmise’ that doesn’t depend on outside rationale.
Credential stu ng – utilizes beforehand known password-

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username sets, attempting them against numerous sites. Adventures
the way that numerous clients have the equivalent username and
password across various frameworks.
Q2) How to Prevent Brute Force Password Hacking?A2)
To protect your organization from brute force password hacking,
enforce the use of strong passwords.Passwords should:
Never use information that can be found online (like names of
family members).
Have as many characters as possible.
Combine letters, numbers, and symbols.
Avoid common patterns.
Be di erent for each user account.
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Change your password periodically
Use strong and long password
Use multifactor authentication
Q3) What is Greedy Programming method?A3)"Greedy Method nds fi
out of many options, but you have to choose the best option."In this
method, we have to nd out the best method/option out of many
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present ways.In this approach/method we focus on the rst stage and
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decide the output, don't think about the future. This method may or
may not give the best output.Greedy Algorithm solves problems by
making the best choice that seems best at the particular moment. Many
optimization problems can be determined using a greedy algorithm.
Some issues have no e cient solution, but a greedy algorithm may
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provide a solution that is close to optimal. A greedy algorithm works if
a problem exhibits the following two properties:
Greedy Choice Property: A globally optimal solution can be reached
at by creating a locally optimal solution. In other words, an optimal
solution can be obtained by creating "greedy" choices.
Optimal substructure: Optimal solutions contain optimal
subsolutions. In other words, answers to subproblems of an optimal
solution are optimal.
Example:
 machine scheduling
Fractional Knapsack Problem
Minimum Spanning Tree
Hu man Code
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Job Sequencing
Activity Selection Problem
Steps for achieving a Greedy Algorithm are:
Feasible: Here we check whether it satis es all possible constraints

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or not, to obtain at least one solution to our problems.
Local Optimal Choice: In this, the choice should be the optimum
which is selected from the currently available
Unalterable: Once the decision is made, at any subsequence step that
option is not altered.
Q4) Write an Algorithm of Greedy- Activity Selector with exampleA4)
GREEDY- ACTIVITY SELECTOR (s, f)1. n ← length [s]2. A ← {1}3. j ← 1.4.
for i ← 2 to n5. do if si ≥ fi6. then A ← A ∪ {i}7. j ← i8. return AExample:
Given 10 activities along with their start and end time asS = (A1 A2 A3
A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10)Si = (1,2,3,4,7,8,9,9,11,12) =
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(3,5,4,7,10,9,11,13,12,14)Compute a schedule where the greatest
number of activities takes place.Solution: The solution to the above
Activity scheduling problem using a greedy strategy is illustrated
below:Arranging the activities in increasing order of end time

h d l h d l d
interfering.Next skip A2 as it is interfering.Next, schedule A4 as A1 A3
and A4 are non-interfering, then next, schedule A6 as A1 A3 A4 and A6
are non-interfering.Skip A5 as it is interfering.Next, schedule A7 as A1
A3 A4 A6 and A7 are non-interfering.Next, schedule A9 as A1 A3 A4 A6
A7 and A9 are non-interfering.Skip A8 as it is interfering.Next,
schedule A10 as A1 A3 A4 A6 A7 A9 and A10 are non-interfering.Thus
the nal Activity schedule is:
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Q5) What is dynamic programming and what are its characteristics,
elements and components? A5) Dynamic Programming is the most
powerful design technique for solving optimization problems.Divide &
Conquer algorithm partition the problem into disjoint subproblems
solve the subproblems recursively and then combine their solution to
solve the original problems.Dynamic Programming is used when the
subproblems are not independent, e.g. when they share the same
subproblems. In this case, divide and conquer may do more work than
necessary, because it solves the same sub problem multiple
times.Dynamic Programming solves each subproblems just once and
stores the result in a table so that it can be repeatedly retrieved if
needed again.Dynamic Programming is a Bottom-up approach- we
solve all possible small problems and then combine to obtain solutions
for bigger problems.Dynamic Programming is a paradigm of algorithm
design in which an optimization problem is solved by a combination of
achieving sub-problem solutions and appearing to the "principle of
optimality".Characteristics of Dynamic Programming:Dynamic
Programming works when a problem has the following features:-

Fig 1 - Characteristics of Dynamic Programming

 Optimal Substructure: If an optimal solution contains optimal sub
solutions then a problem exhibits optimal substructure.
Overlapping subproblems: When a recursive algorithm would visit
the same subproblems repeatedly, then a problem has overlapping
subproblems.
If a problem has optimal substructure, then we can recursively de ne

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an optimal solution. If a problem has overlapping subproblems, then
we can improve on a recursive implementation by computing each
subproblem only once.If a problem doesn't have optimal substructure,
there is no basis for de ning a recursive algorithm to nd the optimal
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solutions. If a problem doesn't have overlapping sub problems, we
don't have anything to gain by using dynamic programming.If the
space of subproblems is enough (i.e. polynomial in the size of the
input), dynamic programming can be much more e cient than

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recursion.Elements of Dynamic ProgrammingThere are basically three
elements that characterize a dynamic programming algorithm:-

Fig 2 - Elements of Dynamic Programming

Substructure: Decompose the given problem into smaller
subproblems. Express the solution of the original problem in terms of
the solution for smaller problems.
Table Structure: After solving the sub-problems, store the results to
the sub problems in a table. This is done because subproblem solutions
are reused many times, and we do not want to repeatedly solve the
same problem over and over again.
Bottom-up Computation: Using table, combine the solution of
smaller subproblems to solve larger subproblems and eventually
arrives at a solution to complete problem.
Note: Bottom-up means:-
Start with smallest subproblems.
Combining their solutions obtain the solution to sub-problems of
 Until solving at the solution of the original problem.
Components of Dynamic programming

Fig 3 - Components of Dynamic programming

Stages: The problem can be divided into several subproblems, which
are called stages. A stage is a small portion of a given problem. For
example, in the shortest path problem, they were de ned by the

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structure of the graph.
States: Each stage has several states associated with it. The states for
the shortest path problem was the node reached.
Decision: At each stage, there can be multiple choices out of which
one of the best decisions should be taken. The decision taken at every
stage should be optimal; this is called a stage decision.
Optimal policy: It is a rule which determines the decision at each
stage; a policy is called an optimal policy if it is globally optimal. This is
known as Bellman principle of optimality.
Given the current state, the optimal choices for each of the
remaining states does not depend on the previous states or decisions.
In the shortest path problem, it was not necessary to know how we got
a node only that we did.
There exist a recursive relationship that identify the optimal
decisions for stage j, given that stage j+1, has already been solved.
The nal stage must be solved by itself.
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Q6) Write the development of dynamic programming algorithm and its
applicationA6) Development of Dynamic Programming AlgorithmIt
can be broken into four steps:
Characterize the structure of an optimal solution.
Recursively de ned the value of the optimal solution. Like Divide
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and Conquer, divide the problem into two or more optimal parts
recursively. This helps to determine what the solution will look like.
Compute the value of the optimal solution from the bottom up
(starting with the smallest subproblems)
Construct the optimal solution for the entire problem form the
Applications of dynamic programming
0/1 knapsack problem
Mathematical optimization problem
All pair Shortest path problem
Reliability design problem
Longest common subsequence (LCS)
Flight control and robotics control
Time-sharing: It schedules the job to maximize CPU usage
Q7) Explain Branch and Bound and back tracking methodologiesA7)
Branch and bound is an algorithm design paradigm which is generally
used for solving combinatorial optimization problems. These problems
are typically exponential in terms of time complexity and may require
exploring all possible permutations in worst case. The Branch and
Bound Algorithm technique solves these problems relatively
quickly.Let us consider the 0/1 Knapsack problem to understand Branch
and Bound.There are many algorithms by which the knapsack problem
can be solved:Greedy Algorithm for Fractional KnapsackDP solution for
0/1 KnapsackBacktracking Solution for 0/1 Knapsack.Let’s see the
Branch and Bound Approach to solve the 0/1 Knapsack problem: The
Backtracking Solution can be optimized if we know a bound on best
possible solution subtree rooted with every node. If the best in subtree
is worse than current best, we can simply ignore this node and its
subtrees. So we compute bound (best solution) for every node and
compare the bound with current best solution before exploring the
node.Example bounds used in below diagram are, A down can give
$315, B down can $275, C down can $225, D down can $125 and E down
can $30.
 Q8) Explain in detail Minimum Cost Spanning TreeA8) A spanning tree
is a subset of Graph G, which has all the vertices covered with minimum
possible number of edges. Hence, a spanning tree does not have cycles
and it cannot be disconnected..By this de nition, we can draw a

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conclusion that every connected and undirected Graph G has at least
one spanning tree. A disconnected graph does not have any spanning
tree, as it cannot be spanned to all its vertices.

Fig 6 – Spanning TreeWe found three spanning trees o one complete

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graph. A complete undirected graph can have maximum nn-2 number
of spanning trees, where n is the number of nodes. In the above
addressed example, n is 3, hence 33−2 = 3 spanning trees are
possible.General Properties of Spanning TreeWe now understand that
one graph can have more than one spanning tree. Following are a few
properties of the spanning tree connected to graph G −
A connected graph G can have more than one spanning tree.
All possible spanning trees of graph G, have the same number of
edges and vertices.
The spanning tree does not have any cycle (loops).
Removing one edge from the spanning tree will make the graph
disconnected, i.e. the spanning tree is minimally connected.
Adding one edge to the spanning tree will create a circuit or loop, i.e.
the spanning tree is maximally acyclic.
Mathematical Properties of Spanning Tree
Spanning tree has n-1 edges, where n is the number of nodes
(vertices).
From a complete graph, by removing maximum e - n + 1 edges, we
can construct a spanning tree.
A complete graph can have maximum nn-2 number of spanning
trees.
Thus, we can conclude that spanning trees are a subset of connected
Graph G and disconnected graphs do not have spanning
tree.Application of Spanning TreeSpanning tree is basically used to nd

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a minimum path to connect all nodes in a graph. Common application
of spanning trees are −
Civil Network Planning
Computer Network Routing Protocol
Cluster Analysis
Let us understand this through a small example. Consider, city network
as a huge graph and now plans to deploy telephone lines in such a way
that in minimum lines we can connect to all city nodes. This is where
the spanning tree comes into picture.Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)In
a weighted graph, a minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree that has
minimum weight than all other spanning trees of the same graph. In
real-world situations, this weight can be measured as distance,
congestion, tra c load or any arbitrary value denoted to the
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edges.Minimum Spanning-Tree AlgorithmWe shall learn about two
most important spanning tree algorithms here −
Kruskal's Algorithm
Prim's Algorithm
Both are greedy algorithms. Q9) Explain in detail Knapsack problem
with example and write algorithm alsoA9) Knapsack is basically means
bag. A bag of given capacity.We want to pack n items in your luggage.
The ith item is worth vi dollars and weight wi pounds.
Take as valuable a load as possible, but cannot exceed W pounds.
vi wi W are integers.
W ≤ capacity
Value ← Max
Input:
Knapsack of capacity
List (Array) of weight and their corresponding value.
Output: To maximize pro t and minimize weight in capacity.The
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knapsack problem where we have to pack the knapsack with maximum
value in such a manner that the total weight of the items should not be
greater than the capacity of the knapsack.Knapsack problem can be
further divided into two parts: 1. Fractional Knapsack: Fractional
knapsack problem can be solved by Greedy Strategy where as 0 /1
Approach.0/1 Knapsack Problem:In this item cannot be broken which
means thief should take the item as a whole or should leave it. That's
why it is called 0/1 knapsack Problem.
Each item is taken or not taken.
Cannot take a fractional amount of an item taken or take an item
more than once.
It cannot be solved by the Greedy Approach because it is enable to ll

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the knapsack to capacity.
Greedy Approach doesn't ensure an Optimal Solution.
Example of 0/1 Knapsack Problem:Example: The maximum weight the
knapsack can hold is W is 11. There are ve items to choose from. Their

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weights and values are presented in the following table:

The [i, j] entry here will be V [i, j], the best value obtainable using the
rst "i" rows of items if the maximum capacity were j. We begin by
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initialization and rst row.
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V [i, j] = max {V [i - 1, j], vi + V [i - 1, j -wi]

The value of V [3, 7] was computed as follows:

V [3 7] max {V [3 1 7] v3 V [3 1 7 w3]
 = max {V [2, 7], 18 + V [2, 7 - 5]}

= max {7, 18 + 6}

= 24

Finally, the output is:

The maximum value of items in the knapsack is 40, the bottom-right

entry). The dynamic programming approach can now be coded as the
following algorithm:Algorithm of Knapsack ProblemKNAPSACK (n,
W) 1. for w = 0, W 2. do V [0,w] ← 0 3. for i=0, n 4. do V [i, 0] ← 0 5. for
w = 0, W 6. do if (wi≤ w & vi + V [i-1, w - wi]> V [i -1,W]) 7. then V [i, W]
← vi + V [i - 1, w - wi] 8. else V [i, W] ← V [i - 1, w] Q10) What is Job
Sequencing Problem explain with examples?A10) Problem StatementIn
job sequencing problem, the objective is to nd a sequence of jobs,
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which is completSed within their deadlines and gives maximum
pro t.SolutionLet us consider, a set of n given jobs which are
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associated with deadlines and pro t is earned, if a job is completed by
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its deadline. These jobs need to be ordered in such a way that there is
maximum pro t.It may happen that all of the given jobs may not be
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completed within their deadlines.Assume, deadline of ith job Ji is di and
the pro t received from this job is pi. Hence, the optimal solution of
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this algorithm is a feasible solution with maximum pro t.Thus,
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D(i)>0for 1⩽i⩽nInitially, these jobs are ordered according to pro t, i.e.
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p1⩾p2⩾p3⩾...⩾pnAlgorithm: Job-Sequencing-With-Deadline (D, J, n,
k) D(0) := J(0) := 0 k := 1 J(1) := 1 // means rst job is selected for i = 2 …
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n do r := k while D(J(r)) > D(i) and D(J(r)) ≠ r do r := r – 1 if
D(J(r)) ≤ D(i) and D(i) > r then for l = k … r + 1 by -1 do J(l + 1) :=
J(l) J(r + 1) := i k := k + 1 AnalysisIn this algorithm we are using
two loops, one is within another. Hence, the complexity of this
algorithm is O(n2)ExampleLet us consider a set of given jobs as shown
in the following table. We have to nd a sequence of jobs, which will be

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completed within their deadlines and will give maximum pro t. Each

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job is associated with a deadline and pro t.

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Job J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
Deadline 2 1 3 2 1
Pro t 60 100 20 40 20
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SolutionTo solve this problem, the given jobs are sorted according to
their pro t in a descending order. Hence, after sorting, the jobs are
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ordered as shown in the following table.
Job J2 J1 J4 J3 J5
Deadline 1 2 2 3 1
Pro t 100 60 40 20 20
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From this set of jobs, rst we select J2, as it can be completed within its
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deadline and contributes maximum pro t.
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Next, J1 is selected as it gives more pro t compared to J4.
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In the next clock, J4 cannot be selected as its deadline is over, hence
J3 is selected as it executes within its deadline.
The job J5 is discarded as it cannot be executed within its deadline.
Thus, the solution is the sequence of jobs (J2, J1, J3), which are being
executed within their deadline and gives maximum pro t.Total pro t
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of this sequence is 100 + 60 + 20 = 180.

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