SMJC 4824 : CHEMICAL PROCESS DESIGN II

Theme : Agricultural Waste

PRODUCTION OF DIMETHYL ETHER (DME) FROM

OIL PALM FROND (OPF)

VOLUME 1 : FULL GROUP REPORT

Group Name : Yashinnovation Consultancy (Group 3)

Academic Supervisors : Ir. Dr. Tan Lian See

: Dr. Khairunnisa binti Mohd. Pa’ad

Industrial Supervisor : Mr. Chen Qing Liang

Group Members : Ch’ng Hui Jia A16MJ0019

Karthikan a/l Selvarajan A16MJ0037

Nurul Humaira binti Ridowan A16MJ0120

Siti Nurfatiha binti Halil A16MJ0148

Wafy bin Jamalullail Putra Albaraqbah A16MJ0174

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Yashinovation Consultancy had come up with a design of a chemical processing plant

for MJIIT Chemicals where the company focusses on the production of Dimethyl Ether
(DME) using Oil Palm Frond (OPF) which is the largest biomass waste produced in
Malaysia at the plantation. The design by Yashinovation are capable of producing
Dimethyl Ether (DME) with a purity of 99% to be sold in the market. The production
process also have by-products such as Methanol with a purity of 97% that will be
produced in MJIIT Chemicals DME Production plant and also Carbon Dioxide with
purity of 99.9% that will be produced in the subsidiary process plant of MJIIT Sdn Bhd.
The annual production capacity of DME and Methanol considering 330 working days
annually is 171,844 metric tonne and 25,168 metric tonne respectively with the feed of
475,200 metric tonne of oil palm frond that has been processed. The plant besides being
environmentally friendly, it is also energy efficient as it utilizes energy integration and
CHP system that save the energy been used in the plant. The DME production plant is
a feasible investment as the breakeven period, is just 7.2 years ahead from the start of
planning stage with ROI of 25.22% annually. Based on the calculations done, the net
present value after 30 years of production values up to approximately RM12.6 billion
(RM12,605,804,947.20) with the total capital investment of approximately RM2.19
billion (RM2,185,512,820.07). This design is guaranteed to provide MJIIT Chemicals
with a profitable investment and makes them as a dominant player in the chemical
industry both in local and also global.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xxi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Raw Material 1
1.1.1 Chemical Background of Oil Palm Fronds
(OPFs) 2
1.1.2 Shelf Life of Raw Material 4
1.1.3 Advantages of using OPF 4
1.1.4 Application of OPF 5
1.1.5 Availability of OPF 6
1.1.6 Global Supply and Market Forecast of OPF 7
1.2 Background of Products 9
1.2.1 Main Product 10
1.2.1.1 Chemical Background of DME 10
1.2.1.2 Hazard Identification of DME 11
1.2.1.3 Advantages of DME 12
1.2.2 By-Product 12
1.3 Market Survey of DME 13
1.3.1 Global Supply and Market Demand of DME 13
1.3.2 Production of DME in Malaysia 16
1.3.3 Application of DME 16
1.3.1.1 Domestic Sector Fuel 17
1.3.1.2 Transportation Fuel 17
1.3.1.3 Propellant or coolant 17
1.3.1.3 Other Applications 18

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 1.4 Market Survey of Methanol 18
1.4.1 Application of Methanol 18
1.5 Market Survey of Carbon Dioxide 19
1.5.1 Application of Carbon Dioxide 19
1.5.1.1 Medical Grade 19
1.5.1.2 Food Grade 20
1.5.1.3 Industrial Grade 20

1.6 Site Selection Criteria 21

1.7 Comparison of the Potential Location 22
1.8 Process Selection 26
1.8.1 Reaction Path 1 26
1.8.2 Reaction Path 2 26
1.8.3 Reaction Path 3 27
1.8.4 Block Diagram of Reaction Path Selection 28
1.8.5 Composition of Syngas from Oil Palm Frond
(OPF) 29
1.9 Economic Potential Analysis 29
1.10 Technology Comparison and Process Selection 34

CHAPTER 2 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE 37

2.1 Process Block Diagram 37
2.2 Process Flow Diagram (PFD) 39
2.3 Process Description 40
2.4 Equipment Basis 41
2.4.1 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 41
2.4.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 43
2.4.3 Methanol Reactor (R-102) 44
2.4.4 DME Reactor (R-103) 45
2.4.5 Distillation Column 46
2.4.6 Heat Exchanger 51
2.4.7 Compressor 52
2.4.8 Flash Column 53
2.4.9 Throttling Valve 56

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2.5 Mass Balance 57
2.5.1 Manual Mass Balance Calculation 58
2.5.1.1 General Assumption for Mass
Balance 59
2.5.1.2 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 60
2.5.1.3 Compressor 1 (CPR-01) 61
2.5.1.4 Compressor 2 (CPR-02) 62
2.5.1.5 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01) 63
2.5.1.6 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 64
2.5.1.7 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02) 65
2.5.1.8 Flash Drum 1 (F-101) 66
2.5.1.9 Compressor 3 (CPR-03) 67
2.5.1.10 Compressor 4 (CPR-04) 68
2.5.1.11 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03) 69
2.5.1.12 Methanol Reactor (R-102) 70
2.5.1.13 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01) 71
2.5.1.14 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04) 72
2.5.1.15 Flash Drum 2 (F-102) 73
2.5.1.16 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02) 74
2.5.1.17 Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 75
2.5.1.18 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03) 76
2.5.1.19 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05) 77
2.5.1.20 DME Reactor (R-103) 78
2.5.1.21 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06) 79
2.5.1.22 Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 80
2.5.1.23 Compressor 5 (CPR-05) 81
2.5.1.24 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07) 82
2.5.1.25 Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 83
2.5.1.26 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08) 84
2.5.1.27 Throttling Valve 4 (V-04) 85
2.5.1.28 Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09) 86

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 2.5.2 Overall Mass Balance 87
2.6 Energy Balance 87
2.6.1 Manual Energy Balance Calculation 89
2.6.1.1 General Assumption for Energy
Balance 90
2.6.1.2 Compressor 1 (CPR-01) 90
2.6.1.3 Compressor 2 (CPR-02) 91
2.6.1.4 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01) 91
2.6.1.5 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 92
2.6.1.6 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02) 92
2.6.1.7 Flash Column 1 (F-101) 93
2.6.1.8 Compressor 3 (CPR-03) 93
2.6.1.9 Compressor 4 (CPR-04) 94
2.6.1.10 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03) 94
2.6.1.11 Methanol Reactor (R-102) 95
2.6.1.12 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01) 95
2.6.1.13 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04) 96
2.6.1.14 Flash Columm 2 (F-102) 96
2.6.1.15 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02) 97
2.6.1.16 Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 97
2.6.1.17 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03) 98
2.6.1.18 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05) 98
2.6.1.19 DME Reactor (R-103) 99
2.6.1.20 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06) 99
2.6.1.21 Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 100
2.6.1.22 Compressor 5 (CPR-05) 100
2.6.1.23 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07) 101
2.6.1.24 Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 101
2.6.1.25 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08) 102
2.6.1.26 Throttling Valve (V-04) 102
2.6.1.27 Heat Exchanger (HE-09) 103

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 2.7 Aspen Simulation of Mass and Energy Balance 104
2.8 Mass Balance Comparison 107
2.9 Energy Balance Comparison 109

CHAPTER 3 WASTE MANAGEMENT 111

3.1 Waste Management and Classification of Waste 111
3.1.1 Solid Waste 111
3.1.2 Liquid Waste 112
3.1.3 Gaseous Waste 112
3.2 The Waste Hierarchy 113
3.3 Source of Waste 114
3.4 Solid Waste Management 115
3.4.1 Catalyst
115
3.4.1.1 Inicneration 116
3.4.1.2 Catalysts Recovery 118
3.4.1.3 Catalyst Regeneration 119
3.4.1.4 Comparison of Catalyst Waste
Management 120
3.4.2 Ash Management 122
3.4.2.1 Process Flow Diagram for Ash Management 124
3.5 Liquid Waste Management 125
3.5.1 Wastewater Treatment Process Description 126
3.5.2 Primary Treatment Process 128
3.5.2.1 Equalization Process 128
3.5.2.2 Neutralization Process 128
3.5.2.3 Filtration Process 129
3.5.3 Secondary Treatment Process 130
3.5.3.1 Activated Sludge 130
3.5.3.2 Upflow Anarobic Sludge Blanket
Reactor (UASB) 131
3.5.3.3 Adsorption 132

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 3.5.3.4 Comparison of Secondary Treatment
Process 133
3.5.4 Sludge Treatment 134
3.5.5 Tertiary treatment process 134
3.5.5.1 Filtration Process 134
3.5.5.2 Disinfection Process 135
3.5.5.3 Demineralization of Water 135
3.5.6 Process Flow Diagram for Liquid Waste
Management 136
3.6 Gas Waste Management 137
3.6.1 CO2 Process Block Diagram 138
3.6.2 CO2 Capture Technology 139
3.6.2.1 Absorption Technology 140
3.6.2.2 Adsorption Technology 141
3.6.2.3 Cryogenic Separation Technology 142
3.6.2.4 Membrane Separation Technology 143
3.6.3 Technology Comparison 144
3.6.4 Process Flow Diagram of CO2 Production 146
3.6.5 Combined Heat Power (CHP) System 146
3.7 Waste Management Facility 148

CHAPTER 4 ENERGY INTEGRATION 149

4.1 Introduction 149
4.2 Streams Identification 151
4.3 Composite Curves 152
4.4 Problem Algorithm Table 154
4.5 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy
Recovery (MER) 157
4.5.1 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design 157
4.6 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and
after MER 160
4.6.1 Total Utilities Consumption Before Heat
Integration 160

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 4.6.2 Comparison between Utilities Consumption
before and after HEN 160

CHAPTER 5 PROCESS CONTROL 164

5.1 Introduction 164
5.1.1 Controlled Variables 165
5.1.2 Type of Control System 166
5.1.2.1 Feedforward control system 167
5.1.2.2 Feedback Control System 168
5.1.2.3 Ratio Controller 168
5.1.2.4 Cascade Control System 169
5.1.3 Process Control Instrument 170
5.2 Control System Unit for Equipment 172
5.2.1 Compressors 172
5.2.2 Heat Exchangers 174
5.2.2.1 Condenser & Heat Exchanger 175
5.2.2.2 Reboiler 179
5.2.3 Reactors 180
5.2.3.1 Gasifier, G-101 183
5.2.3.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor, R-101 184
5.2.3.3 Methanol Reactor, R-102 185
5.2.3.4 DME Reactor, R-103 187
5.2.4 Flash Columns, F-101 & F-102 188
5.2.4.1 Flash Column F-101 189
5.2.4.2 Flash Column F-102 190
5.2.5 Distillation Columns, D-101, D-102 & D-103 191
5.2.5.1 Distillation Column 1, D-101 194
5.2.5.2 Distillation Column 2, D-102 196
5.2.5.3 Distillation Column 3, D-103 198
5.2.6 Storage Tanks, DME (T-101) & Methanol (T-
102) 200
5.2.6.1 DME Storage Tank, T-101 200

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 5.2.6.2 Methanol Storage Tank, T-102 201
5.3 Conclusion 203

CHAPTER 6 PROCESS SAFETY 204

6.1 Process Safety 204
6.2 General Safety Studies 205
6.2.1 Storage of Chemicals 205
6.2.2 Plant Location 205
6.2.3 Transportation 206
6.2.4 Process 206
6.2.4.1 Process Hazard Analysis 207
6.2.4.2 Process Defends 207
6.2.5 Maintenance 208
6.2.5.1 Maintenance Hazards Sources 208
6.2.5.2 Type of Maintenance 209
6.2.5.3 Safe Maintenance 209
6.2.6 Safety at Workplace 210
6.2.6.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 210
6.2.6.2 Emergency Response Plan 211
6.3 Plant Layout Design 212
6.4 Hazard Identification 216
6.4.1 Chemicals Hazard 216
6.5 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) 219
6.5.1 CHRA Forms 219
6.5.1.1 CHRA Form A 219
6.5.1.2 CHRA Form B 221
6.5.1.3 CHRA Form C 224
6.5.1.4 CHRA Form D 227
6.6 Protection Layers 233
6.6.1 Alarm System 233
6.6.2 Non-Return Valve (NRV) 233
6.6.3 Drain Valve 234

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 6.6.4 Pressure Relief System 234
6.6.4.1 Pressure Relief Valve 234
6.6.4.2 Rupture Disc 235
6.6.4.3 Rupture disc in series with pressure
relief valve 236
6.7 HAZOP Analysis 238
6.7.1 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 239
6.7.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 244
6.7.3 Flash Column 1 (F-101) 250
6.7.4 Methanol Reactor (R-102) 255
6.7.5 Flash Column 2 (F-102) 260
6.7.6 Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 265
6.7.7 DME Reactor (R-103) 271
6.7.8 Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 275
6.7.9 Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 281
6.8 Safety Operating Procedure (SOP) 287
6.8.1 Start-Up Operation 287
6.8.2 Normal Operation 288
6.8.3 Abnormal/ Emergency Operation 288
6.8.4 Scheduled Shutdown Operation 289

CHAPTER 7 PROCESS ECONOMICS 290

7.1 Economic Analysis 290
7.2 Bare Module Cost (CBM) Calculation 291
7.2.1 Reactors 293
7.2.1.1 Cost of Gasifier (G-101) 296
7.2.1.2 Cost of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-
101) 297
7.2.1.3 Cost of Methanol Reactor (R-102) 298
7.2.1.4 Cost of DME Reactor (R-103) 299
7.2.2 Flash Columns, F-101 & F-102 300
7.2.2.1 Cost of Flash Column 1 (F-101) 301
7.2.2.2 Cost of Flash Column (F-102) 302

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 7.2.3 Distillation Columns, D-101, D-102 & D-103 303
7.2.4 Cost of OPF Storage Bin 308
7.2.5 Storage Tanks, DME (T-101) & Methanol (T-
102) 309
7.2.6 Compressors (CPR-01 to CPR-05) 310
7.2.7 Heat Exchangers (HE-01 to HE-09) 313
7.2.8 Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) 317
7.3 Total Bare Module Cost (CTBM) Calculation 318
7.4 Total Capital Investment, CTCI 319
7.5 Total Production Cost 320
7.6 Total Revenue 322
7.7 Cash Flow Analysis 324
7.8 Return Rate of Investment (ROI) 334
7.9 Conclusion 335

REFERENCE 336

APPENDIX 350

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 1.1 Area of oil palm planted on December 2018 in hectares 1

Table 1.2 Quantity of oil palm wastes generated per year 2
Table 1.3 Advantages of using OPF 4
Table 1.4 Properties of DME 11
Table 1.5 Advantages of DME 12
Table 1.6 Table Comparison of the selected site 22
Table 1.7 Composition of Syngas from Oil Palm Frond using Preheated air 29
Table 1.8 Assumption of the raw materials and product 29
Table 1.9 Cost of Water 30
Table 1.10 Gross Margin Path 1 31
Table 1.11 Gross Margin Path 2 32
Table 1.12 Gross Margin Path 3 33
Table 1.13 Comparison for path 1,2 and 3 based on economy, environment,
safety and feasibility 35
Table 2.1 Operating Condition of Downdraft Gasifier 42
Table 2.2 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 43
Table 2.3 Operating Condition of Methanol Reactor (R-102) 44
Table 2.4 Operating Condition of DME Reactor 45
Table 2.5 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 49
Table 2.6 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 50
Table 2.7 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 51
Table 2.8 Operating Temperature of Heat Exchanger 52
Table 2.9 Operating Pressure of Compressor 53
Table 2.10 Boiling Point of Component at Standard Temperature 54
Table 2.11 Operating Condition of Flash Column 1 (F-101) 55
Table 2.12 Operating Condition of Flash Column 2 (F-102) 56
Table 2.13 List of Valves 57
Table 2.14 Material Balance on Downdraft Gasifier 60
Table 2.15 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of G-101 60

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Table 2.16 Material Balance on Compressor 1 (CPR-01) 61
Table 2.17 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-01 61
Table 2.18 Material Balance on Compressor 2 (CPR-02) 62
Table 2.19 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-02 62
Table 2.20 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01) 63
Table 2.21 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-01 63
Table 2.22 Material Balance on Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 64
Table 2.23 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-101 64
Table 2.24 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02) 65
Table 2.25 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-02 65
Table 2.26 Material Balance on Flash Column 1 (F-101) 66
Table 2.27 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of F-101 66
Table 2.28 Material Balance on Compressor 3 (CPR-03) 67
Table 2.29 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-03 67
Table 2.30 Material Balance on Compressor 4 (CPR-04) 68
Table 2.31 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-04 68
Table 2.32 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03) 69
Table 2.33 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-03 69
Table 2.34 Material Balance on Methanol Reactor (R-102) 70
Table 2.35 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-102 70
Table 2.36 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 1 (V-01) 71
Table 2.37 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-01 71
Table 2.38 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04) 72
Table 2.39 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-04 72
Table 2.40 Material Balance on Flash Column 2 (F-102) 73
Table 2.41 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of F-102 73
Table 2.42 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 2 (V-02) 74
Table 2.43 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-02 74
Table 2.44 Material Balance on Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 75
Table 2.45 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-101 75
Table 2.46 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 3 (V-03) 76
Table 2.47 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-03 76
Table 2.48 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05) 77
Table 2.49 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-05 77

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Table 2.50 Material Balance on DME Reactor (R-103) 78
Table 2.51 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-103 78
Table 2.52 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06) 79
Table 2.53 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-06 79
Table 2.54 Material Balance on Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 80
Table 2.55 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-102 80
Table 2.56 Material Balance on Compressor 5 (CPR-05) 81
Table 2.57 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-05 81
Table 2.58 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07) 82
Table 2.59 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-07 82
Table 2.60 Material Balance on Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 83
Table 2.61 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-103 83
Table 2.62 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08) 84
Table 2.63 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-08 84
Table 2.64 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 4 (V-04) 85
Table 2.65 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-04 85
Table 2.66 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09) 86
Table 2.67 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-09 86
Table 2.68 Energy Balance of Compressor 1 (CPR-01) 90
Table 2.69 Energy Balance of Compressor 2 (CPR-02) 91
Table 2.70 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01) 91
Table 2.71 Energy Balance of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 92
Table 2.72 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02) 92
Table 2.73 Energy Balance of Flash Drum 1 (F-101) 93
Table 2.74 Energy Balance of Compressor 3 (CPR-03) 93
Table 2.75 Energy Balance of Compressor 4 (CPR-04) 94
Table 2.76 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03) 94
Table 2.77 Energy Balance of Methanol Reactor (R-102) 95
Table 2.78 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 1 (V-01) 95
Table 2.79 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04) 96
Table 2.80 Energy Balance of Flash Drum 2 (F-102) 96
Table 2.81 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 2 (V-02) 97
Table 2.82 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 97
Table 2.83 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 3 (V-03) 98

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Table 2.84 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05) 98
Table 2.85 Energy Balance of DME Reactor (R-103) 99
Table 2.86 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06) 99
Table 2.87 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 100
Table 2.88 Energy Balance of Compressor 5 (CPR-05) 100
Table 2.89 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07) 101
Table 2.90 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 101
Table 2.91 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08) 102
Table 2.92 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 4 (V-04) 102
Table 2.93 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09) 103
Table 2.94 Method used in ASPEN PLUS for each unit operators 104
Table 2.95 Comparison of Manual Calculation and ASPEN PLUS based on
mass flow rate (kg/h) 107
Table 2.96 Comparison of Manual Calculation and ASPEN PLUS based on
enthalpy flow (kJ/h) 109
Table 3.1 Type of waste generated and source of the waste 114
Table 3.2 List of catalyst solid waste 115
Table 3.3 Ways of catalyst disposal 115
Table 3.4 List of method for catalyst waste 120
Table 3.5 Parameter limits of effluent of standards A and B stated in third 125
schedule of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.
Table 3.6 Classification of liquid waste generated from each source 126
Table 3.7 Processes involved in each stages of wastewater treatment plant 127
Table 3.8 Comparison of secondary treatment process for each parameter 133
Table 3.9 The components existed in gas effluent from F-102 137
Table 3.10 Technology comparison of CO2 removal 144
Table 4.1 Summary of the hot and cold stream available for heat integration 151
Table 4.2 Actual temperature and shifted temperatures 154
Table 4.3 Set up temperature interval 155
Table 4.4 Problem Table with global ΔTmin = 10K 156
Table 4.5 Utilities consumption before heat integration 160
Table 4.6 Comparison of the utility consumption before and after HEN 161
Table 5.1 Process Control Instrument Symbol 171
Table 5.2 The compressors variables and control configuration 174

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Table 5.3 Heat Exchangers variable and control configuration 179
Table 5.4 Reboiler variable and control configuration 181
Table 5.5 Gasifier variable and control configuration 184
Table 5.6 Water Gas Shift Reactor variable and control configuration 186
Table 5.7 Methanol Reactor variable and control configuration 187
Table 5.8 DME Reactor variable and control configuration 188
Table 5.9 Flash Column-101 variable and control configuration 191
Table 5.10 Flash Column-102 variables and control configuration 192
Table 5.11 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-101) 195
Table 5.12 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-102) 197
Table 5.13 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-103) 199
Table 5.14 DME storage tank variables and control configuration 201
Table 5.15 Methanol storage tank variables and control configuration 202
Table 6.1 Preventative and Corrective Maintenance 209
Table 6.2 Categories of PPE Based on Type of Protection 211
Table 6.3 Hazard of Hydrogen 217
Table 6.4 Hazard of Dimethyl Ether 217
Table 6.5 Hazard of Methanol 217
Table 6.6 Hazard of Carbon Monoxide 218
Table 6.7 Hazard of Carbon Dioxide 218
Table 6.8 CHRA Form A 220
Table 6.9 CHRA Form B 222
Table 6.10 CHRA Form C (Table C1) 225
Table 6.11 CHRA Form C (Table C2) 226
Table 6.12 CHRA Form D (Table D1) 228
Table 6.13 CHRA Form D (Table D2) 229
Table 6.14 CHRA Form D (Table D3) 230
Table 6.15 CHRA Form D (Table D4) 231
Table 6.16 CHRA Form D (Table D5) 232
Table 6.17 General Information of Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 239
Table 6.18 HAZOP Form of Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 241
Table 6.19 General Information of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 244
Table 6.20 HAZOP Form of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 246
Table 6.21 General Information of Flash Column 1 (F-101) 250

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Table 6.22 HAZOP Form of Flash Column 1 (F-101) 252
Table 6.23 General Information of Methanol Reactor (R-102) 255
Table 6.24 HAZOP Form of Methanol Reactor (R-102) 257
Table 6.25 General Information of Flash Column 2 (F-102) 260
Table 6.26 HAZOP Form of Flash Column 2 (F-102) 262
Table 6.27 General Information of Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 265
Table 6.28 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 267
Table 6.29 General Information of DME Reactor (R-103) 271
Table 6.30 HAZOP Form of DME Reactor (R-103) 273
Table 6.31 General Information of Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 275
Table 6.32 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 277
Table 6.33 General Information of Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 281
Table 6.34 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 283
Table 7.1 Bare-Module Factors of Guthrie (1974) for Ordinary Materials
of Construction and Low-to-Moderate Pressures 292
Table 7.2 Maximum allowable stress in recommended temperature for
Stainless Steel 294
Table 7.3 Material factor for pressure vessel 295
Table 7.4 Gasifier (G-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 275
Table 7.5 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM
Calculation 297
Table 7.6 Methanol Reactor (R-102) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 298
Table 7.7 DME Reactor (R-103) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 299
Table 7.8 Flash Column (F-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 301
Table 7.9 Flash Column (F-102) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 302
Table 7.10 Summary information of three distillation columns 304
Table 7.11 Distillation Column (D-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 305
Table 7.12 Distillation Column (D-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 306
Table 7.13 Distillation Column (D-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 307
Table 7.14 OPF Storage Bin Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 308
Table 7.15 Methanol & DME Storage Tank Bare Module Cost, CBM
Calculation 309
Table 7.16 Compressors Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 312
Table 7.17 Heat Exchangers Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 315

xviii
Table 7.18 WWTP Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation 317
Table 7.19 Total Bare Module Cost (CTBM) Calculation 318
Table 7.20 Total Capital Investment, CTCI Calculation 319
Table 7.21 Raw Material Costing 320
Table 7.22 Utilities Costing Calculation 320
Table 7.23 Total Operating Labour Cost 321
Table 7.24 Total Annual Production Calculation 323
Table 7.25 Total Revenue Calculation 323
Table 7.26 Cash Flow Analysis of the Plant 325
Table 7.27 Cash Flow Analysis for Different Interest Rates 329

xix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 1.1 Oil palm age and yield profile 6

Figure 1.2 Global oil palm production by countries in 2018 7

Figure 1.3 Graph of frond production and plantation area against year

2002-2015 8

Figure 1.4 Production of oil palm biomass 9

Figure 1.5 Skeletal formula of DME 10

Figure 1.6 Growth rate of global DME market demand by region forecast in

2019-2024 14

Figure 1.7 Graph of DME global market and forecast 2017-2026 15

Figure 1.8 Global DME market by application in 2019 16

Figure 1.9 Chosen site location for DME production plant 25

Figure 1.10 Process block diagram for all three reaction paths 28

Figure 2.1 Process block diagram for selected reaction path 38

Figure 2.2 Process Flow Diagram 39

Figure 2.3 Downdraft Gasifier 41

Figure 2.4 Water Gas Shift Reactor 43

Figure 2.5 Methanol Reactor 44

Figure 2.6 Dimethyl Ether Reactor 45

Figure 2.7 Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 46

Figure 2.8 Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 49

Figure 2.9 Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 50

Figure 2.10 Heat Exchanger 51

Figure 2.11 Compressor 52

xx
Figure 2.12 Flash Column 1 (F-101) 55

Figure 2.13 Flash Column 2 (F-102) 56

Figure 2.14 Valve 56

Figure 2.15 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101) 60

Figure 2.16 Compressor 1 (CPR-01) 61

Figure 2.17 Compressor 2 (CPR-02) 62

Figure 2.18 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01) 63

Figure 2.19 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) 64

Figure 2.20 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02) 65

Figure 2.21 Flash Drum 1 (F-101) 66

Figure 2.22 Compressor 3 (CPR-03) 67

Figure 2.23 Compressor 4 (CPR-04) 68

Figure 2.24 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03) 69

Figure 2.25 Methanol Reactor (R-102) 70

Figure 2.26 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01) 71

Figure 2.27 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04) 72

Figure 2.28 Flash Column 2 (F-102) 73

Figure 2.29 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02) 74

Figure 2.30 Distillation Column 1 (D-101) 75

Figure 2.31 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03) 76

Figure 2.32 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05) 77

Figure 2.33 DME Reactor (R-103) 78

Figure 2.34 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06) 79

Figure 2.35 Distillation Column 2 (D-102) 80

Figure 2.36 Compressor 5 (CPR-05) 81

Figure 2.37 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07) 82

Figure 2.38 Distillation Column 3 (D-103) 83

xxi
Figure 2.39 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08) 84

Figure 2.40 Throttling Valve 4 (V-04) 85

Figure 2.41 Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09) 86

Figure 2.42 ASPEN PLUS Simulation 106

Figure 3.1 The Waste Hierarchy 113

Figure 3.2 Hierarchy of scheduled waste management 116
Figure 3.3 Process of applying license for treating the scheduled waste 117
Figure 3.4 Plasma Process 118
Figure 3.5 Catalyst regeneration process flow diagram 119
Figure 3.6 Overall ash management system 123
Figure 3.7 Process flow diagram of ash management 124
Figure 3.8 Block diagram of primary treatment process in wastewater 128
treatment plant
Figure 3.9 Activated sludge process flow diagram 130
Figure 3.10 Schematic diagram of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
reactor 131
Figure 3.11 General process flow diagram for adsorption process using
granular activated carbon 132
Figure 3.12 Process flow diagram for liquid waste management 136
Figure 3.13 Process block diagram of gas management 138
Figure 3.14 CO2 Capture Technology in Application 139
Figure 3.15 Schematic diagram of amine scrubbing technology 140
Figure 3.16 Schematic diagram of psa technology 142
Figure 3.17 Schematic diagram of cryogenic distillation 143
Figure 3.18 Schematic diagram of membrane separation in hollow fiber
membrane module structure 144
Figure 3.19 Process flow diagram for gas waste management 146
Figure 3.20 Schematic diagram of CHP process 146
Figure 4.1 Composite curves shows the pinch point between hot and cold
streams 153
Figure 4.2 Heat exchanger network (HEN) at above pinch temperature for
maximum energy recovery (MER) 159

xxii
Figure 4.3 Process flow diagram before heat integration 162

Figure 4.4 Process flow diagram after heat integration 163

Figure 5.1 Basic open loop drying system 167

Figure 5.2 Feedforward conceptual diagram 167
Figure 5.3 Feedback conceptual diagram 168
Figure 5.4 Ratio control conceptual diagram 169
Figure 5.5 Cascade control conceptual diagram 170
Figure 5.6 Compressor-01 with control system 173
Figure 5.7 Compressor-02 with control system 173
Figure 5.8 Compressor-03 with control system 173
Figure 5.9 Compressor-04 with control system 173
Figure 5.10 Compressor-05 with control system 174
Figure 5.11 Heat Exchanger-02 control system 175
Figure 5.12 Heat Exchanger-03 control system 175
Figure 5.13 Heat Exchanger-04 control system 176
Figure 5.14 Heat Exchanger-05 control system 176
Figure 5.15 Heat Exchanger-06 control system 176
Figure 5.16 Heat Exchanger-07 control system 177
Figure 5.17 Heat Exchanger-08 control system 177
Figure 5.18 Heat Exchanger-09 control system 177
Figure 5.19 D-101 condenser control system 178
Figure 5.20 D-102 condenser control system 178
Figure 5.21 D-103 condenser control system 178
Figure 5.22 D-101 reboiler control system 180
Figure 5.23 D-102 reboiler control system 180
Figure 5.24 D-103 reboiler control system 180
Figure 5.25 Gasifier control system 184
Figure 5.26 Water Gas Shift Reactor control system 185
Figure 5.27 Methanol control system 187
Figure 5.28 DME Reactor control system 188

xxiii
Figure 5.29 Flash Column F-101 control system 190
Figure 5.30 Flash Column F-102 control system 191
Figure 5.31 Distillation Column D-101 control system 195
Figure 5.32 Distillation Column D-102 control system 197
Figure 5.33 Distillation Column D-103 control system 199
Figure 5.34 DME storage tank variables and control configuration 201
Figure 5.35 Methanol storage tank control configuration 202
Figure 6.1 Plant Layout 212
Figure 6.2 Unit operation layout 215
Figure 6.3 Image of Pressure Relief Valve 235
Figure 6.3 Image of Rupture Disc 236
Figure 7.1 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 15 327
Figure 7.2 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 15 331
Figure 7.3 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 30 333

xxiv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Raw Material

Oil palm also known as Elaeis guineensis, is the largest produced and traded
vegetable oils and fats in global market. Malaysia is the second-largest oil palm
producing country however it’s the largest exporter of palm oil globally until now. Oil
palm is one of the vital crops in Malaysia and is broadly planted all around the state,
mainly in Pahang, Sabah, and Sarawak as shown in Table 1.1. According to the data of
MPOB (2019), 19.52 million tonnes or 27% of palm oil were produced by Malaysia,
accounting for 16.49 million tonnes or 33% share of the global palm oil were exported.

Table 1.1 Area of oil palm planted on December 2018 in hectares (MPOB, 2019)
STATE MATURED % IMMATURED % TOTAL %
JOHOR 680,562 91.0 67,000 9.0 747,562 12.8
KEDAH 82,287 91.9 8,007 8.9 90,294 1.5
KELANTAN 121,085 77.9 34,287 22.1 155,372 2.7
MELAKA 51,237 90.2 5,574 9.8 56,811 1.0
NEGERI
167,026 89.1 20,425 10.9 187,451 3.2
SEMBILAN
PAHANG 653,535 86.4 102,614 13.9 756,149 12.9
PERAK 364,090 88.1 49,221 11.9 413,311 7.1
PERLIS 641 94.1 40 5.9 681 0.0
PALAU
14,042 95.5 660 4.5 14,702 0.3
PINANG
SELANGOR 123,139 90.3 13,222 9.7 136,361 2.3
TERENGGANU 149,519 88.5 19,395 11.5 168,914 2.9

1
 PENINSULAR
2,407,163 88.3 320,445 11.7 2,727,608 46/6
MALAYSIA
SABAH 1,378,655 89.0 170,590 11.0 1,549,245 26.5
SARAWAK 1,403,526 89.3 168,951 10.7 1,572,477 26.9
SABAH &
2,782,181 89.1 339,541 10.9 3,121,722 53.4
SARAWAK
MALAYSIA 5,189,344 88.7 659,986 11.3 5,849,330 100.0

According to Abdullah & Sulaiman (2013), only 10% of the oil is obtained from
the oil palm tree and the rest 90% consists of biomass residues which includes oil palm
empty fruit bunch (EFB), oil palm kernel shell (OPS), oil palm trunk (OPT), oil palm
frond (OPF), and oil palm mesocarp fibre (OPMF). As shown in Table 1.2, OPF was
reported to be the largest biomass wastes with the amount up to half of the total wastes
(50.3%). Unfortunately, these huge amounts of OPFs are underutilized which retained
it in the plantation area for decomposing naturally led to concerns over the waste
management.

Table 1.2 Quantity of oil palm wastes generated per year (Omar et al., 2018)
Oil palm residues Quantity generated/ha/year (tonnes)
Empty fruit bunch (EFB) 4.420
Palm kernel shell 1.100
Palm kernel trunk 2.515
Frond 10.880
Mesocarp fibre 2.710
Total 21.625

1.1.1 Chemical Background of Oil Palm Fronds (OPFs)

OPF consists of a hard petiole with fibrous long leaflets attached which is
around 2 to 3 meters long. Its wet weight is 10kg while its dry weight is 2.3kg. The
fresh leaflets and petioles contain water content in the range of 54 – 56% and 75 – 79%

2
respectively. Its average bulk density was stated to be approximately 700kg/m3
(Sulaiman et al., 2015).

OPF is lignocellulosic biomass that composite of 58% cellulose, 24%

hemicelluloses, 8% extractives, 5% lignin, and 5% ashes (Sabrina et. al., 2013).
Cellulose is the main constituent of plant cell wall comprised by a chain of unbranched
polymer the have variance glucose monosaccharides with the empirical formula of
(C6H10O5)n as repeating units. Cellulose is crystalline, chiral, high molecular weight
and insoluble in water and organic solvents. Hemicellulose is a simple constituent of
the palm cell wall that predominantly pentose sugar made up of variance
monosaccharide units and it exists as either homopolymer or heteropolymer that readily
soluble in alkali solution. Lignin is structure in aromatic polymer fundamentally made
up of phenylpropane monomeric units, cross-linked polymer with variance chemical
bonds that reinforces the cell walls and support its mechanical strength (Megashah et
al., 2018). A small number of extractives are found in OPF, which the left-over residual
oil from OPMF. According to Megashah et al. (2018), the remained residual oil is still
existing in OPF due to oil extraction is not fully extracted from OPMF which as the
storage of palm oil.

Holocellulose (cellulose and hemicellulose) components of biomass residues

can efficiently undergoes gasification by converting it into gaseous products composed
of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4)
whereas lignin component is converted into a very low yield of methane and carbon
dioxide. Research was carried out by Irmak et al. (2013) found that the products of
gasification by using cellulose resulted in higher production of gas mixtures than
hemicellulose component. Lignin with its complex aromatic structure is preferable to
undergo formation of benzene instead of gasification. This due to require more energy
to break down its bonded structure for gasification. Hence, the cellulose component is
chosen for chemical reaction from OPF as it showed high potential in gasification
among the composition of OPF.

3
1.1.2 Shelf-life of Raw Material

Although OPF is always available throughout the year, it must be collected and
piled up immediately within two days after harvesting or pruning of the palm trees
(Dahlan, 2000). However, at temperature of 1-7°C the shelf-life of OPF can be
prolonged to ensure the cellulose and hemicellulose content does not degrade off
(Science Lab, 2013).

1.1.3 Advantages of using OPF

There are several advantages of using oil palm fronds as raw material compared
to other agricultural wastes including EFB, OPS, OPT, and OPMF based on economic,
environment and safety. Advantages with an explanation of the reasons to choose OPFs
are stated in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Advantages of using OPF

Advantages Explanation
Low cost expenses OPF is not been fully utilised and most of the farmers are
disposing it to make sure it doesn’t pile up in the
plantation areas. The abundance in the OPF availability
and lower demand of it ensures the price of OPF to be
always lower.
Cost effective business OPF from a zero cost of the waste compliance strategy that
can reduce short and long-term costs such as penalty on
improper waste management or insufficient of plantation
area.
High product quality From a waste product, OPF undergoes the designed
process to produce a valuable and high demand product
such as syngas, methanol and dimethyl ether.

4
 Waste reduction OPF as one of the waste disposals that can used as raw
material in the production process. Thus, landfills can be
avoided.
Cleaner environment Reduction of the natural decomposing that causes harm to
the environment and avoids the area to serve as pest
(insect) breeding sites.
Safer material Composition of OPF including cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin are considered as not a hazardous substance as
it is stated in Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

1.1.4 Application of OPF

Firstly, based on Hassan et al. (1996) and Zahari et al. (2003) research, OPF had
been commonly used in Malaysia and Indonesia as a source of roughage feed for
ruminants to improve their nutritional value and meat production. This is because OPFs
are one of high-fibre materials that consist high percentage of holocellulose and low-
protein that has high potential to replace tropical grasses for feeding many classes of
herbivore animals such as buffaloes, sheep, deer, cattle and so on.

Besides that, several researchers used OPF for fermentable sugar production. In
this process, holocellulose of OPF is converted into sugar with 70% glucose, 27%
sucrose, and 3% fructose by undergoing hydrothermal treatment followed by enzymatic
hydrolysis. The conditions require are high pressure and temperature with the present
of enzyme (cellulase). Renewable sugars are produced from the fronds wherein no
harsh pre-treatment steps and enzymes needed but the overall process is costly (Zahari
et al., 2012; Rizal et al., 2018).

Furthermore, OPFs that naturally disposal wastes are recycled onto the
plantation as fertilizer to preserve and enhance soil fertility. The ability for nutrient
recovery of macronutrients consists of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus has the

5
potential for fertilizer application. Besides improve soil fertility, the fertilizer result in
odor problem (Hamzah et al., 2019).

1.1.5 Availability of OPF

Malaysia is one of the main oil palm tree planters in the global. According to
Dungani et al. (2018), a large amount of OPF will be cut off after the palm trees had
passed the economical age. Oil palm tree average life-span in Malaysia is not more than
28 years as shown in Figure 1.2. Based on Sulaiman et al. (2015), about 6 tonnes of
OPFs can be collected from one tonne of palm oil produced from fresh fruit bunches.
The average annual pruning based on the fronds weight varies noticeably with the age
of oil palm tree is 82.5kg of fronds/palm/year (Zahari et al., 2003).

Figure 1.1 Oil palm age and yield profile (Alam et al., 2015)

6
1.1.6 Global Supply and Market Forecast of OPF

According to the latest data from Maulia & Kumar (2019), the largest global
palm oil supply of OPF is Indonesia (56%) followed by Malaysia, which contributed
27%. In 2019, palm oil industries in Indonesia is predicted to produce 43 million tons
while Malaysian production is expected to produce 20 million tons. As an increment of
oil palm production, the potential of palm oil waste will be increased therefore it
contributes to the increase in OPF. Even though OPF are usually left on the ground for
it to naturally decompose besides been used for fermentable sugar production and
fertiliser, however, it takes long time to decompose and causes mobilisation problem in
the plantation. Therefore, the planters have to dispose them because of abundance in
the OPF and it’s been underutilised.

Figure 1.2 Global oil palm production by countries in 2018 (Maulia & Kumar,
2019)

7
 Graph of frond production and plantation area against year
125,000,000 (2002-2015)
105,000,000
Production (Tons)

85,000,000

65,000,000

45,000,000

25,000,000

5,000,000
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year
Plantation Area (Hectare) Frond Production (Tonnes)

Figure 1.3 Graph of frond production and plantation area against year 2002-2015
(Hambali & Rivai, 2017)

Based on the graph obtained in Indonesia from 2002 to 2015, the trend of oil
palm plantation area increases gently whereas OPF production increases significantly.
In Malaysia, the data from MPOB (2019) states oil palm areas are gradually increased
from 5.81 million hectares in 2017 to 5.85 million hectares in 2018. The expansion of
oil palm area and development of palm industry caused an increase of agricultural waste
derived from harvest of oil palm fruit bunches, replanting of palm trees and pruning
management every year as follows the trend of the graph in Figure 1.3.

8
 Figure 1.4 Production of oil palm biomass (Rizal et al., 2018)

Figure 1.4 shows the production of fronds corresponds to the results in Figure
1.3. OPF is the largest biomass waste with the amount produced is more than half of
the total wastes. Approximately 83 million tonnes of oil palm residues are produced in
2012 by the oil palm industry in Malaysia. It is expected to rise to be more than 100
million tonnes by 2020. Although there is large amount of frond production but it was
underutilized by others.

1.2 Background of Products

The main product of this process is the Dimethyl Ether (DME) while the by-products
are Methanol, Carbon Dioxide, Hydrogen, Ash, and Water.

9
1.2.1 Main Product

Dimethyl ether (DME) also known as methoxymethane, methyl ether, methyl

oxide, wood ether and N, N-dimethyl ether, is an organic compound with the chemical
formula of CH3OCH3, simplified to C2H6O. It considered the simplest ether that
connected two methyl groups by an oxygen atom as shown in Figure 1.5. DME is a
clean, liquefied, colourless volatile gas which heavier than air, commonly used as
transportation fuel, domestic sector fuel, aerosol propellant, solvent, and refrigerant.
Dimethyl Ether (DME) with a purity of 99% is produced in the process to be sold in
the market.

Figure 1.5: Skeletal formula of DME

1.2.1.1 Chemical Background of DME

DME exhibit properties that similar to liquid petroleum gas (LPG) but lower
than methanol (CH3OH). It is found in a gaseous state at room temperature but can be
easily liquefied to transport. DME is not corrosive to any metals. DME commonly used
to produce artificial rubber such as Nitric rubber (NBR) in either liquid or gas condition.
Table 1.4 shows the physical and chemical properties of DME.

10
 Table 1.4 Properties of DME (Praxair, 2019)
Properties

Appearance Colourless
Odour Ethereal
Flammability Highly flammable
Density 668.3 kg/m3 (at 20°C)
Specific gravity 0.661
Molecular weight 46.07 g/mol
Solubility in water 70 g/L (at 20°C)
Boiling point -24.8°C
Melting point -141.5°C
Critical temperature 126.9°C
Auto-ignition temperature 350°C
Heat of combustion 347.6 kcal/mole
Heat of vaporisation 111.64 cal/g (at -24.8°C)
Vapour pressure 510 kPa (at 20°C)
Critical pressure 5370 kPa

1.2.1.2 Hazard Identification of DME

Although DME is chemically stable, but hazard identification needs to be alert

before handling it. DME is an extremely flammable gas and peroxidizable compound,
contains gas under pressure. This will cause it to be very dangerous to the fire and easy
to cause explosion when exposed to flame. Besides that, DME is a substance that has
fast evaporation in cooling. It is one of the hazardous when DME contact with
evaporating liquid may cause frostbite or freezing of skin. Vapour of DME can cause
eye, nose and throat irritation or rapid suffocation. DME may also cause drowsiness or
dizziness when high exposure and excess inhalation. Last but not least, incomplete
combustion of DME may form carbon monoxide as hazardous decomposition products
to the environment.

11
1.2.1.3 Advantages of DME

The favourable characteristics of DME have the creation of several advantages

to economic, environment and safety. Table 1.5 shows the advantages of dimethyl ether
listed below.
Table 1.5 Advantages of DME
Advantages Explanation
Variety of feedstock Raw materials for DME can be obtained from natural
gas, coal, and biomass.
Storage DME can be stored as a liquid under moderate pressure
while high-pressure containers needed for compressed
natural gas or cryogenics.
Transportation DME is easily liquefy become fuel, thus, easy for
transport.
Safety DME is non-toxic and spillage with not contaminate
soil.
Clean combustion DME emit lesser carbon gases during combustion due
to it is a renewable low-carbon fuel.
Environmental advance DME has a high cetane number that emits low yield of
NOx and CO that will not cause the greenhouse effect.
Cost competitive DME is lower cost compared to diesel or LPG due to its
simplicity.

1.2.2 By-Product

The by-product of the process, methanol (purity: 97%) and carbon dioxide (purity:
99.9%) is to be sell in the plant. The methanol is obtained from the separation inside D-
103 column that separates the methanol and DME while the CO2 is obtained through a
series of step in waste management from the stream S19. H2 which will be obtained
together with the waste management process of CO2 will be used in turbine for power
generation. The ash (including tar and char) produced in the G-101 will be collected

12
and disposed straight to the landfill while the water will be treated before been
discharged into the environment.

1.3 Market Survey of DME

This survey is to analyse the global supply, application and market demand of
DME includes the investigation of the potential customers and its competitors. The
main advantage of the market survey methods helps in gathering the primary
information data in order to solve the problems occurred or fulfilled consumers’
requirement.

1.3.1 Global Supply and Market Demand of DME

Production of DME is basically from converting hydrocarbons to synthesis gas

(syngas) through the gasification process. Syngas is rapidly converted to methanol by
using copper-based catalyst due to its instability followed by dehydrating it, thus DME
produced. In addition, a variety of raw materials of DME can be used including
methanol, coal, natural gas, and biomass. Methanol produced from natural gas is the
most commonly used raw material to produce DME.

Automotive industry is recognised as the major growth drivers in rising the

demand for DME market demand. The increase in the environmental concern among
the consumers become one of the major drive for the automotive industry to adapt DME
as it’s a better option for a quality fuel since it emits lesser pollutants. For example, car
manufacturers replace petrol, diesel, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) by DME to
being a cleaner fuel and reduce foot carbon print.

13
Figure 1.6 Growth rate of global DME market demand by region forecast in 2019-
2024 (Mordor Intelligence, 2019)

China dominates Asia Pacific market by accounting for a major share in the
production and consumption of the global DME market. As shown in Figure 1.6, the
region will experience a significant growth rate over the forecast timespan to 2024.
Reduction on applications in LPG led to high product demand of DME in Asia Pacific
which is gradually gaining momentum to attain environmental sustainability. Malaysia
is located in the high regional growth area surrounded by high market demand countries
as shown in Figure 1.6.

14
 Global DME market and forecast 2017-2026

16
14
12
Billion (USD)

%
10 AGR: 11
C
8
13.77
6 12.4
11.17
9.07 10.07
4 7.36 8.17
5.97 6.63
5.38
2
0
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026
Year
Market Growth
Figure 1.7 Graph of DME global market and forecast 2017-2026 (Maximize
Market Research, 2017)

Based on the graph of DME global market and forecast from 2017-2026
reported by Maximize Market Research (2017) in Figure 1.7, the percentage growth of
global market increase by 11% compound annual growth (CAGR) which is from
USD5.38 billion expected increases to USD13.77 billion by 2026. This shows the
market of DME is demanding throughout the next few years.

Global DME market is currently operated by several leading companies there

are Royal Dutch Shell, Akzo Nobel NV, China Energy Limited, Toyo Engineering
Corporation, Guangdong JOVO Group Company Limited, Mitsubishi Gas Chemical
Company, Ferrostaal GmbH and etc. Most of the company are producing DME by using
natural gas or methanol is a costly process whereas coal as raw material for
manufacturing DME leads to air pollution.

15
1.3.2 Production of DME in Malaysia

Malaysia has a wide availability of raw material platform to develop biomass

for manufacture biofuel. In 2006, the Malaysian government launched National Biofuel
Policy to reduce dependency of the usage of oil and gas by producing biofuel from palm
oil and the government encourages the R&D of the agricultural crops into biofuel. Most
of the companies in Malaysia such as Petronas Sdn. Bhd. manufacture DME using the
intermediate methanol produced by them. According to Lo, P. K. (2016), the incentives
provided by government such as Investment Tax Allowance (ITA) given to the
biodiesel manufacturers under Promotion of Investment Act 1986 have a good sign that
Malaysian government will also apply the incentives in the DME production from
waste biomass from oil palm frond therefore attract investors to invest in Malaysia.

1.3.3 Application of DME

Global Dimethyl Ether Market by Application (2019)

Aerosol Others
Propellant
31%
31%

Domestic Sec- Transportation

Fuel Fuel
19% 19%

Figure 1.8 Global DME market by application in 2019 (Mordor Intelligence, 2019)

16
1.3.3.1 Domestic Sector Fuel

DME in China is used in a much similar way that propane is used in the United
State. The most common application of DME based coal is used for residential heating
and cooking in order to substitute liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Moreover, DME is
used for power electric generation in the late 1990s. Based on the research of Fleish et
al. (2012), the experiment carried out showed less soot emission and great efficient
performance of DME as gas turbine fuel. It also can be used in compression engines
which substantially impact the potential applications of fuel over liquid natural gas or
compressed natural gas, methanol and ethanol.

1.3.3.2 Transportation Fuel

In the city of Shanghai recently is using DME to replace diesel fuel by

improving the operating margins in order to reduce pollutant emission and diminish
dependence on non-renewable fuel. In fact, 85% of transportation in China are using
DME as fuel (Kauffman & Riedford, 2014). In addition, Volvo has engineered DME
fleet and is testing the trucks by reducing the emission from DME in Europe. The black
liquor such as wood pulp waste is turned into DME at Sweden plants. These devices
make diesel power more expensive, low efficiency, and less reliable. In Sweden, the
trucks are used to decrease emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide and particular
matter. Thus, it was successful to meet the Environmental Protection Agency standard
for the economy of fuel and air pollution. DME used to substitute fuel cell vehicles as
transportation fuel (Kauffman & Riedford, 2014).

1.3.3.3 Propellant or coolant

DME with the features of high vapour pressure, high water solubility and high
weight per unit volume. These characteristics give several applications to DME such as
its role in a variety of personal care products including hairspray, antiperspirants,

17
shaving creams, foams, and so on. In fact, DME as a substitute of chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) for manufacturing paint aerosols cans, cosmetics as a propellant. DME also
applicable as a carrier in vapor and sprays against insects (Nexant Inc., 2008).

1.3.3.4 Other Applications

DME can be applied for laboratory reagent and solvent due to its low boiling
point. It is used as solvent extraction in the production of foodstuffs and food
ingredients to extract lipids from the food without denaturing the protein. In addition,
DME is used as refrigerant due to its advantages of low pollution and good refrigerating
characteristics. DME as a cleaning material for laboratory systems such as resins and
solvent.

1.4 Market Survey of Methanol

In 2018, the methanol market has reached worth of US$ 24.7 Billion
with a CAGR of 7.7% during 2011-2018. The most conventional way to produce
methanol is by destructive distillation of wood but nowadays people preferred to
produce methanol by using carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas with the presence of
catalyst. The methanol application is usually as solvent to produce resins,
pharmaceuticals and perfumes. According to the estimation of IMARC Group, in 2024,
methanol market will reach US$ 48.3 Billion with a CAGR of 11.1%

1.4.1 Application of Methanol

Methanol is very efficient and due to this characteristics, it always being chosen
to be used for automotive industry as antifreeze agent for automobile radiators. It also
used for gasoline purpose such as manufacturer of Dimethyl ether (DME) and Methyl
tert-butyl ether (MTBE). This alternatives was proven to be one of the safer alternatives.

18
Formaldehyde, acetic acid and methyl acetate also can be form from Methanol. All of
this product is being produced for further used in producing paints, solvents, foams,
plastic and also explosives. The grade of methanol for this application is above 99.9%.

Methanol naturally is eco-friendly since its biodegrades easily. Thus, it is

preferable to be used in producing biodiesel. It is recommended to use methanol above
97% purity to make a high quality of biodiesel.

1.5 Market Survey of Carbon Dioxide

In 2018, it was expecting that the global carbon dioxide valued will be at USD
7.4 billion with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.4% over the period of
time. This is due to the increasing application of carbon dioxide in industrial sector
which are in oil recovery (EOR) industry and oil and gas industry that be the major
driving factor in the global market.

1.5.1 Application of Carbon Dioxide

There are 3 main grade of CO2 in the market based on its application which is
medical grade for medical industry, food grade for food and beverage industry and
industrial grade for oil and gas industry.

1.5.1.1 Medical Grade

The application of CO2 can be seen in modern medicine to minimize invasive

surgeries. It acts as a vasodilator to the skin to bring warm sensations to stimulate the
heat receptors. In endoscopic treatment, carbon dioxide is use for insufflation (Ajay,
2019). Besides, carbon dioxide also being used in arthroscopy, laparoscopy for the
purpose of stabilizing body cavities and enlarge the surgical surface area. Medical

19
segment is predicted to have CAGR of 3.4% from 2019 until 2025 with a steady growth
pattern (GVR, 2018). Grade CO2 use in medical sector is around 99.5 % purity
(Matheson, 2001).

1.5.1.2 Food Grade

Food and beverage industry has the largest demand of carbon dioxide that
contributes to a total of 36% that’s been consumed (GVR, 2018). Carbon dioxide is use
for the purpose of cooling liquid or refrigerant because it has very low temperature of -
78.5°C. This is to sublimates the dry ice (Ajay, 2019). Another usage is in carbonation
of soft drinks, beer or other alcoholic beverages. Carbon dioxide is use in softening
water to avoid corrosion in long water distribution lines and producing portable
drinking water (GVR, 2018). It is also used for the frozen food to maintain the
cryogenic temperature. The CO2 grade that’s used in food industry is around 99.9 %
purity (CO2meter, 2019).

1.5.1.3 Industrial Grade

Carbon Dioxide use in oil and gas industry is predicted by the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE) can recover around 137 billion carbon dioxide. This is close to the
cost of around US$ 85 per barrel. This statistical data prove that carbon dioxide usage
has high potential benefit for oil recovery in the oil and gas industry (Ajay, 2019). The
gas is injected in the oil extraction pipelines with a high pressure to extract the oil until
it reaches the ground. It also reduce the flow of oil and viscosity of the extracted oil
(GVR, 2018). Besides, the governments worldwide nowadays promoting and giving
incentive to enhance oil recovery techniques (Ajay, 2019). In North America, estimated
market around USD 2.9 billion in 2018 as the country is the dominant consumer of
carbon dioxide followed by U.S and Canada (GVR, 2018). Grade CO2 use in industry
is around 99.5 % purity (CO2meter, 2019).

20
1.6 Site Selection Criteria

A suitable location must be considered through several site selection criteria

before a plant is selected to build. The criteria need to be considered are location, raw
material supply, transport facilities, availability of labour, utilities, and suitable land,
environmental impact and effluent disposal, local community consideration, climate,
and political and strategic consideration.

Location to build up a plant must consider its profit gain with the minimum cost
of production. It is best to build the plant near to the raw material source as it will ease
the transportation and lowering the cost of the raw material to be transported to the
production plant. The raw material and the product need to have a good transportation
facility that could link and connect the production plant with the supplier and the
buyers. Skilled workers and labour availability that will help to boost up and making
the production runs efficiently also need to be considered.

Next criteria were the availability of utilities. Utilities such and water and
electrical are very important to run the plant. The land for the plant must have enough
space, affordable and strategic considering about the climates. Political consideration
may help in boosting up the market and help in the plant management.

The industrial activities may lead to environmental pollution for the short term
and also a long term. All the industries produced waste either in solid, liquid or gas
form. The disposal of the waste to the environment especially waste with high pollutant
had the high change to affect the environment and the public. The pollution will not
only affect only the flora and fauna, but also liveability of human being as the
discharged pollutant is very harmful. For example, the water discharge, smoke and
chemical disposal. All the criteria for the disposal need to follow the Department of
Environmental Malaysia (DOE) regulation and requirement. The site chosen is a Free
Industrial Zone which was introduced by the government and have consider about the
environment. The site selection must avoid the sensitive area such as residential area,
recreational park and public park. The Environment Sensitive Area (ESA) associated
with human-related activities, structure and system if they contribute to human health,

21
enhance social, education and development (DOE, 2012). DOE state that ESA for
human system include:

a) Places or structure that were listed as national or international heritage

b) National, cultural, religious, social and tourism value
c) Orang Asli, Reserved land and Native Customary Land
d) Cemeteries, burial grounds, traditional religious, cultural and heritage sites
e) Hospital, school and educational centres
f) Residential area
g) Recreational park and sport area

The site selection must be considering all of the ESA to avoid any unwanted event.
Therefore, the site for the plant need to be out of the ESA range.

1.7 Comparison of the Potential Location

The potential site for the production of DME were selected on the Industrial
Zone which were provided by the government. Three potential site that were being
consider were at Klang, Selangor, Kuching, Sarawak and Kuantan, Pahang. The
comparison of the potential site was tabulated in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6 Comparison of the selected site

Pandamaran Gebeng Industrial Sama Jaya Free

State Industrial Zone, Park, Kuantan, Industrial Zone,
Klang, Selangor Pahang Kuching, Sarawak

7.7 KM from
4.4 KM from Port 5 KM from
Kuching Authority
Location Klang Kuantan Port
Port
(3) (3)
(3)

25 hectares 813 hectares 1528.5 hectares

Area
available/ RM 8 million/ RM 5 million/ RM 1 million/
hectare hectare hectare
Land Price
(1) (2) (3)

22
 Astral Asia
Plantation Sdn Bhd
SALCRA (11,859
Sime Darby Malaysia (4,019
ha)
Feedstock Plantation Pulau ha)
Carey (11,000 ha) Keresa Plantation
Source
(8,551 ha)
(2) Har Len Corp. Bhd
(2) (12,832 ha)
(2)

Pulau Indah Kuching Lebuhraya Pantai

Highway International Airport Timur (East Coast
Transport Keretapi Tanah Kuching – Expressway)
Facilities Melayu Samarahan Sultan Ahmad
KLIA Expressway Shah Airport
(3) (2) (2)

Tenaga Nasional Sarawak Energy Tenaga Nasional

Berhad (TNB) Berhad (SEB) Berhad (TNB)
Peak hour : RM Peak hour: Peak hour : RM
Electrical 0.215/kWh RM0.229/kWh 0.215/kWh
Supply
Off-peak: RM Off-peak: RM Off-peak: RM
0.123/kWh 0.139/kWh 0.123/kWh
(3) (1) (3)

Pengurusan Air
Pengurusan Air Kuching Water
Pahang Berhad
Selangor Sdn Bhd Board (KWB)
(PAIP)
0!" -35!" : 1!" -25!" : RM
0!" – 227!" :
Water Supply RM2.07/!" 0.97/!"
RM0.92/!"
35!" ~ : 25!" ~:
227!" ~ :
RM2.28/!" RM1.06/!" (KWB)
RM0.84/!"
(1) (2)
(3)

No Monsoon
Northeast Monsoon
No monsoon seasons seasons and typhoon
Climate (October – March)
(2) hit
(1)
(3)

TOTAL
15 15 16
MARKS

23
 The site selection was selected based on the mark given for each criteria on each
site selected. The most preferable was given 3 marks, 2 marks for preferable and 1 mark
for the least preferable.

From Table 1.6, it is shown that the site selection in Klang, Selangor was nearer
to the port with distance of 4.4 Kilometres followed by Kuantan, Pahang with distance
5.0 kilometres away from the Kuantan Port. Sarawak was 7.7 Kilometres away from
Kuching Authority Port. All of the three site locations having the distance under 10
kilometres away from the port which is the most preferable location to build up the
plant. Moreover, Kuantan, Pahang has the biggest availability of land with area of
1528.5 hectares with the cheapest land price which is RM 1 million per hectare
compared to Kuching, Sarawak and Klang Selangor. At all the sites, raw material
supply is accessible as there are a lot of oil palm plantation and supplier available
nearby.

From Table 1.6 shows that Klang, Selangor is the most preferable transport
facilities as there are additional of train from Keretapi Tanah Melayu, it also near to the
Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) and Pulau Indah Highway. As for the
utilities, both Klang, Selangor and Kuantan, Pahang have the same electric supplier
from Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) with the industrial rate of RM 0.215 per kilowatt-
hour in peak hour and RM 0.123 per kilowatt-hour in off-peak hour thus make both of
the site as the most preferable site compared to Kuching, Sarawak which is supplied by
Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB) with industrial rate of RM 0.229 per kilowatt-hour in
peak hour and RM 0.139 per kilowatt-hour for off-peak hour. Pengurusan Air Pahang
Berhad (PAIP) gives the lowest rate of water supply for industrial purpose with rate
RM 0.92 per m3 for the first 227m3 and RM 0.84 per m3 for the excess 227m3 compare
to Pengurusan Air Selangor in Klang and Kuching Water Board in Kuching.

In term of climate, Kuching, Sarawak is the most preferable as there are no

Monsoon season, flood and typhoon hits compared to Klang, Selangor which there is
possibilities of flood even there is no Monsoon seasons. While Kuantan, Pahang which
located at East-coast has Northeast Monsoon which occurs in October until March. The

24
Kuantan Port and Kuching Authority Port were located at South-East China Sea and
Klang Port is located at the Straits of Malacca.

The chosen site for the DME production plant is in Gebeng Industrial Park in
Kuantan Pahang as the site in Kuantan, Pahang earn total of 16 mark compare to Klang,
Selangor and Kuching, Sarawak with 15 marks each. The location of the plant is shown
in the Figure 1.9.

Gebeng Industrial
Park, Kuantan,
Pahang

Figure 1.9 Chosen site location for DME production plant

25
1.8 Process Selection

Plant design is a chemical process evaluation to ensure the process’s economic,

environmental and safety-based feasibility. In this section, all three paths are included
and the reaction path evaluation is performed to identify the best path for the reaction.

1.8.1 Reaction Path 1

This reaction is known as the indirect synthesis whereby the DME will be
synthesized from oil palm frond (OPF) by two consecutive steps. Synthetic gas or
syngas is produced from (OPF) via gasification process as shown in Eq. (1.1). This
path involves refining methanol from syngas and producing dimethyl ether (DME)
from methanol. Syngas produced from OPF is converted to methanol through Eq. (1.2)
and follows with water-gas shift reaction Eq. (1.3). The methanol will then be
dehydrated into DME and water Eq. (1.4).

Gasification: 2C6H10O5 + 3O2 → 6H2 + 4CO + 6CO2 + 2CH4 (1.1)

Methanol Synthesis: CO2 + 3H2 ↔ CH3OH + H2O (1.2)
Water Gas Shift Reaction: CO + H2O ↔ CO2 + H2 (1.3)
Methanol Dehydration: 2CH3OH ↔ CH3OCH3 + H2O (1.4)
Overall Balance: 2C6H10O5 + 3O2 → CH3OCH3 + H2O + 6CO2 +
(1.5)
2H2 + 2CO + 2CH4

1.8.2 Reaction Path 2

By the method of Direct Synthesis, DME can be synthesized using syngas as

the starting material. Direct synthesis takes place in a one step process and only one
reactor is used. Inside, there are several reactions take place to produce DME from
syngas (Méndez, 2016). Methanol is synthesised following Eq. (1.7) and water-gas

26
shift reaction Eq. (1.8). Methanol is then dehydrated to form DME Eq. (1.9). The
overall balance equation for the process shown in Eq. (1.10).

Gasification: 2C6H10O5 + 3O2 → 6H2 + 4CO + 6CO2 + 2CH4 (1.6)

Methanol Synthesis: 2CO + 4H2 ↔ 2CH3OH (1.7)
Water Gas Shift Reaction: CO + H2O ↔ CO2 + H2 (1.8)
Methanol Dehydration: 2CH3OH ↔ CH3OCH3 + H2O (1.9)
Overall Balance: 2C6H10O5 + 3O2 → CH3OCH3 + 7CO2 + 3H2 +
(1.10)
CO + 2CH4

1.8.3 Reaction Path 3

DME is synthesized from methane through a two-step process in which

bromomethane, CH3Br in the presence of hydrogen bromide, HBr and oxygen are
prepared from the oxidative bromination reaction of methane. Bromomethane was
hydrolyzed to DME in the second step (You et al, 2009). Bromomethane is prepared
by oxidative bromination with presence of hydrogen bromide and oxygen Eq. (1.12).
Dibromethane reacted with methane is then recycled to produce bromomethane Eq.
(1.12) Bromomethane is then hydrolysed to produce DME Eq. (1.13).

Gasification: 2C6H10O5 + 3O2 → 6H2 + 4CO + 6CO2 + 2CH4 (1.11)

Oxidative Bromination: 2CH4 + 5O2 + 3HBr ↔ CH3Br + CH2Br2 + CO
+ CO2 +7H2O (1.12)
CH4 + CH2Br2 ↔ 2CH3Br
Hydrolysis: 2CH3Br + H2O ↔ CH3OCH3 + 2HBr (1.13)
Overall Balance: 2C6H10O5 + 8O2 + HBr + 3CH4→ CH3OCH3 +
(1.14)
CH3Br + 6H2 + 7CO2 + 5CO

27
1.8.4 Block Diagram of Reaction Path Selection

Oil Palm Reaction Path 1

Frond Methanol DME DME

Grinder Synthesis Synthesis
Reactor Reactor
Reaction Path 2
Syngas DME
DME Synthesis Reactor with
Gasifier
hybrid catalyst
Air
Preheater Reaction Path 3
Oxidative Hydrolysis DME
Water Bromination Reactor
Vapour Reactor
& Ash

Figure 1.10 Process block diagram for all three reaction paths

28
1.8.5 Composition of Syngas from Oil Palm Frond (OPF)

Gasification produces any carbon-containing content in a synthetic gas

(syngas). Syngas is a gas mixture containing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen, also known as ‘producer gas’ (Salman, 2008). Gasification using steam is
found to improve the quality of syngas, the yield of gas, and the efficiencies of carbon
combustion and cold gas (Guangul et. al 2012).

Table 1.7 Composition of syngas from oil palm frond using preheated air
Feedstock Gasifying Medium Average Syngas Composition (Mass %)
Oil Palm CO CO2 CH4 H2
Steam
Frond (OPF) 39.9 53.7 0.0 4.6

1.9 Economic Potential Analysis

The cost of the raw materials for the product are being assumed and listed in the
Table 1.8 from various sources. The prices of the raw material and product are based
on the market in Asia Pacific countries. This is because our targeted customer is from
China mainly and all the Asia Pacific countries since they are the mainly consumers of
Dimethyl Ether (DME). The cost of the water used for industrial usage was taken from
Kuching Water Board in Table 1.9.

Table 1.8 Assumption of the raw materials and product

Molecular Price
Element Weight Sources
RM/kg
(g/mol)
Oil Palm Frond - 0.07 Kamar, 2009
Methanol, CH3OH 32.04 1.55 ICIS, 2019
Methane, CH4 16.04 3.60 Global Petrol, 2019
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 44.01 0.58 Akshat, 2017
Carbon Monoxide, CO 28.01 2.77 Susan, 2012

29
 Hydrogen, H2 2.02 10.89 Energy, 2019
Dimethyl Ether, DME 46.07 2.93 Alibaba, 2019a
Bromomethane/Methyl
94.94 10.37 Alibaba, 2019b
Bromide
Hydrogen Bromide 80.91 8.29 Alibaba, 2019c

Noted: Currency convert rate at 1st October 2019 @ 8.34 pm; 1USD = RM 4.19 (fx-
rate, 2019); 1CNY = RM0.59 (Xe, 2019); 1 Rs = RM 0.059 (Xe, 2019)

Table 1.9 Cost of Water (Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara, 2019)

Commercial Rate Per 1,000 Litre
Minimum charge in any one month RM22.00
1,000 – 25,000 Litres on any one month RM0.97
Excess over 25,00 Litres in one month RM1.06

30
Gross profit margin are calculated as shown in Table 1.10, 1.11 and 1.12.

Table 1.10 Gross Profit Margin Path 1

Path 1 : Indirect DME synthesis from syngas
Raw Materials Products
Components Units
C6H10O5 C6H10O5 H2 O2 CH3OCH3 CO2 CH4 CO
Mole
kmol 2 2 2 3 1 6 2 2
(Stoichiometry)
Molecular
kg / kmol 162.14 16.00 2.02 18.02 46.07 44.01 16.04 28.01
Weight
Weight kg 324.28 48.00 4.04 18.02 46.07 264.06 32.08 56.02
Ratio kg/ kg of DME 7.04 1.04 0.09 0.39 1.00 5.73 0.70 1.22
Cost / unit MYR/ kg 0.07 0 0 0 3.98 0 0 0
Cost MYR 0.49 0 0 0 3.98 0 0 0
MYR / kg-
Total 3.49
DME

Profit = Cost of CH3OCH3 – Cost of C6H10O5

Profit = RM 3.98 – RM 0.49
Profit = RM 3.49

31
 Table 1.11 Gross Profit Margin Path 2
Path 2 : Direct DME synthesis from syngas

Raw Materials Products

Components Units
C6H10O5 O2 H2 CH3OCH3 CO2 CO CH4

Mole (Stoichiometry) kmol 2 3 3 1 7 1 2

Molecular Weight kg / kmol 162.14 16 2.02 46.07 44.01 28.01 16.04

Weight kg 324.28 48 6.06 46.07 308.07 28.01 32.08

Ratio kg/ kg of DME 7.04 1.04 0.13 1.00 6.69 0.61 0.70

Cost / unit MYR/ kg 0.07 0.00 0.00 3.98 0.00 0.00 0.00

Cost MYR 0.49 0.00 0.00 3.98 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total MYR / kg-DME 3.49

Profit = Cost of CH3OCH3 – Cost of C6H10O5

Profit = RM 3.98 – RM 0.49
Profit = RM 3.49

32
 Table 1.12 Gross Profit Margin Path 3
Path 3 : Methane conversion into DME

Raw Materials Products

Components Units
C6H10O5 CH4 O2 HBr CH3Br CH3OCH3 H2 CO2 H2O CO

Mole
kmol 2 3 8 1 1 1 6 7 6 5
(Stoichiometry)

Molecular
kg / kmol 162.14 16.04 16 80.91 94.94 46.07 2.02 44.01 18.02 28.01
Weight

Weight kg 324.28 48.12 128 80.91 94.94 46.07 12.12 308.07 108.09 140.05

kg/ kg of
Ratio 7.04 1.04 2.78 1.76 2.06 1.00 0.26 6.69 2.35 3.04
DME

Cost / unit MYR/ kg 0.07 0 0 8.39 0 3.98 0 0 0 0

Cost MYR 0.49 0 0 14.73 0 3.98 0 0 0 0

MYR /
Total -11.25
kg-DME

Profit = Cost of CH3OCH3 – (Cost of C6H10O5 + Cost of HBr)

Profit = RM 3.98 – (RM 0.49 + RM 14.73)
Profit = RM -11.25

33
 Based on the gross profit margin of path 1 and path 2, Hydrogen (H2), Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) have no profit since this materials is being
recycled back into the system. Oxygen (O2) was the atmospheric air in the system.
Water is negligible since it becoming waste. The Methane (CH4) is the by-product. Both
of this have the same gross profit margin because the material being considered is only
the oil palm frond which is in the form of cellulose formula, C6H10O5 and the product
cost which is Dimethyl Ether, DME.

The similarity on the gross profit margin of path 3, Hydrogen (H2), Carbon
Dioxide (CO2) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) have no profit since this materials is being
recycled back into the system. Oxygen (O2) was the atmospheric air in the system.
Water is negligible since it becoming waste. A bit different were Methane (CH4) is the
intermediate with no profit, the cost for Methyl Bromide (CH3Br) as product with no
profit since it being used and Hydrogen Bromide (HBr) as the catalyst were being
considered. The gross profit margin considered the raw material cost were oil palm
frond and Hydrogen Bromide (HBr) while the product cost was Dimethyl Ether, DME.
However, since the use of the catalyst was very expensive thus this path does not give
any profit and having lost in terms of economic.

1.10 Technology Comparison and Process Selection

All three reaction paths are analyzed on the economic, safety, environment
and feasibility aspects of their advantages and disadvantages.

34
 Table 1.13 Comparison for path 1, 2 and 3 based on economy, environment, safety and feasibility

Process Selection Path 1 Path 2 Path 3

Economy Reactant Composition from Syngas (Vol.%) 29.94% CO 29.94% CO 2.03% CH4
12.80% CO2

DME Yield
90% 92% < 60%

DME Selectivity 95% 90% 69%

Gross Profit Margin RM3.49/kg RM3.49/kg - RM11.25/kg

Capital Cost High Medium High

Environment Toxic Chemicals Absent Absent Halide Present

Greenhouse Gas By-product CH4 CO2 & CH4 CO & CO2

Safety Temperature 250-400oC 250oC 180-660oC

Pressure Medium High Low

Feasibility Troubleshooting Easy Hard Easy

Note : Preferred Criteria

35
 From Table 1.13 above, all the 3 paths have been compared in term of its
advantages and disadvantages in term of economy, environment, safety and its
feasibility.

In term of economics, path 1 has utilized the highest composition of reactant

from syngas which is around 42.74% compared to path 2 and path 3 which only utilizes
29.94% and 2.03% of the syngas respectively. The DME yield was the highest in path
2 whereas the DME selectivity is the highest in path 1. In term of gross profit margin,
path 1 and 2 have a similar profit while path 3 shows a loss in profit. The capital cost
in the path 2 is lower than the other two paths mainly because path 2 only utilizes one
type of reactor to convert syngas to DME whereas path 1 and 3 need 2 types of reactors
to convert the syngas into DME.

In term of environment, even though all the 3 paths deal with CO and CO2 in
the processes, however, path 1 and 2 have absence in the halide component present,
therefore, it is preferred over the path 3. Path 1 has advantages in term of having a
lesser amount of greenhouse gasses as the by-product since it only contains about
2.03% of methane the other two paths have a higher composition of greenhouse gasses
as the by-product. In term of safety, the inherently safer nature of dealing with low
temperature and pressure makes the path 2 is preferred in term of temperature whereas
path 3 is preferred in term of pressure.

The feasibility of all the three paths is been analysed and it been noticed that
the path 1 and 3 are easier to troubleshoot compared to path 2 as path 1 and 3 has
different steps and reactors that permits flexibility in the process. The presence of only
one reactor that uses a bifunctional catalyst in it makes it harder to troubleshoot the
problem in case of any abnormalities in the process conditions.

In overall, the preferred chemical production path is path 1 because it been

preferred six times compared to five times in path 2 and two times in path 3. Therefore,
path 1 which use indirect DME synthesis is been selected as the process path among
the two other path.

36
 CHAPTER 2

MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE

2.1 Process Block Diagram

The processed Oil Palm Frond (OPF) is already been grinded into smaller size
(10mm-30mm) and dried to remove the water before entering the downdraft gasifier
where the syngas is produced. The produced syngas will go through water gas shift
reactor with additional of steam to optimise the proper ratio of syngas for methanol
production. Before the entering the methanol reactor, excess water is separated by
using flash column 1. After separation of water, methanol is produced by methanol
fixed bed reactor. Then, the unreacted syngas will be separated by flash column and
the others will continued for further separation of water from the methanol by using
distillation column 1. The methanol then enters the DME fixed bed reactor to
undergo dehydration process to produce DME product together with water and there
is some unreacted methanol. Next, distillation column 2 will be used to separate
stream and followed by using distillation column 3 to separate unreacted methanol
and water in order to product higher purity of dimethyl ether (DME). Therefore, the
final product DME is produced with purity of 99%.

37
 Figure 2.1 Process block diagram for selected reaction path

Note : Bold – Raw material || Red – Desired Product

38
2.2 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

Figure 2.2 Process Flow Diagram

39
2.3 Process Description

Figure 2.2 show the process flow diagram of Dimethyl Ether (DME)
production from Oil Palm Frond (OPF). The feed to the process, processed OPF is
already been dried to remove the water content and grinded up to 10mm-30mm in
size by the OPF seller in the plantation. The processed OPF enters the process
through stream S1 at the rate of 60 tonnes/hour into the downdraft gasifier (G-101)
where the right amount of steam is supplied through stream S2 to the bottom of the
gasifier. The OPF and steam supplied is assumed to be fully converted into 98% of
syngas (CO, CO2 and H2) and 2% of ash (including tar and char) which both these
products will leave the gasifier through stream S4 and S3 respectively.

After the gasification process, the syngas will be directed into the water gas
shift reactor (R-101) to optimise the ratio of the syngas for methanol production
which will be the intermediate in the DME production. Steam is injected through
stream S8 for it to react with CO and produce right amount of H2 for the process. The
product stream (H2O, CO, CO2 and H2) will flow to the flash column (F-101) to
remove the excess water from the mixture. The syngas will be directed to Methanol
reactor (R-102) for CO and CO2 to react simultaneously with H2 to produce
methanol and water. The product stream S16 will be directed to the flash column (F-
102) to remove the unreacted syngas from the process stream and the bottom which
contains water and methanol will flow into distillation column (D-101) to remove the
water that has tendency to disrupt the DME production.

The top stream of D-101 which contains Methanol flows to the DME Reactor
(R-103) in which the Methanol undergoes dehydration process to produce DME and
water. To increase the purity of the DME and Methanol, the product stream from R-
103 enters distillation column (D-102) in which the water will be removed at bottom
and the top product that contains DME and Methanol vapour will be directed to the
following distillation column (D-103) to separate the DME at top and Methanol at
bottom with purity of 99% and 97% respectively.

40
2.4 Equipment Basis

In this design, there will be 9 equipment are being used based on its function
and condition that can affect the material or component used in the process. All of
the equipment shown in the Process Flow Diagram which includes Downdraft
Gasifier, Water Gas Shift Reactor, Methanol Reactor, DME Reactor, 2 Flash
Columns, 3 Distillation Columns, 4 Valves, 5 Compressors, and 9 heat exchangers
(including heater, cooler and heat exchanger).

2.4.1 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Figure 2.3 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Biomass gasification in this process which is using the Oil Palm Frond (OPF)
produces gaseous mixture that mainly contains Hydrogen gas (H2), Methane gas
(CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). Steam will be the
gasifying agent as maximum production of syngas is obtained compared to using
pre-heated air as the gasifying agent. The Oil Palm Frond (OPF) that been feed into
the process is assumed to be already dried and grinded when bought. Below is the
summary of reaction of biomass in the gasifier:

41
Water gas reaction: C +H2O ↔ CO + H2 (2.1)

Water gas shift reaction: CO + H2O ↔ CO2 +H2 (2.2)

Steam Methane Reforming: CH4 + H2O ↔ CO +3H2 (2.3)

Boudouard reaction: C + CO2 ↔ 2CO (2.4)

Methanation reaction: C + 2H2 ↔ CH4 (2.5)

Reactions Eq. (2.1), (2.3) and (2.4) is an endothermic reaction and high
temperature favours the product. Reaction Eq. (2.2) and (2.5) is exothermic reaction
that the product will be favourable at low temperature. At low temperature range
370°C - 450°C, CO2 and H2 will be increased oppositely with CO decreases. This is
due to the water gas shift reaction is presence in the process. The CO content and H2
will be stable at range of 610°C - 850°C while CO2 content will be decreased at
temperature range 610°C - 690°C. Methane will be decomposed at temperature
610°C (Zakir et.al, 2011). Based on this fact, the suitable operating condition and
assumptions for the gasifier is listed in the table below.

Table 2.1 Operating Condition of Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Reactor Gasifier

Objective of Reactor To produce syngas

Limiting Reactant Frond (Raw Material)

Conversion 100%

Pressure 1 bar

Temperature 700°C

Catalyst -

Yield 98wt% (syngas) + 2wt% (ash, char and tar)

1. Assume conversion of frond is 100%.
Assumptions 2. All the ash and impurities settle down at stream S3.
3. Stream S4 only contains syngas (CO, CO2 and H2).

42
2.4.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Figure 2.4 Water Gas Shift Reactor

Water gas shift reactor in this process mainly focus on increasing H2 content
in the syngas so that the quantity of the CO and H2 will be optimised to use for the
next step of reaction. The reaction equation is shown as Eq. (2.6).

Water gas shift reaction: CO + H2O ↔ CO2 +H2 (2.6)

Steam is fed into the reactor to react with CO and produces H2 which is the
desired product together with the undesired CO2. CO2 is not preferred as the feed to
the next reactor because of it low conversion to methanol compared to CO. However,
to increase H2 content and to optimise the production of methanol in the next
process, the CO conversion was adjusted to 20%. The operating condition and
assumptions are mention in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Operating Condition of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Reactor WGS (Fixed Bed Reactor)

Objective of Reactor To produce CO and H2

Limiting Reactant Carbon monoxide CO

Conversion CO conversion : 20%

Pressure 10 bar

Temperature 200°C

Catalyst Ni/CeO2-Al2O3
1. No sulphur content in the feed stream.
Assumptions
2. Pressure drop is assumed to be 1.5 bar across the reactor.

43
2.4.3 Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Figure 2.5 Methanol Reactor

In the Methanol reactor, CO and CO2 react simultaneously with H2 to form

Methanol (CH3OH) and water (for CO2 reaction only). The reactor used will be
Lurgi fixed-bed reactor that has single indirectly cooled reactor. It can operate at
temperature range 220°C – 265°C. The equations of the reaction are shown in Eq.
(2.7) and (2.8).

CO + 2H2 ↔ CH3OH (2.7)

CO2 + 3H2 ↔ CH3OH + H2O (2.8)

The operating condition of methanol reactor will be shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Operating Condition of Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Reactor Methanol Reactor

Objective of Reactor To produce Methanol

Reaction 1 : CO
Limiting Reactant
Reaction 2 : H2
CO conversion: 68.4%, (Luyben,2010) ,
Conversion
H2 conversion :11% (grazia,2018)
Pressure 50 bar

Temperature 220°C

Catalyst Cu-ZnO-Al2O3

Assumption 1. Pressure drop in reactor is 1.5 bar across the reactor.

44
2.4.4 DME Reactor (R-103)

Figure 2.6 Dimethyl Ether Reactor

Dimethyl reactor is used to dehydrate methanol and form Dimethyl Ether

(CH3OCH3) and water is formed as by-product. In this process, a fixed-bed reactor is
used because it is cost efficient since it’s is low in cost while have high yield of
DME. This conversion can be achieved when its temperature is low. Most of the
industry also used this kind of reactor (Liu, 2012). The reaction equation shown in
Eq. (2.9).

2CH3OH ↔ CH3OCH3 + H2 (a) (2.9)

The operating condition of the reactor:

Table 2.4 Operating Condition of DME Reactor (R-103)

Reactor DME Reactor (Fixed Bed Reactor)

Objective of Reactor To produce DME

Limiting Reactant Methanol CH3OH

Conversion Methanol: 90.6%

Pressure 10 bar

Temperature 180°C

Catalyst H-ZMS-5 Catalyst

Assumptions 1. The pressure drop across the reactor is 1.5 bar

45
2.4.5 Distillation Column

A total of three distillation column (D-101, D-102, and D-103) is used in this
process to purify the desired component to flow to the process stream and also to
obtain higher purity of product. The distillation is done based on the vapour pressure
of the key components in the column.

Figure 2.7 Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

D-101 is used to separate Methanol and water to avoid water from flowing
into the DME Reactor, R-103 and causes catalyst to deactivate and inefficient for it
to enhance the methanol dehydration reaction. The separation is done based on the
vapour pressure of both products. The calculation for the distillation column is based
on a few equations. The first step is by finding the partial pressure of each
component inside the distillation column by using equation (Perry et al., 2000):

𝐶2
ln 𝑃𝑘𝑜 = 𝐶1 + + 𝐶3 ln 𝑇 + 𝐶4 𝑇 𝐶5 (2.10)
𝑇

Where,
P°k = vapour pressure of the component;
C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 = constants obtained from Perry’s Handbook;
T = temperature of the flash column.

46
Raoult’s law is used to assume the system is in ideal, whereby the relative volatility,
α, is obtained from equation (2.11) (Geankoplis et al., n.d.).

αk/n = P°k / Pc (2.11)

Where,
α = relative volatility;
P°k = vapour pressure of the component;
Pc = vapour pressure of key component.

As for the calculation procedure for the split fraction of the components in
the stream, short-cut multicomponent distillation method using Fenske equation as
shown Eq. (2.12) and (2.13) is applied (Geankoplis et al., n.d.).

For light key component:

𝜀Lk 𝛼
𝜀k = (2.12)
1+(𝛼−1)𝜀Lk

For heavy key component:

𝜀Hk 𝛼
𝜀k = (2.13)
1+(𝛼−1)𝜀Hk

Where,
𝜉 Lk = split fraction of light key component;
𝜉 Hk = split fraction of heavy key component.

For the flow rate of top stream and bottom stream is by using the equation:

Top stream:

𝑣k = (𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)(𝜀k ) (2.14)

Where, 𝑣k = upstream flowrate.

47
Bottom stream:

𝑙k = 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑉k (2.15)

Where, 𝑙k = downstream flowrate.

The composition of both streams will be:

Top stream:

𝑉k
𝑦k = (2.16)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉k

Where, 𝑦k = vapor composition.

Bottom stream:

𝑙k
𝑥k = (2.17)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉k

Where, 𝑥k = liquid composition.

The plate number will be getting from the Eq. (2.18) – (2.20):

Minimum number of plates:

12.3
𝑁i = 2 (2.18)
[𝛼k 3 (1−𝜀Lk )𝑉t ]
n

Theoretical number of plates:

𝑁t = (𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)(𝑁i ) + [(1 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)(𝑁i )]

(2.19)

Number of plate ratio:

𝑁t
𝑁=
𝑁i

48
 2 0.206
𝑁e 𝐻k 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙k 𝑥k,𝑙k
= [( 𝑙 ) ( ) (𝑦 ) ] (2.20)
𝑁s k 𝑦𝑘,𝐻k k,𝐻k

The operating condition of the distillation column is:

Table 2.5 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Separator Distillation Column 1

Objective of Separator To separate CH3OH from water

Light Key Methanol

Heavy Key Water

Pressure 23 bar

Temperature 100°C

Reflux Ratio 0.655

1. Separation efficiency of 99% of Methanol and 1% of
Assumptions
water in top stream

Figure 2.8 Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

The second Distillation Column is used to separate Methanol and DME from
water based on vapour pressure.

49
 Table 2.6 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Separator Distillation Column 2

Objective of Separator To separate DME and CH3OH from Water

Light Key Methanol

Heavy Key Water

Pressure 9 bar

Temperature 150°C

Reflux Ratio 0.98

1. Separation efficiency of 99% of DME and Methanol
Assumptions
and 1% of water in top stream

Figure 2.9 Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

The third Distillation column works based on the boiling point to separate the
Methanol and DME because the boiling point is very far so it is easy to separate. The
boiling point of Methanol is 64.7°C (Valotech, 2013) and DME boiling point is -
24.8°C (Praxair, 2019).

50
 Table 2.7 Operating Condition of Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Separator Distillation Column 3

Objective of Separator To separate CH3OH from DME

Light Key DME

Heavy Key Methanol

Pressure 12 bar

Temperature 70°C

Reflux Ratio 1.52

1. Separation efficiency of 99% of DME and 1% of
Assumptions
methanol in top stream

2.4.6 Heat Exchanger

Figure 2.10 Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is purposely used for heating or cooling processes by transfer

of heat between two or more fluids, which might have phase change occurring in the
system. There are 8 heat exchangers are applied in this process, HE-01 to HE-09. As
consider all the inlet streams of heat exchanger (S6, S9, S14, S17, S24, S26, S30,
S32, S35) are in vapour phases. Most of the heat exchangers (HE-01 to HE-04 and
HE-06 to HE-09) are used to cool down the fluid in the stream while only HE-05 are
for heating up fluid. The types of heat exchangers will be considered including plate-
and-frame heat exchanger, pate-fin heat exchanger, spiral heat exchanger and so on.
The assumptions made in the material balance of heat exchanger is that Pressure
drop occurs in heat exchanger is negligible.
51
 Table 2.8 Operating Temperature of Heat Exchanger

Temperature Inlet (°C) Outlet (°C)

HE-01 1328 200

HE-02 200 80

HE-03 277 220

HE-04 220 100

HE-05 164 180

HE-06 180 150

HE-07 131 70

HE-08 53 30

HE-09 76 30

2.4.7 Compressor

Figure 2.11 Compressor

Compressors are gas movers and tools where an increased pressure results in
mechanical work on the gas. Centrifugal and axial are the two general types of
compressors. Centrifugal compressors increase the gas's kinetic energy with a high-
speed impeller and then, in a divergent outlet passage called the diffuser, transform
this energy into increased pressure. In particular, centrifugal compressors are suitable
for compressing large volumes of gas to moderate pressure. Axial flow compressors
are typically less accommodating than centrifugal compressors, and rotor and stator
flows need to be more accurately and correctly balanced (Ghizawi et. al, 2012).
There are 5 compressors in the Process Flow Diagram to increase the pressure of the

52
component and assuming that there is no pressure drop in the compressor. Using
heuristics 35 and 36 (Warren D. Seider et al.), the number of compressor stages and
its pressure and temperature changes is been determined.

Table 2.9 Operating Pressure of Compressor

Pressure Inlet (bar) Outlet(bar)

CPR-01 1 3.2

CPR -02 3.2 10.0

CPR -03 8.5 20.6

CPR -04 20.6 50.0

CPR -05 7.0 12.0

2.4.8 Flash Column

Flash column is one of the unit separator used in the process. Separating
volatile components is one of the easiest separation methods used in industries. At a
certain pressure and temperature, a liquid flow containing many components is
partially vaporized by an external heat exchanger. This results in two phases which
are vapor phase, enriched in the more volatile components and liquid phase, enriched
in the less volatile components (Iggland and Mazzotti, n.d). In this process consists
of 2 flash columns used to separate components that have difference of boiling points
between the components. The heavy key component and the light key component are
identified based on the boiling points and the desired recovery fraction of the key
components. The boiling points of each component at 1bar are listed in Table 2.10.

53
Table 2.10 Boiling Points of Components at Standard Temperature (Paxair,
2015)

Components Boiling points (°C)

H2 -252.9

CO -191.5

CO2 -78.4

CH3OH 64.7

CH3OCH3 (DME) -24.8

H2O 100.0

The method for manual material balance calculation of the multicomponent

flash distillation as stated below. The first step is by finding the partial vapour
pressure of each component inside the distillation column by using Eq. (2.21)
(Perry et al., 2000):

𝐶2
ln 𝑃k𝑜 = 𝐶1 + + 𝐶3 ln 𝑇 + 𝐶4𝑇 𝐶5 (2.21)
𝑇

Where,
P°k = vapour pressure of the component;
C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 = constants obtained from the Perry’s Handbook;
T = temperature of the flash column.

Raoult’s law is used to assume the system is in ideal, whereby the relative volatility,
α, is obtained from Eq. (2.22) (Geankoplis et al., n.d.).

αk/n = P°k / Pc (2.22)

Where,
α = relative volatility;
P°k = vapour pressure of the component;
Pc = vapour pressure of key component.

54
 As for the calculation procedure for the split fraction of the components in
the stream, short-cut multicomponent distillation method using Fenske equation
(2.23) and (2.24) is applied (Geankoplis, Hersel and Lepek, n.d.).

For light key component:

𝜀
Lk 𝛼
𝜀k = 1+(𝛼−1)𝜀 (2.23)
Lk

For heavy key component:

𝜀
Hk 𝛼
𝜀k = 1+(𝛼−1)𝜀 (2.24)
Hk

Where,
𝜉 Lk = split fraction of light key component;
𝜉 Hk = split fraction of heavy key component.

F-101 is used to separate water from syngas. F-102 is used to separate unreacted
syngas from methanol and water produced in R-102.

Figure 2.12 Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Table 2.11 Operating Condition of Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Separator Flash Column 1

Objective of Separator To separate water from syngas

Pressure 8.5 bar

Temperature 80℃

Assumption 1. 99% of water is removed to the outlet of bottom stream.

55
 Figure 2.13 Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Table 2.12 Operating Condition of Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Separator Flash Column 2

Objective of Separator To separate unreacted syngas from methanol and water

Pressure 30 bar

Temperature 100℃
1. 99% of unreacted syngas is removed to the outlet of
Assumption
upper stream.

2.4.9 Throttling Valve

Figure 2.14 Valve

Throttling valves act as fluid control devices that mainly used to adjust or
regulate the flowrate and pressure of the gas or liquid. Throttling valves is valve that
can be used to start, stop and regulate the flow of fluid. In this process, there are 4
throttling valves used to reduce the pressure of the component in the stream which
labelled as V-01, V-02, V-03 and V-04. In this process, the globe valve and needle
valve are suggested to use in the four valves (V-01 to V-04). Globe valve is used

56
since it’s easy to repair, suitable for high-pressure system and produce a significant
pressure drop that can reduce the damage caused (Engineering 360, n.d.). Besides,
the needle valve has the almost similar function with fine precision adjustment of
flowrate. According to "Needle Valve Types, Function, & Applications | Tameson"
(2019), needle valves are available to handle the pressure up to 689 bar and
temperature up to 315 °C which covered the range of the condition of the stream for
the valve in this process. As the components of fluid in the stream are not considered
as viscous media, thus needle valve also suitable for application in this production of
DME.

Table 2.13 List of Valves

Valve V-01 V-02 V-03 V-04

Pressure inlet
48.5 30.0 18.0 11.5
(bar)
Pressure
30.0 23.0 10.0 1.0
outlet (bar)
1. There is neither sufficient time nor sufficient storage to transfer
Assumption heat significantly.
2. No work is done to or from the devices.

2.5 Mass Balance

In plant design, the mass balance theory is very important especially the
concept is based on the law of conservation of mass. According to the First Law of
Thermodynamics, mass can neither be created nor destroyed. The total mass of the
system at the inlet is equal to the total mass at the outlet of the system. The equation
used for the system is determined by the types of the species either reactive species
or non-reactive species. The general overview equation of the material balance for
reactive and non-reactive are;

57
Reactive:

Accumulation = Total mass input + Generation – Total mass output - Consumption

(2.25)
Non-Reactive:

Total Mass Input = Total Mass Output (2.26)

This process is using a reactive species thus reactive equation will be used.
The way to simplify the material balance is based on the rules:

1. If the balanced quantity is total mass, set generation = 0 and consumption = 0.

Except nuclear reactions, mass can neither be created nor destroyed
2. If the balanced substance is a non-reactive species (neither a reactant nor a
product), set generation = 0 and consumption = 0
3. If a system is a steady-state, set accumulation = 0, regardless of what is being
balanced, in a steady-state system nothing can change with time, including the
amount of the balanced quantity.

In this process, it was assumed as a steady state condition thus the third rules
will be applied into the reactive equation.

Total mass input + Generation – Total mass output – Consumption = 0 (2.27)

In order to calculate the mass balance, the information for all condition such
as temperature, pressure, and assumptions must be stated for the whole system.

2.5.1 Manual Mass Balance Calculation

Manual calculation of the whole plant design process is done using Microsoft
Excel and the result is shown in this subchapter. All the assumption and condition
such as temperature, pressure, flowrate, and phase of each components are stated
accordingly.

58
2.5.1.1 General Assumption for Mass Balance

General assumption is assumed to calculate the mass balance of each equipment, as

followed are:

a) Raw material used as oil palm frond, its rate of feed is given 60,000 ton/hr.
b) All units of mass balance calculation for each equipment are in kg/h.
c) The whole process is design as continuous process and operates at steady state.
d) The behaviour of all the components in the system are assume as ideal.
e) No leakage in piping system and the joint connection between two equipment.
f) No reaction occurs in the auxiliary equipment; thus, inlet of mass balance is
equal to outlet of mass balance.
g) There is no pressure drop in the flash columns and heat exchangers whereas
1.5 pressure drop is considered in fixed bed reactors (Dimian & Bildea, 2008).

59
 2.5.1.2 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Figure 2.15 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Table 2.14 Material Balance on Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S1 S2 S3 S4
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 700.00 700.00 700.00 700.00
Pressure (bar) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 60000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00 5532.80
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00 47840.86
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 64430.35
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 60000.00 0.00 0.00
Ash 0.00 0.00 2195.99 0.00
TOTAL 120000.00 120000.00

Table 2.15 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of G-101

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

60
 2.5.1.3 Compressor 1 (CPR-01)

Figure 2.16 Compressor 1 (CPR-01)

Table 2.16 Material Balance on Compressor 1 (CPR-01)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S4 S5
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 700.00 981.59
Pressure (bar) 1.00 3.16
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 5532.80 5532.80
Carbon Monoxide, CO 47840.86 47840.86
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 64430.35 64430.35
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 117804.01 117804.01

Table 2.17 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-01

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

61
 2.5.1.4 Compressor 2 (CPR-02)

Figure 2.17 Compressor 2 (CPR-02)

Table 2.18 Material Balance on Compressor 2 (CPR-02)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S5 S6
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 981.59 1327.89
Pressure (bar) 3.16 10.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 5532.80 5532.80
Carbon Monoxide, CO 47840.86 47840.86
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 64430.35 64430.35
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 117804.01 117804.01

Table 2.19 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-02

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

62
 2.5.1.5 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01)

Figure 2.18 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01)

Table 2.20 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S6 S7
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 1327.89 200.00
Pressure (bar) 10.00 10.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 5532.80 5532.80
Carbon Monoxide, CO 47840.86 47840.86
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 64430.35 64430.35
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 0.00
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 117804.01 117804.01

Table 2.21 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-01

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

63
 2.5.1.6 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Figure 2.19 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Table 2.22 Material Balance on Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S7 S8 S9
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 200.00 200.00 200.00
Pressure (bar) 10.00 10.00 8.50
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 5532.80 0.00 6221.32
Carbon Monoxide, CO 47840.86 0.00 38272.69
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 64430.35 0.00 79464.10
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 0.00 25000.00 18846.01
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 142804.01 142804.12

Table 2.23 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-101

Mass Balance 1.09×10-1

Percentage Deviation (%) 7.65×10-5

64
 2.5.1.7 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02)

Figure 2.20 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02)

Table 2.24 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S9 S10
Phase Vapor Mixed
Temperature (°C) 200.00 80.00
Pressure (bar) 8.50 8.50
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 6221.32
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 38272.69
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79464.10 79464.10
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 18846.01 18846.01
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 142804.12 142804.12

Table 2.25 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-02

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

65
 2.5.1.8 Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Figure 2.21 Flash Column 1 (F-01)

Table 2.26 Material Balance on Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S10 S11 S12
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 80.00 80.00 80.00
Pressure (bar) 8.50 8.50 8.50
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 6221.32 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 38272.69 0.51
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79464.10 79463.59 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00 18657.55
Water, H2O 18846.01 188.46 0.51
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 142804.12 142804.12

Table 2.27 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of F-101

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

66
2.5.1.9 Compressor 3 (CPR-03)

Figure 2.22 Compressor 3 (CPR-03)

Table 2.28 Material Balance on Compressor 3 (CPR-03)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S11 S13
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 80.00 169.19
Pressure (bar) 8.5 20.61
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 6221.32
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 38272.69
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79463.59 79463.59
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether,
0.00 0.00
CH3OCH3
Water, H2O 188.46 188.46
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124146.06 124146.06

Table 2.29 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-03

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

67
 2.5.1.10 Compressor 4 (CPR-04)

Figure 2.23 Compressor 4 (CPR-04)

Table 2.30 Material Balance on Compressor 4 (CPR-04)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S13 S14
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 169.19 277.29
Pressure (bar) 20.61 50.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 6221.32
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 38272.69
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79463.59 79463.59
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 188.46 188.46
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124146.06 124146.06

Table 2.31 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-04

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

68
 2.5.1.11 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03)

Figure 2.24 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03)

Table 2.32 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S14 S15
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 277.29 220.00
Pressure (bar) 50.00 50.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 6221.32
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 38272.69
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79463.59 79463.59
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 188.46 188.46
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124146.06 124146.06

Table 2.33 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-03

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

69
 2.5.1.12 Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Figure 2.25 Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Table 2.34 Material Balance on Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S15 S16
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 220.00 220.00
Pressure (bar) 50.00 48.50
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 6221.32 1769.36
Carbon Monoxide, CO 38272.69 12094.17
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 79463.59 74482.77
Methanol, CH3OH 0.00 33571.13
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 188.46 2227.34
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124146.06 124144.77

Table 2.35 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-102

Mass Balance -1.29
Percentage Deviation (%) -1.04×10-3

70
 2.5.1.13 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01)

Figure 2.26 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01)

Table 2.36 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 1 (V-01)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S16 S17
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 220.00 220.00
Pressure (bar) 48.50 30.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 1769.36 1769.36
Carbon Monoxide, CO 12094.17 12094.17
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 74482.77 74482.77
Methanol, CH3OH 33571.13 33571.13
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 2227.34 2227.34
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124144.77 124144.77

Table 2.37 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-01

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

71
 2.5.1.14 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04)

Figure 2.27 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04)

Table 2.38 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S17 S18
Phase Vapor Mixed
Temperature (°C) 220.00 100.00
Pressure (bar) 30.00 30.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 1769.36 1769.36
Carbon Monoxide, CO 12094.17 12094.17
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 74482.77 74482.77
Methanol, CH3OH 33571.13 33571.13
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 2227.34 2227.34
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124144.77 124144.77

Table 2.39 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-04

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

72
 2.5.1.15 Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Figure 2.28 Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Table 2.40 Material Balance on Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S18 S19 S20
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 100.00 100.00 100.00
Pressure (bar) 30.00 30.00 30.00
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 1769.36 1769.36 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 12094.17 12094.17 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 74482.77 74464.84 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 33571.13 335.71 33235.42
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 2227.34 8.28 2219.06
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 124144.77 124144.77

Table 2.41 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of F-102

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

73
 2.5.1.16 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02)

Figure 2.29 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02)

Table 2.42 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 2 (V-02)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S20 S21
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature (°C) 100.00 100.00
Pressure (bar) 30.00 23.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 33235.42 33235.42
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 2219.06 2219.06
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 35472.41 35472.41

Table 2.43 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-02

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

74
 2.5.1.17 Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Figure 2.30 Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Table 2.44 Material Balance on Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S21 S22 S23
Phase Liquid Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 100.00 164.05 212.44
Pressure (bar) 23.00 18.00 20.00
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 33235.42 33235.39 0.03
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 2219.06 22.19 2196.87
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 35472.41 35472.41

Table 2.45 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-101

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

75
 2.5.1.18 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03)

Figure 2.31 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03)

Table 2.46 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 3 (V-03)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S22 S24
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 164.05 164.05
Pressure (bar) 18.00 10.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 33235.39 33235.39
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 22.19 22.19
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 33275.51 33275.51

Table 2.47 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-03

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

76
 2.5.1.19 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05)

Figure 2.32 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05)

Table 2.48 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S24 S25
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 164.05 180.00
Pressure (bar) 10.00 10.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 33235.39 33235.39
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 0.00
Water, H2O 22.19 22.19
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 33275.51 33275.51

Table 2.49 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-05

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

77
 2.5.1.20 DME Reactor (R-103)

Figure 2.33 DME Reactor (R-103)

Table 2.50 Material Balance on DME Reactor (R-103)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S25 S26
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 180.00 180.00
Pressure (bar) 10.00 8.50
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 33235.39 3124.13
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.00 21648.34
Water, H2O 22.19 8487.59
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 33275.51 33277.99

Table 2.51 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of R-103

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

78
 2.5.1.21 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06)

Figure 2.34 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06)

Table 2.52 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S26 S27
Phase Vapor Mixed
Temperature (°C) 180.00 150.00
Pressure (bar) 8.50 8.50
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 3124.13 3124.13
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.34 21648.34
Water, H2O 8487.59 8487.59
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 33277.99 33277.99

Table 2.53 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-06

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

79
 2.5.1.22 Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Figure 2.35 Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Table 2.54 Material Balance on Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S27 S28 S29
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 150.00 103.35 170.50
Pressure (bar) 8.50 7.00 8.00
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 3124.13 3124.12 0.00
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.34 21648.34 0.00
Water, H2O 8487.59 84.88 0.00
Ash 0.00 0.00 8402.714
TOTAL 33277.99 33277.99

Table 2.55 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-102

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

80
 2.5.1.23 Compressor 5 (CPR-05)

Figure 2.36 Compressor 5 (CPR-05)

Table 2.56 Material Balance on Compressor 5 (CPR-05)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S28 S30
Phase Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 103.35 131.81
Pressure (bar) 7.00 12.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 3124.12 3124.12
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.34 21648.34
Water, H2O 84.88 84.88
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 24875.27 24875.27

Table 2.57 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of CPR-05

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

81
 2.5.1.24 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07)

Figure 2.37 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07)

Table 2.58 Material balance on Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S30 S31
Phase Vapor Mixed
Temperature (°C) 131.81 70.00
Pressure (bar) 12.00 12.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 3124.12 3124.12
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.34 21648.34
Water, H2O 84.88 84.88
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 24875.27 24875.27

Table 2.59 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-07

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

82
 2.5.1.25 Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Figure 2.38 Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Table 2.60 Material Balance on Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S31 S32 S33
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 70.00 52.82 153.60
Pressure (bar) 12.00 11.00 11.50
Component kg/h kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 3124.12 31.24 3092.88
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.34 21648.32 0.02
Water, H2O 84.88 0.01 84.87
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 24875.27 24875.27

Table 2.61 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of D-103

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

83
 2.5.1.26 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08)

Figure 2.39 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08)

Table 2.62 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S32 S34
Phase Vapor Liquid
Temperature (°C) 52.80 30.00
Pressure (bar) 11.00 11.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 17.93 17.93
Methanol, CH3OH 31.24 31.24
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 21648.32 21648.32
Water, H2O 0.01 0.01
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 21697.50 21697.50

Table 2.63 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-08

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

84
 2.5.1.27 Throttling Valve 4 (V-04)

Figure 2.40 Throttling Valve 4 (V-04)

Table 2.64 Material Balance on Throttling Valve 4 (V-04)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S33 S35
Phase Liquid Mixed
Temperature (°C) 153.60 76.28
Pressure (bar) 11.50 1.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 3092.88 3092.88
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.02 0.02
Water, H2O 84.87 84.87
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 3177.77 3177.77

Table 2.65 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of V-04

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

85
 2.5.1.28 Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09)

Figure 2.41 Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09)

Table 2.66 Material Balance on Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09)

Inlet Outlet
Stream
S35 S36
Phase Mixed Liquid
Temperature (°C) 76.28 30.00
Pressure (bar) 1.00 1.00
Component kg/h kg/h
Frond 0.00 0.00
Methane, CH4 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen, H2 0.00 0.00
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.00 0.00
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.00 0.00
Methanol, CH3OH 3092.88 3092.88
Dimethyl Ether, CH3OCH3 0.02 0.02
Water, H2O 84.87 84.87
Ash 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 3177.77 3177.77

Table 2.67 Mass Balance and Percentage Deviation of HE-09

Mass Balance 0
Percentage Deviation (%) 0

86
2.5.2 Overall Mass Balance

The overall mass balance equation may written in Eq. (2.28):

Total mass flow into the process = Total outflow of mass from the process (2.28)
S1 + S2 + S8 = S12 + S19 + S23 + S29 + S34 + S36

Total mass flow into the process

= (60000 + 60000 + 25000) kg/h
= 145000 kg/h

Total outflow of mass from the process

= (18658.06 + 88672.36 + 2196.90 + 8402.72 + 21697.50 + 3177.77) kg/h
= 142805.31 kg/h

The overall deviation is mass balance of manual calculation between mass of

total inlet flowrate and mass of total outlet flowrate is 1.51%. The different can be
consider as there are some components accumulated throughout the process. From
the overall mass balance, considering 330 working days annually, it can be obtained
that the overall production rate of DME and Methanol is 171,844 metric tonne and
25,168 metric tonne respectively with the feed of 475,200 metric tonne of oil palm
frond that has been processed.

2.6 Energy Balance

The energy balance calculation is carried out for the DME production plant in
this subchapter. Since, the production is a continuous process, this system is
considered as open system and at steady state. First law of thermodynamics states
that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can change from one form to
another form (Felder and Rousseau, 2005). According to the law for open system at
steady state states has the form as Eq. (2.29):

87
 input = output (2.29)

“Input” is signified the total rate of transport of kinetic energy, potential energy, and
internal energy by all process input stream plus the rate at which energy is
transferred in as heat and work, and “output” is the total energy rate transport by
output stream.

The general equation may written in Eq. (2.30):

ΔḢ + ΔĖk + ΔĖp = Q - Ẇs (2.30)

Where,
ΔḢ = specific enthalpy change;
ΔĖk = specific kinetic energy change;
ΔĖp = specific potential energy change;
Q = Heat;
Ẇs= Work.

According to Yaws (1999), specific heat capacity of gas component is

calculated by using the Eq. (2.31) and (2.32):

Cp = C1 + C2T + C3T2 + C4T3 + C5T4 (2.31)

𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4 𝐶5
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐶1 𝑇 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇5 (2.32)
2 3 4 5

Where,
C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5 are the constants obtained from Yaw (1999).

To calculate the specific enthalpy change involves temperature changed is

calculated by using Eq. (2.33).

𝑇2
𝑄 = 𝛥𝐻 =ṅ𝛥Ĥ= ṅ ∫𝑇1 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇) 𝑑𝑇 (2.33)
Where,
ΔH = enthalpy change (kJ/s);

88
 ΔĤ= specific enthalpy change (kJ/mol);
ṅ = molar flowrate (mol/s);
Cp = specific heat capacity at constant pressure (kJ/mol●K);
T = Temperature of the stream.

Whereby the components itself contain heat of formation, Ĥf is considered and added
as shown in Eq. (2.34).

𝑇2
Q = ṅΔĤ + ṅΔĤf = ṅ ∫𝑇1 𝐶p (𝑇) 𝑑𝑇 + ṅΔĤf (2.34)

Where,
Ĥf = heat of formation.

For the energy difference of streams, total enthalpy flow of the input and
output stream, and total heat of formation are taken into consideration as in Eq.
(2.35).

ΔH = ∑nΔĤf + ∑ṅoutĤout - ∑ṅinĤin (2.35)

As an assumption, the heat of reaction at the reactor is not considered to

standardise the method of calculation of energy flow in the manual calculation of
energy in this process design while ASPEN software is considered as the actual
which include the required power, heating and cooling.

2.6.1 Manual Energy Balance Calculation

All the manual calculations of energy balance are calculated by referring to

the Carl L. Yaw’s Handbook’s constant and also the formula. The energy balance
calculation is started from outlet stream of gasifier (S4) as insufficient energy data of
OPF due to the complexity of OPF compound. Therefore, energy balance
calculations could not be calculated for the inlet S1 and S2 because the heat of
formation and heat capacity could not be calculated, thus, stream S3 is also neglected

89
in the calculations. The energy balance begins from the stream S4 by using the heat
of reaction of gasifier and also enthalpy of stream S4.

2.6.1.1 General Assumption for Energy Balance

General assumption is assumed to calculate the energy balance of each equipment, as

followed are:

a) Kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible as consider as ideal

behaviour.
b) No heat or frictional loss during the transportation of the components in the
pipeline.
c) The constants used in the manual calculation is based on Carl’s Yaw handbook.
d) The temperature reference, Tref is set at 298.15 K as considered it at the
surrounding temperature.

2.6.1.2 Compressor 1 (CPR-01)

Table 2.68 Energy Balance of Compressor 1 (CPR-01)

S4 S5
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 5.45E+07 7.82E+07
CO -1.56E+08 -1.44E+08
CO2 -5.31E+08 -5.10E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Total -6.32E+08 -5.76E+08

90
2.6.1.3 Compressor 2 (CPR-02)

Table 2.69 Energy Balance of Compressor 2 (CPR-02)

S5 S6
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 7.82E+07 1.09E+08
CO -1.44E+08 -1.32E+08
CO2 -5.10E+08 -4.82E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Total -5.76E+08 -5.06E+08

2.6.1.4 Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01)

Table 2.70 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 1 (HE-01)

S6 S7
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.09E+08 1.40E+07
CO -1.32E+08 -1.79E+08
CO2 -4.82E+08 -5.66E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Total -5.06E+08 -7.31E+08

91
2.6.1.5 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Table 2.71 Energy Balance of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

S7 S8 S9
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.40E+07 0.00E+00 1.57E+07
CO -1.79E+08 0.00E+00 -1.43E+08
CO2 -5.66E+08 0.00E+00 -6.98E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O 0.00E+00 -3.38E+08 -2.49E+08
Total -7.31E+08 -3.38E+08 -1.07E+09

2.6.1.6 Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02)

Table 2.72 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 2 (HE-02)

S9 S10
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.57E+07 4.90E+06
CO -1.43E+08 -1.49E+08
CO2 -6.98E+08 -7.07E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.49E+08 -2.52E+08
Total -1.07E+09 -1.10E+09

92
2.6.1.7 Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Table 2.73 Energy Balance of Flash Column 1 (F-101)

S10 S11 S12

Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 4.90E+06 4.90E+06 0.00E+00
CO -1.49E+08 -1.49E+08 -4.05E+00
CO2 -7.07E+08 -7.07E+08 -4.50E+03
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.52E+08 -2.52E+06 -2.49E+08
Total -1.10E+09 -8.53E+08 -2.49E+08

2.6.1.8 Compressor 3 (CPR-03)

Table 2.74 Energy Balance of Compressor 3 (CPR-03)

S11 S13
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 4.90E+06 1.30E+07
CO -1.49E+08 -1.45E+08
CO2 -7.07E+08 -7.00E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.52E+06 -2.48E+06
Total -8.53E+08 -8.34E+08

93
2.6.1.9 Compressor 4 (CPR-04)

Table 2.75 Energy Balance of Compressor 4 (CPR-04)

S13 S14
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.30E+07 2.27E+07
CO -1.45E+08 -1.40E+08
CO2 -7.00E+08 -6.92E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.48E+06 -2.46E+06
Total -8.34E+08 -8.12E+08

2.6.1.10 Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03)

Table 2.76 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 3 (HE-03)

S14 S15
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 2.27E+07 1.75E+07
CO -1.40E+08 -1.43E+08
CO2 -6.92E+08 -6.96E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.46E+06 -2.48E+06
Total -8.12E+08 -8.24E+08

94
2.6.1.11 Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Table 2.77 Energy Balance of Methanol Reactor (R-102)

S15 S16
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.75E+07 4.98E+06
CO -1.43E+08 -4.51E+07
CO2 -6.96E+08 -6.53E+08
CH3OH 0.00E+00 -2.07E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.48E+06 -2.93E+07
Total -8.24E+08 -9.29E+08

2.6.1.12 Throttling Valve 1 (V-01)

Table 2.78 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 1 (V-01)

S16 S17
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 4.98E+06 4.98E+06
CO -4.51E+07 -4.51E+07
CO2 -6.53E+08 -6.53E+08
CH3OH -2.07E+08 -2.07E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.93E+07 -2.93E+07
Total -9.29E+08 -9.29E+08

95
2.6.1.13 Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04)

Table 2.79 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 4 (HE-04)

S17 S18
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 4.98E+06 1.90E+06
CO -4.51E+07 -4.67E+07
CO2 -6.53E+08 -6.61E+08
CH3OH -2.07E+08 -2.10E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.93E+07 -2.97E+07
Total -9.29E+08 -9.45E+08

2.6.1.14 Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Table 2.80 Energy Balance of Flash Column 2 (F-102)

S18 S19 S20

Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 1.90E+06 1.90E+06 0.00E+00
CO -4.67E+07 -4.67E+07 -3.23E-01
CO2 -6.61E+08 -6.61E+08 -1.59E+05
CH3OH -2.10E+08 -2.10E+06 -2.08E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.97E+07 -1.10E+05 -2.96E+07
Total -9.45E+08 -7.08E+08 -2.38E+08

96
2.6.1.15 Throttling Valve 2 (V-02)

Table 2.81 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 2 (V-02)

S20 S21
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.23E-01 -3.23E-01
CO2 -1.59E+05 -1.59E+05
CH3OH -2.08E+08 -2.08E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.96E+07 -2.96E+07
Total -2.38E+08 -2.38E+08

2.6.1.16 Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Table 2.82 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

S21 S22 S23

Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.23E-01 -3.17E-01 0.00E+00
CO2 -1.59E+05 -1.58E+05 0.00E+00
CH3OH -2.08E+08 -2.07E+08 -2.12E+02
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.96E+07 -2.94E+05 -2.89E+07
Total -2.38E+08 -2.07E+08 -2.89E+07

97
2.6.1.17 Throttling Valve 3 (V-03)

Table 2.83 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve 3 (V-03)

S22 S24
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.17E-01 -3.17E-01
CO2 -1.58E+05 -1.58E+05
CH3OH -2.07E+08 -2.07E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.94E+05 -2.94E+05
Total -2.07E+08 -2.07E+08

2.6.1.18 Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05)

Table 2.84 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 5 (HE-05)

S24 S25
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.17E-01 -3.16E-01
CO2 -1.58E+05 -1.58E+05
CH3OH -2.07E+08 -2.06E+08
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
H2O -2.94E+05 -2.93E+05
Total -2.07E+08 -2.07E+08

98
2.6.1.19 DME Reactor (R-103)

Table 2.85 Energy Balance of DME Reactor (R-103)

S25 S26
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.16E-01 -3.16E-01
CO2 -1.58E+05 -1.58E+05
CH3OH -2.06E+08 -1.94E+07
CH3OCH3 0.00E+00 -8.44E+07
H2O -2.93E+05 -1.12E+08
Total -2.07E+08 -2.16E+08

2.6.1.20 Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06)

Table 2.86 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 6 (HE-06)

S26 S27
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.16E-01 -3.18E-01
CO2 -1.58E+05 -1.58E+05
CH3OH -1.94E+07 -1.94E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.44E+07 -8.50E+07
H2O -1.12E+08 -1.13E+08
Total -2.16E+08 -2.17E+08

99
2.6.1.21 Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Table 2.87 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

S27 S28 S29
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.18E-01 -3.23E-01 0.00E+00
CO2 -1.58E+05 -1.59E+05 0.00E+00
CH3OH -1.94E+07 -1.95E+07 -2.00E+01
CH3OCH3 -8.50E+07 -8.57E+07 -3.76E-05
H2O -1.13E+08 -1.13E+06 -1.11E+08
Total -2.17E+08 -1.07E+08 -1.11E+08

2.6.1.22 Compressor 5 (CPR-05)

Table 2.88 Energy Balance of Compressor 5 (CPR-05)

S28 S30
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.23E-01 -3.23E-01
CO2 -1.59E+05 -1.59E+05
CH3OH -1.95E+07 -1.95E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.57E+07 -8.57E+07
H2O -1.13E+06 -1.13E+06
Total -1.07E+08 -1.07E+08

100
2.6.1.23 Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07)

Table 2.89 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 7 (HE-07)

S30 S31
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.23E-01 -3.26E-01
CO2 -1.59E+05 -1.60E+05
CH3OH -1.95E+07 -1.96E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.57E+07 -8.61E+07
H2O -1.13E+06 -1.13E+06
Total -1.07E+08 -1.07E+08

2.6.1.24 Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Table 2.90 Energy Balance of Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

S30 S32 S33

Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.23E-01 -3.28E-01 0.00E+00
CO2 -1.59E+05 -1.60E+05 -8.30E-05
CH3OH -1.95E+07 -1.96E+05 -1.92E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.57E+07 -8.63E+07 -8.75E+01
H2O -1.13E+06 -9.54E+01 -1.12E+06
Total -1.07E+08 -8.66E+07 -2.04E+07

101
2.6.1.25 Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08)

Table 2.91 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 8 (HE-08)

S32 S34
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO -3.28E-01 -3.30E-01
CO2 -1.60E+05 -1.60E+05
CH3OH -1.96E+05 -1.96E+05
CH3OCH3 -8.63E+07 -8.65E+07
H2O -9.54E+01 -9.56E+01
Total -8.66E+07 -8.68E+07

2.6.1.26 Throttling Valve 4 (V-04)

Table 2.92 Energy Balance of Throttling Valve (V-04)

S33 S35
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO2 -8.30E-05 -8.37E-05
CH3OH -1.92E+07 -1.94E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.75E+01 -8.87E+01
H2O -1.12E+06 -1.13E+06
Total -2.04E+07 -2.05E+07

102
2.6.1.27 Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09)

Table 2.93 Energy Balance of Heat Exchanger 9 (HE-09)

S35 S36
Component
Enthalpy Flowrate (kJ/h)
H2 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
CO2 -8.37E-05 -8.41E-05
CH3OH -1.94E+07 -1.94E+07
CH3OCH3 -8.87E+01 -8.91E+01
H2O -1.13E+06 -1.14E+06
Total -2.05E+07 -2.06E+07

103
2.7 Aspen Simulation of Mass and Energy Balance

The validity of the result is evaluated with the result of the ASPEN PLUS
V11.0 simulator after undergoing manual calculation for the mass and energy
balance of the entire process. When simulating the process in ASPEN PLUS, the
method used for each unit operations are shown in Table 2.94 below.

Table 2.94 Method used in ASPEN PLUS for each unit operators

Unit Operator Method

Reactor PENG ROBINSON
Flash Column IDEAL
Distillation Column PENG ROBINSON

For reaction process, RStoic is chosen to conduct the reaction in the

simulator. RStoic is used when the stoichiometry of the reaction is known but there
is no information available on kinetics. RStoic is a simple simulation that considers
the reaction's stoichiometric formula and can easily specify the conversion of the
reaction.

To separate vapour and liquid in a stream, Flash-2-unit operator is chosen to

simulate the separation process. First, it is necessary to determine the feed stream
you are trying to separate to start building the process. Such parameters include the
stream's composition flow rate, temperature, and pressure. The operating condition
of the flash can set based on vapour fraction, temperature or pressure. In order to let
the simulator to properly simulate, Ideal condition is selected as the method.

Distl unit operator is selected to separate certain components from the

mixture for the distillation column based on the relative volatility of each component
as well as the system's dew point and bubble point. Number of stages, feed stages,
reflux ratio, distillate to feed mole ratio and information on the type of condenser are
required to use Distl

104
 The simulation in the Aspen Plus is run without including the gasifier reactor
together with inlet of the gasifier (stream 1 and stream 2). This is because there is no
specific chemical formula for oil palm frond which is biomass data in Aspen Plus
simulation software which can be used to simulate the gasifier in Aspen. Therefore,
the outlet flowrate of the gasifier (stream 4) will be starting of the simulation. The
gasifier outlet is defined based on the output of the downdraft gasification of oil palm
frond obtained from manual mass balance calculation.

The simulation as shown in ASPEN is successfully converged and reached

equilibrium. The results from the simulator is used as the basis to determine the
validity of the manual calculation. Therefore, the percentage of deviation between
manual calculation and ASPEN PLUS is calculated based on the Eq. (2.36) below,

𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙−𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐸𝑁
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = | | × 100% (2.36)
𝐴𝑆𝑃𝐸𝑁

105
Figure 2.42 ASPEN PLUS Simulation

106
2.8 Mass Balance Comparison

This section would address the comparison between ASPEN PLUS and the
manual calculation of the mass balance. The following Table 2.95 listed all the mass
flow rate (kg/h) of all streams in ASPEN PLUS and manual calculation as well as the
percentage deviation is calculated based on the Eq. (2.36) stated at above.

Table 2.95 Comparison of Manual Calculation and ASPEN PLUS based on mass
flow rate (kg/h)

Stream Manual (kg/h) ASPEN (kg/h) Deviation (%)

S1 60000.00 - -
S2 60000.00 - -
S3 2195.99 - -
S4 117804.01 117804.01 0.00
S5 117804.01 117804.01 0.00
S6 117804.01 117804.01 0.00
S7 117804.01 117804.01 0.00
S8 25000.00 25000.00 0.00
S9 142804.12 142804.01 0.00
S10 142804.12 142804.01 0.00
S11 124146.06 121108.61 2.51
S12 18658.06 21695.40 14.00
S13 124146.06 121108.61 2.51
S14 124146.06 121108.61 2.51
S15 124146.06 121108.61 2.51
S16 124144.77 121108.61 2.51
S17 124144.77 121108.61 2.51
S18 124144.77 121108.61 2.51
S19 88672.36 92560.95 4.20
S20 35472.41 38547.66 7.98
S21 35472.41 38547.66 7.98
S22 33275.51 36578.36 9.03

107
 S23 2196.90 1969.30 11.56
S24 33275.51 36578.36 9.03
S25 33275.51 36578.36 9.03
S26 33277.99 36578.36 9.02
S27 33277.99 36578.36 9.02
S28 24875.27 27898.63 10.84
S29 8402.72 8679.72 3.19
S30 24875.27 27898.63 10.84
S31 24875.27 27898.63 10.84
S32 21697.50 24354.26 10.91
S33 3177.77 3544.37 10.34
S34 21697.50 24354.26 10.91
S35 3177.77 3544.37 10.34
S36 3177.77 3544.37 10.34

In overall, all the mass balance deviation from manual is lesser than 20%
when compared to ASPEN simulation values. There are no value in the streams S1,
S2, and S3 as gasifier is not simulated in ASPEN Plus due to complexity of the
chemical formula of OPF. For stream 12 (S12), the percentage of deviation is the
highest among the stream with 14% of deviation. This is because in the manual
calculation, Flash Column 1 is assumed to have efficiency of 99% instead of 100%
whereas its efficiency in the ASPEN PLUS cannot be set. Besides that, the second
highest percentage deviation is at stream 23 (S32) with 11.56%. S32 is the outlet
stream of distillation column, the factor that cause the deviation between manual and
ASPEN PLUS calculation is, reflux ratio is used for manual, however, distillate to
feed mole ratio is used for ASPEN PLUS.

108
2.9 Energy Balance Comparison

This section would address the comparison between ASPEN PLUS and the
manual calculation of the energy balance. The following Table 2.96 listed all the
enthalpy flow rate (kJ/h) of all streams in ASPEN PLUS and manual calculation as
well as the percentage deviation is calculated based on the Eq. (2.36) stated at above.

Table 2.96 Comparison of Manual Calculation and ASPEN PLUS based on

enthalpy flow (kJ/h)

Enthalpy Flow (kJ/h)

Stream Manual ASPEN DIFFERENCE
S4 -6.3E+08 -6.3E+08 0.67
S5 -5.8E+08 -5.7E+08 1.82
S6 -5.1E+08 -4.8E+08 4.31
S7 -7.3E+08 -7.3E+08 0.06
S8 -3.4E+08 -3.3E+08 3.29
S9 -1.1E+09 -1.1E+09 0.15
S10 -1.1E+09 -1.1E+09 2.49
S11 -8.5E+08 -9.3E+08 8.73
S12 -2.5E+08 -2.0E+08 27.33
S13 -8.3E+08 -9.2E+08 8.81
S14 -8.1E+08 -8.9E+08 8.88
S15 -8.2E+08 -9.0E+08 8.83
S16 -9.3E+08 -1.0E+09 7.21
S17 -9.3E+08 -1.0E+09 7.21
S18 -9.5E+08 -1.1E+09 11.45
S19 -7.1E+08 -7.3E+08 2.57
S20 -2.4E+08 -3.4E+08 30.35
S21 -2.4E+08 -3.4E+08 30.35
S22 -2.1E+08 -2.4E+08 14.00
S23 -2.9E+07 -5.9E+07 51.24
S24 -2.1E+08 -2.4E+08 14.01
S25 -2.1E+08 -2.4E+08 13.85
S26 -2.2E+08 -2.5E+08 12.84

109
 S27 -2.2E+08 -2.5E+08 13.78
S28 -1.1E+08 -1.3E+08 19.91
S29 -1.1E+08 -1.4E+08 18.61
S30 -1.1E+08 -1.3E+08 19.27
S31 -1.1E+08 -1.4E+08 24.06
S32 -8.7E+07 -1.1E+08 17.50
S33 -2.0E+07 -3.4E+07 39.83
S34 -8.7E+07 -1.1E+08 22.06
S35 -2.1E+07 -3.4E+07 39.42
S36 -2.1E+07 -3.6E+07 42.19

In overall, most of the stream energy balance doesn’t deviate much from the
aspen simulation energy balance. However, there are ten streams which include S12,
S16, S20, S21, S23, S31, S33, S34, S35 and S36 with deviation more than 20%. The
highest deviation can be observed in stream 23 followed by stream 36 with both have
deviation of 51.24% and 42.19% respectively from mass balance. The possible
source of this error is might be due to different in heat capacity of the Carl’s Yaws
handbook and the ASPEN PLUS Simulation data. Therefore, the manual energy
calculation deviates from the real simulation values.

110
 CHAPTER 3

WASTE MANAGEMENT

3.1 Waste Management and Classification of Waste

Waste is all material or product that are considered as unwanted, and need to
be eliminated. The waste generated by the DME plant is the results of the process
from the raw material until the product which consist of processing, utilisation,
consumption, manufacturing and maintenance. All the waste produced is considered
as industrial waste. To sustain the environment and human health, a proper and
efficient waste management is a need especially in the industrial sector.

Waste management is all the process of managing the waste of the unwanted
material to its final disposal. Waste management also can be described as the process
of collection, transport, treatment and disposal of the waste together with monitoring
and regulation. Generally, waste is classified into three categories which is solid
waste, liquid waste and gaseous waste. Then the waste is further classified based on
their biological, chemical and physical properties and also their basis of nature either
hazardous or non-hazardous waste.

3.1.1 Solid Waste

Solid waste is referred as range of garbage material which are in solid state
that are unwanted and useless which come from animal and human activities (Rick,
2019). This include the waste generate from the industrial, residential and
commercial activities in given area. Generally, landfills are considered as sanitary,
municipal, construction and demolition, or industrial waste sites.

111
3.1.2 Liquid Waste

Liquid waste can be defined as such liquid as wastewater, fats, oil and
hazardous household liquids. Liquid waste is considered as hazardous or potentially
harmful to human health or the environment especially the liquid waste generated
from the industrial. The common practice to dispose the wastewater is to discharge it
on the ground, rivers and other water bodies either treated or untreated. There are
general regulatory set by the local government need to be followed before discharge
the waste to the water body for the sustainability of the environment and health.

3.1.3 Gaseous Waste

Gaseous waste is a waste product in a gas form resulting from various human
activities such as manufacturing, processing, material consumption or biological
process. Oxides from carbon, sulphur dioxide, oxide from nitrogen, hydrocarbon,
aerosol, carbon monoxides, methane and greenhouse gases like chlorofluorocarbon
which contributes to greenhouse effect and global warming are considered as
gaseous waste. The gases may also condense in the atmosphere and fall as acid rain
which affects public health and biodiversity.

112
3.2 The Waste Hierarchy

The Commission of the European Communities introduced the thematic

strategy which specific on the prevention and recycling the waste in 2005 (Ferrari,
Gamberini and Rimini, 2016). In order lowering the environment problem and
reducing the lack of resources, a life-cycle approach was introduced to improve the
waste management. Significantly, the waste needed to be minimized first and then
reuse and recycle. If the step are not applicable, the waste should be turn into energy
replacing any fuel or as an alternative energy. Dumping waste to landfill is the least
favourable if all the step are not applicable. Landfills require a large area and may
increase the environment pollution such as the leachates. Figure 3.1 shows The
Waste Hierarchy.

Figure 3.1 The Waste Hierarchy (Cole et al., 2014)

113
3.3 Source of Waste

The DME production plant produced three class of waste which is solid,
liquid and gas. Table 3.1 shows the type of waste produced by the plant and source
of the waste.

Table 3.1 Type of waste generated and source of the waste

Type of Waste
Sources Amount (kg/h)
waste Generated
Gasifier Ash 2195.99
Solid Reactors
Catalyst -
(WGS, Methanol and DME)
H2O 18657.55
Flash Column 1
CO2 0.51
H2O 2196.87
Liquid Distillation Column 1
CH3OH 0.034
H2O 8402.71
Distillation Column 2
CH3OH 0.003
H2 1769.36
CO 12094.17
Gas Flash Column 2
CO2 74464.84
CH3OH 335.71

114
3.4 Solid Waste Management

The plant produces solid waste in the form of catalyst that had reached its
shelf life and also ash that’s produced from hourly from the downdraft gasifier.

3.4.1 Catalyst

Table 3.2 List of Catalyst Solid Waste

Type of waste Waste Generated Sources Reference

Solid Ni/CeO2-Al2O3 Water Gas Shift (Newsome, 1980)
(Catalyst) Reactor
Desulphurized Methanol (Jorg, Veronika et.al,
Naphtha (Cu–ZnO– Reactor 2012)
Al2O3)
H-ZMS-5 DME Reactor (Rutkowska, Macina,
Mirocha-Kubień,
Piwowarska, &
Chmielarz, 2015)

The sources of the catalyst wastes come from the process in the reactor itself.
The catalyst has lifetime of a 6 months or typically several years depends on the
frequency of the process and considerable to the downtime and cost for replacement
of the catalyst (Gumerov & Le Neindre, 2016). These wastes need to be dispose
properly due to its poisoning. (Jager, Van Berge, & Steynberg, 2001).

Table 3.3 Ways of Catalyst Disposal

Ways Reference
Incineration (Drahansky et al., 2016)
Catalyst Recovery (Plasma) (Svirchuk, 2011)
Catalyst Regeneration (Gumerov & Le Neindre, 2016)

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3.4.1.1 Incineration

According to Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE), catalyst waste is

categorized under SW2 category which is waste containing principally inorganic
constituents which may contain metals and organic metals. The code for catalyst as
scheduled waste is under SW202: waste catalysts. The scheduled waste need to be
packaged and labelled by the company before it is been outsourced to the company
managing the catalyst. In Malaysia, Kualiti Alam is given the authority by the
Department of Environment to manage this scheduled waste. Kualiti Alam will
collect the scheduled waste from the company and later transport it to their off-site
waste storage for biological, chemical or physical treatment. Usually the treatment at
the off-site waste storage for catalyst is done by incinerating it to decompose before
it is buried under the soil surface (Drahansky et al., 2016). The incineration process
is done to achieve maximum destruction efficiency. Rotary kiln is used as the
primary combustion chamber with a temperature of up to 1000°C and secondary
combustion chamber operating at above 1000°C to ensure the highest possible
destruction efficiency, followed by heat recovery system and finally an extensive
multi-stage flue-gas treatment system. The ash will later buried in the secure landfill.

Packaging and labelling

Scheduled waste transport facilities

Off-site waste storage (Incineration)

Secure landfill

Figure 3.2 Hierarchy of scheduled waste management (Drahansky et al., 2016)

116
 If the company wanted to manage this scheduled waste on their own, the
company need to apply for license to treat the waste. The company need to apply the
license through the office of the Director General of the Department of Environment
going through a few processes (Drahansky et al., 2016).

• Inspection of the propose site selection for the

waste disposal based on developmental plan of
Environmental Malaysia
Impact Assessment
(EIA)

• Preparing all of the qualifying documents to

prove the capability to run the treatment by
following the environmental regulations
Written permission

• Inspection of the area to be used for the waste

management
Pre-licensing
inspection

• If all the requirement is fullfillable, the company

will receive the license and approval to handle
their waste management by themselves
Processing of the
operating license

Figure 3.3 Process of applying license for treating the scheduled waste
(Drahansky et al., 2016)

117
3.4.1.2 Catalysts Recovery

In this process, the catalyst wastes (also known as spent catalysts) undergoes
extraction process to extract out the valuable metal such as copper, zinc and ferrous
alloy from its compound. Plasma arc furnace is the major technology used in this
process whereby this process is done by melting a substance by low-temperature
plasma flow that’s been created by an electric arc heater. The advantage of this
technology is it decreases the impurities content as it is heated at certain degree of
temperature causing the decomposition of unrequired compound to get the required
metals or element. The plasma technology consists of three types which are plasma
furnace melting in ceramic crucible, plasma furnace melting in a crystallizer and
plasma furnace melting in a scull. Plasma furnace melting in a ceramic crucible is
preferred mostly since it consumes less electricity compared to other types
(Svirchuk, 2011).

Figure 3.4 Plasma Process (Marian, 2011)

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3.4.1.3 Catalyst Regeneration

Catalyst is known as material of constant composition that can increase the

rate of chemical reaction of the process by lowering the activation energy. As the
activation energy is lower, more products will be produced. However, catalyst
deactivation occurs as it will lose its catalytic activity and selectivity over time and
leads to the catalyst can’t be used anymore. Besides that, catalyst deactivation occurs
due to coke that’s been formed in the process is adsorbed on the surface of the metal
compound catalyst forming layer that covering the active site of the catalyst. Usually
when the

Catalyst regeneration process is a process that was introduced to activate back

the deactivated catalyst chemical reactivity. However, this method is only limited to
the catalyst that has not been damaged yet. The coke that had formed on the catalyst
will be undergoing a few process for coke removal (Gumerov & Le Neindre, 2016).
Integrated reactor is being used to increase the thermal efficiency. The catalyst that
being supplied is in the form of moving-bed catalyst.

Figure 3.5 Catalyst Regeneration Process Flow Diagram (Penn, 2018)

119
 The process begins with the catalyst particles and oxygen introduced at the
top of the reactor as the catalyst particles move downward due to gravitational force.
The first burning of the catalyst will happen in the reactor while steam is being
supplied. The first burning is done to crack the coke or cracking reaction (Penn,
2018). Catalyst is contacted with oxygen at temperature range 427-577°C to
facilitate the cracking process (Gumerov & Le Neindre, 2016). Steam on the other
hand, is injected at the bottom of the reactor to separate the products to the
fractionator for recovery purpose (Penn, 2018). As the catalyst moves to the bottom
of the reactor it will start deactivate as the coke starts to build up at the surface of the
catalyst once again. This is when the second burning play its role to burning up the
coke build up on the surface of the catalyst and the catalyst being recycle back to the
top of reactors by bucket elevators until the coke is completely remove from the
catalyst (Penn,2018).

3.4.1.4 Comparison of Catalyst Waste Management

Table 3.4 List of Method for Catalyst Waste

Catalyst Catalyst
Methods Incineration
Recovery Regeneration

Application Damaged catalyst Damaged catalyst Less damaged Catalyst

Technology Incinerator Plasma Furnace Integrated reactor

Person In Outsource By company, By company, getting

Charge (Kualiti Alam) getting licensed licensed from
from Department Department of
of Environment Environment (DOE)
(DOE)

Price Cheap Expensive Expensive

Transportation Transport Not provided Not provided

provided by
Kualiti Alam

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 Land Secure Landfill Owned Land Owned Land

Maintenance of Minimal Extensive Extensive maintenance

Technology maintenance maintenance

Process • Packaging and • Melting a • First burning of the

labelling substance by catalyst will happen
low- in the reactor while
• Scheduled waste
temperature steam is being
transport facilities
plasma flow supplied.
• Off-site waste created by
• Steam is injected at
storage electric arc
the bottom of the
(Incineration) heater
reactor to separate
• Secure landfill (Svirchuk,
the products to the
2011).
(Drahansky et al., fractionator for

2016) recovery purpose

(Penn, 2018).

• The second
burning: to burning
up the coke build
up on the surface
the catalyst and the
being recycle back
to the top of
reactors by bucket
elevators until the
coke is completely
remove from the
catalyst (Penn,
2018).

= Preferred

121
 Based on Table 3.4, the highlighted point is the preferred selection over the
criteria of the three methods. In overall, the table shows that the best way to manage
the catalyst waste is by outsourcing it to Kualiti Alam for them to manage it on their
own. Besides being cheap, the hassle of treating and managing the catalyst waste by
our company is significantly reduced. It is also not profitable for the company to
build our own facility to treat the catalyst through catalyst recovery method and
catalyst regeneration. Furthermore, the method of managing scheduled waste by
Kualiti Alam is approved by the government and it is the safest as it follows the
standard set by the Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE).

3.4.2 Ash Management

Ash is the solid waste generated from downdraft gasifier (G-101) after
gasification of oil palm frond. The term of ash is subjected to the left-over residues in
gasifier with the small amount of char and tar (Atnaw et al., 2013). During the
production of syngas, 2,195 tonne/hr of ash is produce that must be handled. As the
demand for DME production increase, subsequently production of ash will increase.
Thus, ash management need to be concern as the continual increase in ash volume
will consequence on the decrease of ash storage facilities. Ash can be categories into
two types: fly ash or bottom ash. The fly ash will be collected by using fly ash
conveying system while the solid ash particles will be collected into bottom hopper
of the gasifier and transport by using fallen ash conveyer. Whole process will be
designed as shown in Figure 3.6.

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 Figure 3.6 Overall ash management system (Processbarron, n.d.)

There are two method of handling the ash, either by using it for its application
or disposing it. Usually, the flying ash is applicable for: (1) use in construction
(Muthusamy et al., 2008; Al-mulali et al., 2013), (2) use as adsorbent (Foo &
Hameed, 2009), whereas bottom ash can be used as fertilizer. Oil palm ash is use in
construction as a mixing ingredient in concrete and cement for reducing the high
dependency on natural aggregate and cement. 10% of replacement of cement by oil
palm ash proved to have increased effect on its workability and compressive strength
of the concrete (Muthusamy et al., 2008; Al-mulali et al., 2013) Besides that, ash has
large porous surface area and has the ability to act as adsorbent for removal of
organic and inorganic pollutants dissolved in water (Foo & Hameed, 2009). The
abundant waste available from the gasifier can directly transfer or sell to wastewater
treatment processes. Therefore, fly ash can be sued to replace the expensive chemical
adsorbents.

The bottom ash can be used as fertilizer is purposely for soil amendment and
agricultural purpose. The ash from oil palm frond contains high fibers, nutrients, and
heavy metals, which easy to dispose of and can reduce the dependency of chemical
fertilizer (James et al., 2012). Ash discharged from gasification of biomass still
contains nutrients with high concentration of phosphorus, P and calcium, Ca that
provide adequate soil nutrients in agricultural.

123
 Even though there are many application of the ash (both the bottom and
flying ash), however, the market of ash is still low as ash has very low price and
there are abundance of competitors in the market like plastic waste to energy
production plant that produces high quality of ash as their by-product that can be
utilized for various application. Considering the economic feasibility and also market
approach of the ash, Yashinnovation decides to send both the bottom ash and flying
ash to landfill for disposal as there is not much selling value for the bottom ash in the
market. Considering the amount of frond we had utilized from been sent to the
landfill, even when we are disposing the bottom ash, we are actually maximizing the
utilization of the waste as we are only disposing the ash (which is initial form of
OPF) at the rate of 2 ton/hour instead of disposing 60 ton/hr of OPF.

3.4.2.1 Process Flow Diagram for Ash Management

Figure 3.7 Process flow diagram of ash management.

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3.5 Liquid Waste Management

In Malaysia, the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 specifies two

standards for effluent discharge: Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water
intake, and Standard B for discharge downstream of any raw water intake. The
current Third Schedule of the Environmental Quality Act 1974, under the
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations, 1979, had
stipulated the effluent discharge limits for parameters specific to domestic
wastewater. The effluent discharge limits are summarized in Table 3.5. All sewage
treatment plants design shall take into consideration of the Schedule and shall
comply with the proposed limits.

Table 3.5 Parameter Limits of Effluent of Standards A and B stated in Third

Schedule of the Environmental Quality Act 1974
Parameter Standard A Standard B
pH 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) 20 mg/l 50 mg/l
Suspended solid (SS) 50 mg/l 100 mg/l
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 50 mg/l 100 mg/l
Ammonia-Nitrogen 10 mg/l 20 mg/l
Nitrate-Nitrogen 20 mg/l 50 mg/l
Oil and Grease 5 mg/l 10 mg/l

In this plant, there are 3 different sources that generate liquid waste which are
Flash Column F-101, Distillation Column D-101 and D-102. Table 3.6 shows the
classification of liquid waste generated from each sources. All the chemical
compounds must be ensured to comply with the Malaysia Environmental Quality Act
1979 before ejected to the environment.

125
 Table 3.6 Classification of liquid waste generated from each sources.
Sources Streams Liquid Waste Generated
1. Water
Flash Column F-101 S12
2. Carbon Dioxide
1. Water
Distillation Column D-101 S23
2. Methanol
1. Water
Distillation Column D-102 S29
2. Methanol

In many industrial economies, the traditional approach to waste has been to

dispose of it as cheaply as possible, without much concern as to what happens once
the waste leaves the industrial premises. By recycling waste, manufacturers can cut
costs considerably, create a cleaner and safer working environment and perhaps
improve the quality and safety of the product. The good waste management protects
the environment and improves profitability. In order to protect the environment, the
water effluent from the plant should be treated before discharged.

3.5.1 Wastewater Treatment Process Description

The wastewater from all the streams shown in Table 3.6 will flow to a
wastewater treatment plant. A small amount of acid gases which is carbon dioxide,
CO2 is dissolved in water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3 thus make the water acidity.
Acid water can cause serious acid attack on metal surfaces of the plant system. Also,
the presence of methanol in the streams will affect the purity of the water to be used
in the later process. Therefore, they should be treated properly in order to be recycled
back to be used in the process. The wastewater treatment plant consists of three
stages which are primary and secondary.

126
Table 3.7 Processes involved in each stages of wastewater treatment plant

Stages Process

Primary Equalization, Neutralization and Filtration

Considered Process
Secondary Upflow Anaerobic
Activated Sludge Adsorption
Sludge Blanket

Tertiary Filtration, Disinfection, Dimineralization

127
3.5.2 Primary Treatment Process

The block flow diagram for the primary treatment processes is show in Figure 3.8.

Incoming Secondary
wastewater Treatment
Equalization Neutralization Filtration
Tank Tank Tank

Figure 3.8 Block diagram of primary treatment process in wastewater treatment

plant

3.5.2.1 Equalization Process

Flow equalization is not a treatment process, but a technique that can be used
to improve the effectiveness of treatment. Equalization tank is the damping of flow
rate variations so that a constant or nearly constant flow rate is achieved. It can be
achieved by constructing large basin that collect and store wastewater flow and from
which the wastewater is pumped to the treatment plant at constant rate. In order to
ensure adequate equalization, process mixing is used to prevent solids from
depositing in the basin. Methods that have been used for mixing include distribution
of inlet flow, baffling and turbine mixing (Chang and Li, 2006).

3.5.2.2 Neutralization Process

Neutralization is a common practice in wastewater treatment and waste

stabilization which is the primary treatment used. In neutralization tank, the pH of
the wastewateris adjusted prior to its discharge into receiving water bodies. The most
widely used methods to balance acidity are by adding a proper alkaline solution
which includes mixing alkaline and acidic wastes such that the net effect is nearly
neutral pH. The wastewater contains water and carbon dioxide, which will form

128
carbonic acid will be neutralized using stirrer and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
before sending to filtration tank. The neutralization process will formed calcium
carbonate precipitate, the precipitate will be removed during filtration process
(Paraskevas and Lekkas, 1998). The neutralization process equation is as follow;

H 2CO3 aq  CaOH 2 s   CaCO3 s   2 H 2Ol 

3.5.2.3 Filtration Process

Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water.

Filtration is a polishing step to remove small flocs or precipitant particles and served
as the turbidity-removal process. Turbidity is a physical characteristic that makes
water appear cloudy when suspended matter is present. The filtration process
removes suspended matter as well as precipitants. Filtration can ensure continuous
plant operation and consistent effluent quality (Ejraei et. al, 2019). In this wastewater
treatment plant, filtration process is used to remove calcium carbonate precipitate
formed during neutralization process.

129
3.5.3 Secondary Treatment Process

Referring to Table 3.7, there are three processes that can be considered in
secondary treatment process to remove methanol from water and increase the purity
of water to be use in the utility system.

3.5.3.1 Activated Sludge

Effluent from
primary Tertiary
treatment Treatment
Settling Tank
Aeration Tank

Return Activated Sludge

Filter Press

Figure 3.9 Activated sludge process flow diagram

The activated sludge system (aeration and settling tanks) is the main
representative of the suspended-growing aerobic process. The activated sludge is the
most commonly utilized process of stabilizing wastewater with organic matter
constituents (Gerba and Pepper, 2019). This process added air or oxygen to create a
biological floc, which decreases the organic content of the wastewater. The process
will effectively remove organic matter, such as methanol in this case when there is
enough oxygen and hydraulic retention time. The wastewater and activated sludge
combination is then deposited in order to separate the activated sludge solids from
the treated water. Part of the settled activated sludge is normally transferred to the
aeration tank mechanically by pump (Waste Management Series, n.d).

130
3.5.3.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)

Figure 3.10 Schematic diagram of upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor

(Anijiofor et. al, 2017)

Anaerobic degradation is a sequence of processes in which microorganisms

break down biodegradable substance in the absence of oxygen. By anaerobic
treatment methods, the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor is
recognised as a significant wastewater treatment technology. Wastewater to be
treated is pumped from the bottom of the reactor and flows upwards through a layer
of biologically activated sludge, usually in the form of granular aggregates. Gasses
such as methane and carbon dioxide generated under anaerobic conditions cause
internal mixing which helps to create and sustain biological granules. For the
efficient separation of gas water, and granules, a gas-liquid-solid separator (GLSS) is
added to the top of the reactor. In GLSS, the surrounding gas particles reach the
bottom of degassing baffles and fall back into the sludge blanket and the treated
water flows out of the reactor (Daud et. al, 2018).

131
3.5.3.3 Adsorption

Figure 3.11 General process flow diagram for adsorption process using granular
activated carbon (Jalani, et.al, 2016)

Adsorption offers a cleaner, sludge-free technology and generates a high-

quality effluent. Adsorption has gained importance over the past few decades as an
efficient technique of purification and separation used in the treatment of water and
wastewater. Adsorption is a physical process of removing soluble molecules
(adsorbate) by attaching them to the surface of a solid (adsorbent) substrate.
Activated carbon is the most widely used adsorbent, which can be generated through
biomass pyrolytic carbonization. Activated carbons (AC) are common adsorbents
used to remove unwanted color, smell, flavor, and other organic and inorganic
impurities from domestic and industrial waste water due to their large surface area,
non-polar microporous structure and economic viability (Rashed, 2013).

132
3.5.3.4 Comparison of Secondary Treatment Process

Table 3.8 Comparison of secondary treatment process for each parameters

Upflow
Activated
Parameter anaerobic sludge Adsorption
Sludge
blanket (UASB)

Environment CH4 emission Low High None

Sound Low Low Low
Plant Process High Low Medium
Technology stability
Discharge High Medium High
quality
Post-treatment Low Medium Medium
Plant safety Low High Low
Economic Energy Medium Low Medium
Efficiency requirement
Maintenance Medium Low High
cost
Disposal of Medium Low High
residuals

= Preferred

Referring to Table 3.8, it shows that activated sludge process have the most
preferred process. Activated sludge process has high process stability and discharge
quality compared to UASB and adsorption process. Furthermore, it also has low
requirement for post treatment of the effluent. Moreover, all of the primary effluent
travels through the entire aeration tank and therefore has a longer treatment time.
Thus, the selected process for secondary treatment is activated sludge process. The
sludge generated will be treated as discussed in the next section.

133
3.5.4 Sludge Treatment

Sewage sludge is the solid, semisolid, or slurry residual material that is

produced as a by-product of wastewater treatment processes. This residue is
commonly classified as primary and secondary sludge. Primary sludge is generated
from chemical precipitation, sedimentation, and other primary processes, whereas
secondary sludge is the activated waste biomass resulting from biological
treatments. In this plant, filter press is used as a treatment process for sludge
generated in wastewater treatment plant. A filter press is a batch operation, fixed
volume machine that separates liquids and solids using pressure filtration. A slurry is
pumped into the filter press and dewatered under pressure (Water Treatment
Solution, n.d).

3.5.5 Tertiary treatment process

Tertiary treatment is the final cleaning process that improves wastewater

quality before it is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment. According to
Kunjadiya (2020), as the wastewater reaches the tertiary treatment stage, it still has
residual suspended matter and fine particulates besides having relatively high level of
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus and has microbes and odor in it. During
tertiary treatment process, different methods are used to remove all these
contaminants and properties from wastewater.

3.5.5.1 Filtration Process

The initial stage of tertiary treatment is filtration by using granular media

filter such as activated carbon which helps mainly to remove residual suspended
matter in wastewater. The activated carbon is also used to adsorb the toxins and
remove them from wastewater. Tertiary filtration is aimed at removing the fine
suspended solids that are carried over with effluent in secondary clarifier. The BOD
associated with the suspended solids also automatically gets removed during
filtration resulting into low SS/BOD effluent.

134
3.5.5.2 Disinfection Process

According to Kunjadiya (2020), the clear and less cloudy nature of

wastewater at this stage is critical for efficiency and effectiveness of the disinfection
process. Several disinfection agents can be used depending on wastewater condition
and chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet (UV) light are the most common disinfection agents.
Chlorine even though its effective in treatment, long term use and unregulated
dosage can lead to generation of chlorinated-organic compounds that are
carcinogenic in nature therefore need an additional de-chlorination step before using
the water. On the other hand, ultraviolet light treatment for disinfection does not
leave any residues or compounds behind in the water but for it to be effective, the
wastewater must be clear. Therefore, ozone is selected as the disinfection agent in
this WWTP because it is a very effective disinfection agent and does not need any
storage place as it can be generated on site using the necessary equipment for passing
oxygen through high voltage current.

3.5.5.3 Demineralization of Water

Demineralization process is the final step in the wastewater treatment process

before able to recycle the water back for application. Demineralization process
involves removal of minerals by means of Ion Exchange Resins by passing water
through Cation Resin Column and then though Anion Resin Column.
Demineralization generally results in almost complete removal of minerals, and is
thus typically reserved for applications requiring higher level of water purity, such as
feed or makeup water for high pressure boilers, rinse water for food and beverage
industries, or process streams used in electronics manufacture, for example.
Demineralization process is the modern industrial water softening process which is
important to prevent scaling in the process pipe because of the minerals present in
the water.

135
3.5.6 Process Flow Diagram for Liquid Waste Management

Figure 3.12 Process flow diagram for liquid waste management

136
3.6 Gas Waste Management

Industries are required to comply with the air emission standards to control
the air pollution and gaseous emissions. Yashinovation make sure the gas released to
the surrounding comply with the standard by Department of Environmental (DOE)
Malaysia which is the Stack Gas Emission Standards from Environmental Quality
(Clean Air) Regulations 1978 and Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines
(Ambient Standards) .Yashinovation make sure it reduce its emission from its
process by utilizing and making the most of their plant gaseous waste. Table 3.9
represents the components and flow rates for gas released from the DME plant. S19
which is the top outlet of the flash column, F-102 after the Methanol reactor (R-102)
is the only gas outlet stream of the plant. Gases contain in the S19 stream consist of
CO2, H2, CO and CH3OH and H2O.

Table 3.9 The components existed in gas effluent from F-102

F-102 (S19 stream)
Components
Mass Flowrate (kg/hr) Composition (%)

H2 1,769.36 2.00
CO 12,094.17 13.64
CO2 74,464.84 83.98
METHANOL 335.71 0.38
DME 0.00 0.00
H2O 8.28 0.01
ASH 0.00 0.00
TOTAL 88,672.36 100.00

Based on S19 composition in the table above, it can be seen that CO2
concentration is the highest that will be produced among the other gas followed by
CO. Both this gases is a type of greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming,
therefore, it have to be managed responsibly before being released to the atmosphere.
Yashinnovation decided to treat and sell CO2 as one of the by-product of the process.

137
 Even though the CO2 can be used back as the additional feed for the Methanol
Reactor, however, the CO2 reaction with H2 to form CH3OH process yield a very
much lesser amount of CH3OH. This is because in this reaction, H2 is the limiting
reactant with lower conversion of 0.11 compared to CO conversion to methanol
which is 0.684. Therefore, adding in CO2 will only occupy space and build up the
amount of pressure in the reactor. The CO is harder to be removed from the S19 gas
stream and feed into the Methanol Reactor, therefore, it is been converted to CO 2 and
later been separated to sell it.

3.6.1 CO2 Process Block Diagram

H2

Steam CO2 Capture

Technology

S19 Water Gas Shift Flash

Reactor Column CO2

Methanol &
Water
Figure 3.13 Process block diagram of gas management

Figure 3.13 shows the block diagram of the CO2 separation and purifying
process from S19 will enter a Water Gas Shift (WGS) reactor where the CO will
react with steam to produce H2 and CO2. The steam will be supplied in excess to
make CO as the limiting reactant and CO will undergo 99% conversion to produce
more CO2 and H2. Then the stream leaving the WGS reactor will enter the Flash
Column to remove the methanol and water content in the stream at the bottom and
send it to the wastewater treatment facility at the plant.

The top product leaving the flash column contains a huge amount of CO2
followed by H2. These stream will later undergo separation in the CO2 capture

138
technology where CO2 will be purified leaving behind H2. The captured CO2 will be
stored in the storage tank while H2 will be used in the Combined Heat Power (CHP)
system to produce electricity.

There are three main system for the capture of CO2 which is pre-combustion
capture, post-combustion capture and oxyfuel combustion capture. In pre-
combustion capture, the CO2 in a synthesis gas is captured after conversion of CO
into CO2. Besides, pre-combustion capture also defined as capture to remove CO2
before combustion is completed such as production of syngas in gasifier. In other
hand, post combustion capture is the capture CO2 in the exhaust gases once the fuel
has been fully burned with air while oxy-combustion capture is the capture of CO2
after it has been combust fully using pure oxygen. In our plant, we use pre-
combustion capture since the pre-combustion capture is easier due to the greater
difference in molecular weights and molecular kinetic diameters for CO2 and H2 in
pre-combustion capture than for CO2 and N2 in post-combustion capture.

3.6.2 CO2 Capture Technology

There are 4 major technologies – absorption, adsorption, cryogenic and

membrane separation available for CO2 capture technology.

CO2 Capture Technology

Absorption Adsorption Cryogenics Membrane

Figure 3.14 CO2 Capture Technology in Application

139
3.6.2.1 Absorption Technology

Absorption technology is a well-researched and matured technology that

involves the use of chemical solvents to capture CO2 through physical or chemical
mean. Physical absorption is non-reactive whereas chemical absorption is reactive
process. The absorption of CO2 from the flue gas occurs at high pressure and low
temperature and the most commonly-used solvents for absorption of CO2 from flue
gases are basically amines. Econamine FGSM technology is a type of chemical
absorption method that uses monoethanolamine (MEA) as the basis of its solvent.
Product with high purity, up to 99.9% of carbon dioxide can be obtained with a
removal efficiency of 85%.

Figure 3.15 Schematic diagram of amine scrubbing technology

The process consists of an absorber and a stripper in which absorbent is

thermally regenerated. In the Econamine FGSM technology, the flue gas that
contains CO2 enters the packed bed absorber from the bottom and contacts counter-
currently with the absorbent. Once the CO2 absorbed, the CO2-rich absorbent flows
into a stripper for thermal regeneration in which the absorbent is pumped back to the
absorber for cyclic use. The pure CO2 that will be released from the stripper will be
compressed for the succeeding transportation and storage. Usually the operation
pressure is around 1.0 bar and the temperatures in the absorber and stripper are
generally in the ranges of 40–60°C and 120–140°C, respectively.

140
 However, the use of solvents in this technology makes it corrosive and energy
intensive due to high energy demands during solvent regeneration, and it is also
expensive. The amine absorption/stripping technology is an energy intensive process
and the overall cost of a CO2 capture process is 52–77 US$/tonne CO2 (Rochelle,
2009). Rochelle (2009) also states that chemical absorption using aqueous
alkanolamine solutions is proposed to be the most applicable technology for CO2
capture before 2030. Most of the energy consumption from the absorption process
comes from the solvent regeneration step that contributes to about 60% of the
required energy. The absorption liquid is regenerated by increasing the temperature
or reducing the pressure to break the absorbent-CO2 bond.

3.6.2.2 Adsorption Technology

Adsorption Technology is extensively been used in chemical and

environmental processes using various adsorbents such as zeolites, activated carbon,
and Amine-impregnated adsorbent for CO2 capture. Physical adsorption will occur
under suitable temperature-pressure conditions in any gas solid system, while
chemisorption takes place only if the gas is capable of forming a chemical bond with
the surface. Higher attention is currently been focused on the adsorption technology
due to its characteristics, which include minimum energy requirements, easy
maintenance, simple operation and flexibility (Cau, Tola & Deiana, 2014). Besides,
the adsorbent such as activated carbon are lower in cost and are available widely.

141
 Figure 3.16 Schematic diagram of PSA technology

The most promising technology for the adsorption process is the pressure
swing adsorption (PSA) because it can use a wide range of temperatures and
pressures and it requires minimum amount of energy besides requiring lower
investment cost (Rehfeldt, Kuhr, Schiffer, Weckes, & Bergins, 2011). The adsorption
technology has several disadvantages such as poor heat transfer, especially in packed
beds, and slow kinetics. However, the advantages of adsorption technology far out-
weigh its disadvantages (Cebrucean, Cebrucean, & Ionel, 2014).

3.6.2.3 Cryogenic Separation Technology

Cryogenic separation technology is a physical process that separates CO2

under extremely low temperature which eventually liquefy the CO2 (Rochelle, 2009).
Cryogenic separation technology is mostly applied in CO2 capture systems especially
when high concentration of CO2 is present in the gas stream. During the separation
process, the gas mixtures components will be separated using compression,
refrigeration and separation steps (Mangindaan, Woon, Shi, and Chung, 2015).
Cryogenic separation process avoids secondary pollution by not using any chemical
agent in it. Higher content of CO2 in a high pressure gas mixture makes it possible to
liquefy the CO2 by cooling it without using too much energy in order to separate it
from other gases (Kanniche et al., 2010).

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 Figure 3.17 Schematic Diagram of Cryogenic Distillation

During cryogenic separation, flue gas containing CO2 is cooled to

desublimation temperature (−100°C to –135°C). Then, the solidified CO2 is been
separated from other light gases and compressed to a high pressure of 100–200
atmospheric pressure. The amount of CO2 recovered can reach 90% to 95% of the
flue gas. Since the distillation is conducted at extremely low temperature and high
pressure, it is an energy intensive process estimated to be 600 kWh to 660 kWh per
tonne of CO2 recovered in liquid form (Leung, Caramanna, and Maroto-Valer, 2014).
Introducing high pressure and near ambient temperature distillation in new cryogenic
modified technology, CO2 purity in the final product reaches 99.9%.

3.6.2.4 Membrane Separation Technology

Membrane Separation Technology only allows CO2 from the flue gas to pass
through. The membrane are usually made up of composite polymer which a thin
selective layer is bonded to a thicker, non-selective and low-cost layer that provides
mechanical support to the membrane (“Carbon Capture and Storage”, 2019). The
development of ceramic-metallic membranes and polymeric for membrane diffusion
could produce membranes significantly more efficient for CO2 separation than liquid
absorption processes. The main drawback of the membrane system is it is affected
strongly by the flue gas conditions such as low CO2 concentration and pressure,
which are the main hurdles for applying this technology.

143
Figure 3.18 Schematic Diagram of Membrane Separation in Hollow Fiber
Membrane Module Structure

Brunetti et al. conducted a general review on current CO2 separation

technology using membranes and compared with other separation technologies such
as adsorption and cryogenic. According to Brunetti et al. (2010), the performance of
a membrane system is strongly affected by the flue gas conditions such as low CO2
concentration and pressure. However, the potential of the membrane separation
technology is far away to be success (Bernardo et al., 2009).

3.6.3 Technology Comparison

All the four technologies are compared based on 4 key aspects as shown in
Table 3.10 below in order to choose the best technology for the recovery of CO2.

Table 3.10 Technology Comparison of CO2 Removal

Key Aspects Econamine PSA using Cryogenic Membrane
FGSM Activated Distillation System
Absorption Carbon
Process
CO2 85% 90% 99% 60-80%
Removal
Efficiency
Purity of 99% 95% 99.9% 80-95%
CO2

144
 CO2 220.06/tonne 116.67/tonne 179.01/tonne 160.21/tonne
Removal
Cost (MYR)
Energy Energy Minimal Energy intensive as Minimal
intensive as energy distillation is energy
solvent need to required conducted at required
be regenerated extremely low
temperature and
high pressure
Reference Rochelle, G. Riboldi & Abu-Zahra et al Kazuya
(2009) Bolland (2016) Goto et al
(2015) (2013)

Based on the comparison, Cryogenic Distillation is identified to be the best

method to separate CO2 because of its carbon dioxide removal efficiency of 99% and
also produces CO2 up to 99.9% of purity; making it suitable to be sell to the food and
beverage industry (CO2 meter, 2019). Even though cryogenic separation is energy
intensive, higher power requirement is needed to obtain higher purity (Goto et al.,
2013). By changing the target of CO2 purity from 99% to 95%, the power
requirement significantly decreases, however the 95% of CO2 production is not up to
selling grade of CO2 for demand application therefore only the Econamine FGSM
Absorption and Cryogenic Distillation yield the CO2 as per the selling grade. The
higher removal efficiency of CO2 in the cryogenic distillation makes it to stand out
compared to the other means of CO2 removal.

Food and beverage industry has the largest demand of carbon dioxide that
contributes to a total of 36% that’s been consumed (GVR, 2018). Carbon dioxide is
use for the purpose of cooling liquid or refrigerant because it has very low
temperature of -78.5°C. This is to sublimates the dry ice (Ajay, 2019). Another usage
is in carbonation of soft drinks, beer or other alcoholic beverages. Carbon dioxide is
also used in softening water to avoid corrosion in long water distribution lines and
producing portable drinking water (GVR, 2018). It is also used for the frozen food to

145
maintain the cryogenic temperature. The CO2 grade that’s used in food industry is
around 99.9 % purity (CO2meter, 2019).

3.6.4 Process Flow Diagram of CO2 Production

Figure 3.19 Process flow diagram for gas waste management.

3.6.5 Combined Heat Power (CHP) System

Figure 3.20 Schematic Diagram of CHP Process

146
 CHP also known as cogeneration is an energy efficient technology approach
that generates electricity and captures the heat that is normally wasted to provide
useful thermal energy—such as steam or hot water—that can be used for space
heating, cooling, domestic hot water and industrial processes. The CHP system is
carried out in a combustion turbine, or reciprocating engine, where the H2 is burned
and turns the generators to produce electricity. There is heat recovery devices that
used along to capture the heat from the turbine or engine. This heat is converted into
useful thermal energy, usually in the form of steam or hot water.

147
3.7 Waste Management Facility

The DME plant have an indoor storage facility to store its scheduled waste
like catalyst before it’s been outsourced to Kualiti Alam to manage it. The scheduled
waste is stored indoor to make sure there is no open air exposure to the surrounding
besides preventing it from getting exposed to the weather. The ash (both bottom and
flying ash) produced will be sent to the nearby landfill through a conveyor system
therefore it doesn’t require an onsite storage place to manage it.

To manage the wastewater, the plant have a wastewater treatment facility for
the water to be treated and reused back into the system. Since the DME production
plant uses a lot of water, it is essential for the wastewater to be treated and reused
back in the process. The wastewater undergoes primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment in order to make sure the water can be reused back into the process stream.

Since the amount of the CO2 that’s been produced in the plant is in the huge
amount compared to the main products (both DME and Methanol) and the
production of CO2 requires a huge amount of space, Yashinnovation suggest the
company besides having the DME production plant, they can venture into the
production of CO2 by having a wholly owned subsidiary business that manages the
CO2 only. This subsidiary company will be most probably located adjacent to the
DME production plant to ease the transfer of the waste gas stream into their plant.
According to GVR (2018), Food and beverage industry has the largest demand of
carbon dioxide that contributes to a total of 36% that’s been consumed therefore, the
CO2 has a great potential in the market for the company to venture into it. The
advantage of having high concentration (83.98%) of CO2 that’s present in the gas
stream ease for the cryogenic separation process to be more efficient in the
production of CO2. The thermal energy recovered through CHP system will be
utilised in the CO2 production facility for its utility.

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 CHAPTER 4

ENERGY INTEGRATION

Introduction

In energy-related applications heat integration is critical for increasing energy

efficiency and reducing operating costs. Typically, a sequential approach is used when
implementing cycle optimization with heat integration (Miiler, et.al, 2014). Material
processing streams and processes have to be cooled down and/or condensed and heated
up and/or vaporized in many industrial processing systems. In recuperative heat
exchangers, the heating and cooling functions are done mainly in indirect way. Direct
heat exchange is feasible, but it is a relatively secondary means of heat exchange,
especially in chemical and related industries. We may supply heat to any cold stream
utilizing heating utilities such as steam at different pressure rates, flue gas from
furnaces, and so on. Similarly, through cooling utilities such as water, air and
refrigerants, heat can be extracted from any hot stream (Sieniutycz & Jezowski, 2009).

Clearly, in terms of money and environmental impact, such an unintegrated

system is inferior. Heating utilities are costly as we need to buy and transform energy
sources into heat energy. The most common sources of energy used in manufacturing
are not renewable such as oil, gas, etc. Integrating heat energy is beneficial to reduce
the cost of electricity and environmental impacts. The concept behind integration of
heat is easy to define which to heat up cold process streams using heat energy from
hot process streams. As a result, hot streams are cooled down and cold streams are
heated with lower energy usage (Sieniutycz & Jezowski, 2009).

Heat exchanger network (HEN) synthesis is the heat integration of industrial

processes between hot and cold process streams in order to reduce heating and cooling
utility consumption. To achieve maximum energy recovery (MER) through heat
integration requires a systematic approach in designing complex HEN, so we need to
149
apply Pinch Technology. Pinch Technology helps to identify the ideal pinch point or
heat recovery approach temperature (HRAT) that disintegrates all process streams into
two parts which are above and below pinch areas, also to estimate the heat transfer
area of heat exchangers with a minimum number of process heat exchangers
(Angsutorn, et al., 2014). The energy should not be transmitted across the pinch for
maximum energy recovery (MER). The network is split into hot and cold parts, above
and below the pinch. In the hot area, the streams are balanced so that the heat is
transferred from the coolest possible source (Micah, 2015).

150
 Streams Identification

The analysis of the heat exchanger network determines first sources of heat
(called hot streams) and sinks (called cold streams) from the process flow. The
overview of the hot and cold streams in the system that can be used to achieve the
maximum energy recovery (MER) of the process plant is summarized in the Table
4.1.

Table 4.1 Summary of the hot and cold stream available for heat integration

Heat
Stream Supply Target Heat Flow
Stream Capacity
Name Type Temp., Temp., Rate
No. Flow Rate
TS (oC) TT (oC) (MW)
(MW/˚C)
H1 Hot 67 1,327.89 200.00 218.85 -246,841.47

H2 Hot 9  10 200.00 80.00 479.03 -57,484.00

H3 Hot 14  15 277.29 220.00 221.52 -12,690.90

H4 Hot 17  18 220.00 100.00 552.42 -66,290.80

C1 Cold 24  25 164.05 180.00 55.91 891.74

H5 Hot 26  27 180.00 150.00 127.93 -3,837.79

H6 Hot 30  31 130.81 70.00 146.48 -8,907.73

H7 Hot 32  34 52.82 30.00 279.16 -6,370.53

H8 Hot 35  36 76.28 30.00 36.97 -1,711.14

151
 Composite Curves

The procedure for performing the composite curves is：

1. Fix the value of ΔTmin.

2. Draw the hot composite curve.

3. Draw the cold composite curve in such a way that the smallest temperature
difference is equal to ΔTmin.

4. The temperature at which ΔT = ΔTmin is the pinch.

5. The non-overlap on the right is the Minimum Heating Utility and the non-overlap
on the left is the Minimum Cooling Utility.

152
 Figure 4.1 Composite curves shows the pinch point between hot and cold streams

The composite curves are shown in Figure 4.1. The result found that the quantity of hot stream is more compared to the cold stream. The
pinch getting from the composite curves is at ∆H is 365932.77 MW. The pinch point shows that the curve is at below pinch which means that the
process need cooling utility more compared to the heating utility. For hot stream, the cold utility needed to cool down is 403242.51 MW while 0
MW requirements for hot utility to cold down the cold stream. The targeting saving energy for the hot stream is 0.22% reduction and saving energy
for cold stream is 100%.

153
 Problem Algorithm Table

The other produced is integrated based on pitch technology in order to utilize

the heat produced fully. To find the pinch temperature of the process, Problem Table
Algorithm is used. Below are the steps for Problem Table Algorithm:

1. Determine the shifted temperature intervals T* from actual supply and target
temperature. Hot stream is shifted down in temperature by Tmin/2 and cold stream
up to Tmin/2.

2. The stream population is shown with vertical temperature scale. The interval
temperature is set to Tmin/2 below hot stream temperature and Tmin/2 above
stream temperature.
i) For hot streams, Ts* (shifted) = Ts – ½ Tmin and Tt* (shifted) = Tt – ½ Tmin
ii) For cold streams, Ts* (shifted) = Ts + ½ Tmin and Tt* (shifted) = Tt + ½ Tmin

3. Heat balance with each shifted temperature scale from interval to interval. After
that, take largest negative heat flow as the utilities need. The interval with zero
heat flows are the pinch temperature.

Table 4.2 Actual temperature and shifted temperatures

Actual T Shifted T
Stream No.
TS (oC) TT (oC) T’S (oC) T’T (oC)

H1 1327.89 200.00 1322.89 195.00

H2 200.00 80.00 195.00 75.00
H3 277.29 220.00 272.29 215.00
H4 220.00 100.00 215.00 95.00
C1 164.05 180.00 169.05 185.00
H5 180.00 150.00 175.00 145.00
H6 130.81 70.00 125.81 65.00
H7 52.82 30.00 47.82 25.00
H8 76.28 30.00 71.28 25.00

154
 Table 4.3 Set up temperature interval

Stream Remove Duplicates

T’S/ T’T Set Up Intervals (Tint)
No. (if any)
1322.89 1322.89 1322.89
H1
195.00 195.00 272.29
195.00 215.00
H2
75.00 75.00 195.00
272.29 272.29 185.00
H3
215.00 215.00 175.00
215.00 169.05
H4
95.00 95.00 145.00
169.05 169.05 125.81
C1
185.00 185.00 95.00
175.00 175.00 75.00
H5
145.00 145.00 71.28
125.81 125.81 65.00
H6
65.00 65.00 47.82
47.82 47.82 25.00
H7
25.00 25.00
71.28 71.28
H8
25.00

155
 Table 4.4 Problem Table with global ΔTmin = 10K
FCp (MJ/hr/ K)
SUM FCp DH Cascade
T’ (oC) DT H1 H2 H3 H4 C1 H5 H6 H7 H8 (MJ/hr/ K) (MJ/hr) (MJ/hr)
218.85 479.03 221.52 552.42 55.91 127.93 146.48 279.16 36.97
1322.89 0.00
1050.60 218.85 229,926.37
272.29 229,926.37
57.29 440.37 25,228.92
215.00 255,155.29
20.00 771.28 15,425.51
195.00 270,580.80
10.00 1,031.46 10,314.56
185.00 280,895.36
10.00 1,087.36 10,873.65
175.00 291,769.01
5.95 1,215.29 7,230.98
169.05 298,999.99
24.05 1,159.38 27,883.15
145.00 326,883.14
19.19 1,031.46 19,793.64
125.81 346,676.78
30.81 1,177.94 36,292.36
95.00 382,969.14
20.00 625.52 12,510.35
75.00 395,479.49
3.72 146.48 544.92
71.28 396,024.41
6.28 183.46 1,152.12
65.00 397,176.53
17.18 36.97 635.21
47.82 397,811.74
22.82 316.14 7,214.27
25.00 405,026.00

156
The result found through the problem table method are listed as following:

1. Pinch temperature, Tpinch = 1322.89oC

2. Hot pinch temperature, Tpinch, hot = 1327.89oC

3. Cold pinch temperature, Tpinch, cold = -

4. Minimum heating requirement, QH,min = 0 GJ/s

5. Minimum cooling requirement, QC,min = 405.026 GJ/s

Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)

4.5.1 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design

For the above pinch design, the following rules must be fulfilled:

1. The temperature differences of the hot and cold streams must be greater or equal
to ∆tmin  10 ºC.
2. Above pinch can only have heater, cooler is prohibited in the above pinch region.
3. Only can pair stream where the cold stream Cp is greater or equal to hot stream
Co, Cpc  CpH.
4. Check the temperature profile of stream matching is not crossing.

For the below pinch design, the following rules must be fulfilled:

1. The temperature differences of the hot and cold streams must be greater or equal
to ∆Tmin  10 ºC.
2. Below pinch can only have cooler, heater is prohibited in the below pinch region.
3. Only can pair stream where the hot stream Cp is greater or equal to cold stream
Co, Cpc  CpH.
4. Check the temperature profile of stream matching is not crossing.

157
 After getting the minimum number of stream matches, the upper pinch and
lowest pinch results are combined in order to design the heat exchanger network. For
the first heat exchanger which is positioned at the pinch, the approach temperature
difference at one end of each heat exchanger is constrained at ∆Tmin. Then, working
outwards, the utility exchangers are positioned last. Inlet and outlet temperatures for
each and every heat exchanger are calculated by using the following equation:

Q = FCp(TS - TT)
Where,
Q = heat transferred between hot stream and cold stream in the heat exchanger (MW)
FCp = heat capacity flow rate of each stream (MW/˚C)
TS = inlet temperature of the stream to heat exchanger (˚C)
TT = outlet temperature of the stream from heat exchanger (˚C)

158
The Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) is drawn as following;

Figure 4.2 Heat exchanger network (HEN) at above pinch temperature for maximum energy recovery (MER)

159
 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and after MER

4.6.1 Total Utilities Consumption Before Heat Integration

In this section, the total utilities consumption required for all the heat exchanger units
including reboiler and condenser are calculated (from simulation). Table 4.5 shows the
summary of the consumption of cooling utility and heating before the heat integration is applied
to the process plant.

Table 4.5 Utilities Consumption before Heat Integration

Equipment Heating Utility Cooling Utility

(GJ/hr) (GJ/hr)
HE-01 0.00 246,841.47
HE-02 0.00 57,483.95
HE-03 0.00 12,690.87
HE-04 0.00 66,290.78
HE-05 891.74 0.00
HE-06 0.00 3,837.79
HE-07 0.00 8,907.73
HE-08 0.00 6,370.53
HE-09 0.00 1,711.14
TOTAL 891.74 404,134.25

4.6.2 Comparison between Utilities Consumption before and after HEN

Table 4.6 shows the summary of the utilities consumption before and after energy
integration. For hot utility, the percentage is 0.22% and whereas for the cold utility, the
percentage of saving is 100%. Hence, it is feasible only that the heat integration must be
imposed in the plant in order to save unnecessary energy cost.

160
Table 4.6 Comparison of the utility consumption before and after HEN

Utility type Before HEN After HEN (MW) % Saving

(MW)
Hot 404134.25 403242.51 0.22%
Cold 891.74 0 100.00%

161
 Process Flow Diagram Before and After Heat Integration

Figure 4.3 Process flow diagram before heat integration

162
Figure 4.4 Process flow diagram after heat integration

163
 CHAPTER 5

PROCESS CONTROL

5.1 Introduction

Process controllers play a significant role on how to monitor the disturbance of

a plant system and perform corresponding emergency measures. Without appropriate
and effective operation controls it is impossible to monitor, manage, and eliminate an
unwanted process occurrence (Nolan, 2019). They detect and fix any deviations or
changes in specified values, either manually or automatically. The goal is to ensure
that performance is efficient and as little energy is wasted as possible.

Based on PFD, the process control system and the Pipes and Instrumentation
Diagram (P&ID) are designed. The P&ID is a graphical representation of a process
system that includes the engineering details of the equipment, instruments, piping,
valves, and their arrangement. P&ID is the primary schematic drawing used for the
implementation of a process control system. The targets for the designing of the P&ID
are as follows:

1. To maximize the plant performance for higher production rate.

2. To ensure and maintain the 99% purity of DME.
3. To maintain a safe and effective process at the optimal operating conditions, thus
fulfilling environmental and product quality requirements.
4. To ensure steady running of the plant processes with limited operator interference
through automation and control system.
5. To maintain the operating conditions which can reduce operating costs and
maximize the profit.

164
 Generally, process control combines the fields of mechanical engineering and
chemical engineering which by controlling the flow, performance, mixture, and other
such aspects of a continuous process of production based on sensor input, data
monitoring systems, and more. The advantages of a well-designed control system
include energy saving because energy wastage are minimized when the process is
operated efficiently which also increases the quality of the product as the fluctuations
in product quality are kept to a minimum. Different parameters is set for each unit
operations and the example of the parameters are temperature, pressure, flow and level.
Each and every one of the unit operations are summarized in this chapter.

5.1.1 Controlled Variables

There are total 4 variables that are controlled using a control system inside the
chemical plant which are temperature, pressure, flow and level.

i. Temperature

This parameter is important to maintain optimum condition of each process.

Every material has specific temperature to be converted into required phases. If the
temperature is too low, the required optimum condition cannot be achieved and the
process is being disturbed. Besides, temperature parameter is being control also for
safety purpose. High temperature can cause hazards to the workers such as dermal
burning to the workers since the material is very flammable and easily to burn.

ii. Pressure

Pressure parameter control is for the purpose of maintaining optimum

condition. This parameter is the most important especially in converting the material
liquid phase into vapour phase. However, overpressure can cause hazards especially
explosion if the pressure is not being controlled. Usually safety pressure system such
as pressure relief valve is used together with the pressure control system to avoid
unrequired accident happened.

165
iii. Flow

Flow parameter control is to ensure that the flow rate of the process is not being
disturbed or stop processing. The flow parameter is to ensure that the substance
flowing into the tank is not dried up or overflow. Low flow can cause dried up in the
tank and the process stop but too high flow rate can cause overflow and the substance
is wasted and cause economic lost. The substances that overflow the tank also
dangerous to the workers if they contacted with it or inhaled the exposal substance
since the substance is very toxic.

iv. Level

Level control usually used at the equipment that is very concerned for level
indicator such as storage tank, decanter and condenser. Level control will help in
maintain the liquid level in the equipment to prevent any dangerous incident to occur
such as flooding and severe loss due to chemical spillage. Level control usually plays
a crucial role in the separation column to ensure the efficiency of the separation is
achieved.

5.1.2 Type of Control System

Control system consists of two types: there are open loop control system and
closed loop control system. Open loop control system also known as non-feedback
system, is a type of continuous control system which the control action of input signal
will not affect the output of the controlled system. The disadvantage of open loop
system is poor in handling disturbances or changes in the conditions of the system
which may reduce to achieve desired outcome during the process. Figure 5.1 shows a
basic open loop drying system.

166
 Figure 5.1 Basic open loop drying system (Storr, 2014)

5.1.2.1 Feedforward control system

Feedforward control system is a type of open loop control system which take
corrective action before an error occurs regardless the presence of disturbance. The
role of feedforward control is to predict any potential open-loop disturbances and
compensate it before controlled variable deviates far from the original set point.
Figure 5.2 shows a feedforward conceptual diagram.

Figure 5.2 Feedforward conceptual diagram (Storr, 2014)

5.1.2.2 Feedback Control System

On the other hand, closed loop system is known as feedback control system,
where the output signal is fed back to the input to reduce errors caused by disturbance
variable and sustain a desired output condition that may change during a chemical

167
reaction or process. Thus, closed loop system will be fully automatic control the
system by depending on the output. An example of feedback conceptual diagram
shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Feedback conceptual diagram (Storr, 2014)

5.1.2.3 Ratio Controller

Ratio controller is a special type of feedforward controller. Ratio controller is

mostly used to maintain two flowrate of feed streams to produce a mixed stream with
a desired composition or ratio. The concept of the ratio controller is shown in Figure
5.4. As the wild feed stream can change freely, where disturbances are measured and
its flowrate might change based on the demand of product, feedstock, maintenance
limitation, energy availability or the action of another controller in the manufacturing
process whereas the other stream named as controlled feed will be controlled according
to the signal send from ratio converter which the ratio is held at a desired set point.
“FY” is the instrument abbreviation of flow converter which also one of the types of
ratio controller (Aneez, 2014).

168
 Figure 5.4 Ratio control conceptual diagram (Houtz & Cooper, 2015)

5.1.2.4 Cascade Control System

Moreover, cascade control system is introduced to overcome the drawbacks of

feedback control, there are, feedback control system unsatisfactory for processes with
longer dead times and does not occur predictive control. Cascade control system
combined two single feedback control loops by consists of two or more controllers in
which the output of the primary controller provides the set point for another controller
also called as secondary controller. Cascade control can be applied to any process
where a measurable secondary variable directly influences the primary controlled
variable. Cascade control is also suitable for systems where existed more than one
internal measurable and controllable variable (Bolton, 2015). Figure 5.5 shows
cascade control conceptual diagram.

169
 Figure 5.5 Cascade control conceptual diagram (RMCTools Help, 2020)

5.1.3 Process Control Instrument

Basic components in control loop are process being controlled, transmitter,

controller, valve and transmission lines between instruments (Seborg, 2017). Table 5.1
shows the elements and symbols that will be used in this plant accordance to the
standard instrumentation symbols published by the Instrumentation, Systems and
Automation (ISA) Society (1992).

This are the elements that are involved in the process control system. The
transmitter functions to transmit the signal to the controller in the form of electrical
signal. The controller compares the measured value to that desired (set point).
Appropriate output signal (electronic signal) is measured and converted to an
analogous pneumatic (air) signal compatible with the pneumatically actuated control
valve. The controller have additional function to indicate the values to the field
operators therefore it is and indicator controller.

170
 Table 5.1 Process Control Instrument Symbol

Element Symbol Description

Controller PIC Pressure Indicator Controller

PIC
TIC Temperature Indicator Controller

FIC Flow Indicator Controller

LIC Level Indicator Controller

Transmitter PT Pressure Transmitter

PT TT Temperature Transmitter

FT Flow Transmitter

LT Level Transmitter

Alarm PAH* Pressure Alarm High/Low

PAH* TAH* Temperature Alarm High/Low

LAH* Level Alarm High/Low

FAH* Flow Alarm High/Low

*Interchangable with L
Calculator
FY
FY Flow Calculator

Globe Valve, Gate Valve, Butterfly

Control Valve
Valve

Transmission Line Electric Transmission Line

171
5.2 Control System Unit for Equipment

There are various control systems for all the equipment in this production plant
as shown below. All the storage tanks, reactors and columns in the plant is equipped
with pressure safety system that consist of pressure relief valve and rupture disc that
function as a back-up system to bring back the pressure to the desired set point in case
of failure in the pressure control system. There is also alarm installed in all the pressure
control loop (except for the gasifier pressure control system) to make sure that the
operators are been alerted for them to discover the source of the issue and take
corrective actions to solve the issue. The alarm is mainly fixed at the pressure control
loop because most of the reactor is highly pressurised and pressure is the most critical
parameter that need to be monitored and given the attention in case of any
abnormalities in the process. The alarm will make be on when there is a fluctuation of
±2% in the set point value. At the outlet of each reactor and separation columns, a
check valve is installed to prevent the backflow of the product into the reactor when
the pressure in the reactor decreases.

The control system in this plant utilizes feedback control loop compared to the
feedforward system mainly because it is able to correct the error back to its setpoint
regardless of the source of disturbance. In this way, irrespective of blockage in the
pipeline or any causes of pressure deviates from the setpoint, the feedback loop will
make sure the columns pressure is been controlled back to its setpoint.

5.2.1 Compressors

Control system is utilized in all the compressors in this plant to ensure the outlet
vapor stream is been pressurized to the desired pressure. The controller in the
compressor control loop control the speed of the compressor’s motor using a Surge
Controller (SC) in order to bring back the pressure to the setpoint value.

172
Figure 5.6 Compressor-01 with control system

Figure 5.7 Compressor-02 with control system

Figure 5.8 Compressor-03 with control system

Figure 5.9 Compressor-04 with control system

173
 Figure 5.10 Compressor-05 with control system

Table 5.2 The compressors variables and control configuration

Controlled Set point Manipulated Control

Disturbance
variable (bar) variable Configuration

CPR-01 : 3.16

CPR-02 : 10.0
Speed of the
Pressure of Inlet feed
CPR-03 : 20.6 compressor’s Feedback
outlet stream pressure
Motor
CPR-04 : 50.0

CPR-05 : 12.0

5.2.2 Heat Exchangers

Control system is utilized in the heat exchanger in order to make sure the
stream exit temperature of the heat exchanger is maintain at its setpoint. Thermal oil
is used as the heating medium for reboiler in the distillation column as it does not
corrode the piping as steam does and the heat transfer is more efficient. Cooling water
is used as the cooling medium in the heat exchangers and also the distillation’s
condenser mainly because it’s economical compared to cooling oil and refrigerant. The
heat exchanger, HE-01 is not been controlled in this plant since it had undergo heat
integration and controlling the flowrate of the process stream will affect the production
rate.

174
5.2.2.1 Condenser & Heat Exchanger

Figure 5.11 Heat Exchanger-02 control system

Figure 5.12 Heat Exchanger-03 control system

175
Figure 5.13 Heat Exchanger-04 control system

Figure 5.14 Heat Exchanger-05 control system

Figure 5.15 Heat Exchanger-06 control system

176
Figure 5.16 Heat Exchanger-07 control system

Figure 5.17 Heat Exchanger-08 control system

Figure 5.18 Heat Exchanger-09 control system

177
Figure 5.19 D-101 Condenser control system

Figure 5.20 D-102 Condenser control system

Figure 5.21 D-103 Condenser control system

178
 Table 5.3 Heat Exchangers variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

HE02 : 200°C

HE03 : 80°C

HE04 : 220°C

HE05 : 100°C

HE06 : 150°C

Temperature HE07 : 70°C

Inlet feed Flowrate of
of outlet HE08 : 30°C Feedback
stream cooling water
stream
HE09 : 30°C

Condenser
unit of

D101 : 164°C

D102 : 103°C

D103 : 53°C

179
5.2.2.2 Reboiler

Figure 5.22 D-101 Reboiler control system

Figure 5.23 D-102 Reboiler control system

Figure 5.24 D-103 Reboiler control system

180
 Table 5.4 Reboiler variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Reboiler unit of
Temperature
D101 : 212°C Inlet feed Flowrate of
of outlet Feedback
D102 : 171°C stream thermal oil
stream
D103 : 154°C

5.2.3 Reactors

There are total of 4 reactors that involves in the production of DME from OPF
such as Gasifier (G-101), Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101), Methanol Reactor (R-102)
and DME Reactor (R-103). Control system in the reactor plays a vital role to make
sure that the reaction occurs at optimum level by fulfilling the reaction conditions. The
objective of the control systems in the reactors is to control:-

(a) The temperature of the reactors by controlling the flowrate of supplied

fuel in the burner (for Gasifier) and cooling water in the reactor’s jacket
(for Water Gas Shift reactor, Methanol reactor & DME reactor)

The temperature of the reactor is important to make sure that the reaction can
take place and yield the desired product. The temperature of the reactors (Water Gas
Shift reactor, Methanol reactor & DME reactor) is controlled using a feedback
controller that controls the flowrate of cooling liquid in the jacket since the reactions
happening inside those reactors are exothermic. When the temperature inside the
reactor changes from the desired setpoint, the flowrate of the cooling liquid will do
necessary changes to bring back the temperature to the setpoint. For instance when the
reactor temperature increases, the cooling liquid flowrate will increase to allow more
heat transfer to the reactor contributing to the decrease in the reactor’s temperature.

181
However, to control the temperature inside the gasifier, the control system adjust the
flowrate of supplied fuel in the burner instead of using the cooling jacket. This is
because gasifier have a combination of exothermic and endothermic reaction besides
having a special burner to supply heat direct to the reactor. Therefore, controlling the
temperature by manipulating the burner fuel flowrate is the best option for gasifier.

(b) The pressure of the reactors by controlling the outlet (vapor stream) of the
reactor

The pressure of the reactor is also important to make sure that the reaction can
take place and yield the desired product. The pressure of the reactors is controlled
using a feedback controller that controls the flowrate of the vapor stream exiting the
reactor (S4 for gasifier, S9 for water gas shift reactor, S16 for methanol reactor and
S25 for DME reactor). When the pressure inside the reactor changes from the desired
setpoint, the flowrate of reactor’s vapor output stream will be changed by the
pneumatic valve to do necessary changes to bring back the pressure to the setpoint.
For instance when the gasifier reactor pressure increases, the stream 4 flowrate will be
increased to allow more of the gas leaves the reactor thus contributing to the decrease
in the reactor’s pressure. In the case of decrease in reactor’s pressure, stream 4 flowrate
will be decreased to prevent more of the gas leaves the reactor thus contributing to the
increase in the reactor’s pressure.

(c) The ratio of feed stream flowrate into the reactor (for gasifier and water
gas shift reactor only) by controlling the flowrate of reactant (steam)

It is important to control the ratio of multiple streams entering a reactor in order

to make sure a right ratio of reactants are present for the reaction to occur at optimum
level. G-101 and R-101 have two inlet stream into the reactor in which both the streams
has to enter the reactor in a fixed ratio. G-101 have stream containing OPF (stream 1)
and also steam (stream 2) into the reactor whereas R-101 have stream containing
syngas (stream 7) and also steam (stream 8) into the reactor.

182
 For gasifier, the ratio of the OPF to the steam should be controlled at the desired
set point of 1:1 in order to make sure that all the raw materials (OPF) is fully consumed.
The ratio of the gasifier input is controlled using a ratio control system that adjust the
stream 2 flowrate based on the flowrate of the stream 1. The stream 2 flowrate is
controlled using a pneumatic control valve that’s been controlled by a Ratio controller
based on the signal received from the transmitter fixed at stream 1 and stream 2. There
is a control valve located at stream 1 that controls the flowrate of the OPF to make sure
the stream does not go wild and it does not exceed the reactor’s maximum load.

For the water gas shift reactor, the ratio of the syngas to the steam should be
controlled at the desired set point of 4.7:1 to optimize the right amount of syngas to
produce our final product. The ratio of the water gas shift reactor input is controlled
using a ratio control system that adjust the stream 8 flowrate based on the flowrate of
the stream 7 and stream 8. The stream 8 flowrate is controlled using a pneumatic
control valve that’s been controlled by a Ratio controller based on the signal received
from the transmitter fixed at stream 7.

5.2.3.1 Gasifier, G-101

G-101 is a downdraft gasifier that operates at 1 bar and 700°C. The purpose of
the gasifier is to convert the OPF to syngas (CO, CO2 and H2). It has two input to the
reactor in which one of it is the raw material whereas the other one is steam which is
used as gasifying agent.

183
 Figure 5.25 Gasifier control system

Table 5.5 Gasifier variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

60, 000 Blockage in the Flowrate of

Flow of S1 Feedback
kg/h pipeline S1

Flow ratio of Flowrate of

1:1 Flowrate of S1 Ratio
S1 and S2 S2

Flowrate of
Temperature Feed inlet
700°C supplied fuel Feedback
of G-101 temperature
in the burner

Pressure of Feed inlet (S1, Flowrate of

1 bar Feedback
G-101 S2) pressure S4

184
5.2.3.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor, R-101

R-101 is a water gas shift reactor that operates at 10 bar and 200°C. The
purpose of the water gas shift reactor in the process is to increase H2 content in the
syngas so that the quantity of the CO and H2 will be optimised to use for the next step
of reaction. It has two input to the reactor in which one of it is the syngas whereas the
other one is steam which is used to react with the CO to form CO2 and H2.

Figure 5.26 Water Gas Shift Reactor control system

185
 Table 5.6 Water Gas Shift Reactor variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Flow ratio of
1:4.7 Flowrate of S7 Flowrate of S8 Ratio
S7 and S8

Flowrate of
Temperature Rate of reaction
200°C coolant in the Feedback
of R-101 inside R-101
cooling jacket

Feed Inlet
Pressure of R-
10bar Pressure (S7 & Flowrate of S9 Feedback
101
S8)

5.2.3.3 Methanol Reactor, R-102

R-102 is a methanol reactor that operates at 50 bar and 20°C. The purpose of
the methanol reactor in the process is to produce which is an intermediate that is
formed before been changed to the final product, DME. The syngas CO and CO2 will
react with H2 to form methanol and water.

186
 Figure 5.27 Methanol Reactor control system

Table 5.7 Methanol Reactor variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Flowrate of
Temperature Rate of reaction
220°C coolant in the Feedback
of R-102 inside R-102
cooling jacket

Pressure of R- Feed Inlet Flowrate of

50 bar Feedback
101 Pressure (S15) S16

187
5.2.3.4 DME Reactor, R-103

R-103 is a DME reactor that operates at 10 bar and 180°C. Dehydration of

methanol occurs in this reactor forming DME together with water as the by-product of
the reactor.

Figure 5.28 DME Reactor control system

Table 5.8 DME Reactor variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Rate of Flowrate of
Temperature
180°C reaction inside coolant in the Feedback
of R-102
R-103 cooling jacket

Pressure of R- Feed Inlet Flowrate of

10 bar Feedback
101 Pressure (S25) S26

188
5.2.4 Flash Columns, F-101 & F-102

F-101 and F-102 are flash columns that is used to separate different
components based on their volatility. F-101 separates syngas from the water produced
in the water gas shift reactor whereas F-102 functions to separate the unreacted syngas
from the methanol that’s been produced in the methanol reactor. The objective of the
control system in the F-101 and F-102 are to control:

a) The temperature of the flash column by controlling the flowrate of

supplied cooling liquid in the heat exchanger located at the inlet stream of
the flash column

The temperature of the column is important to make sure efficient separation

is achieved in between the components in the flash column. The temperature of the
flash column is controlled using a feedback controller that controls the flowrate of
cooling liquid in the heat exchanger located at the inlet stream of the flash column.
When the temperature inside the flash column changes from the desired setpoint, the
flowrate of the cooling liquid will do necessary changes to bring back the temperature
to the setpoint. For instance when the flash column temperature increases, the cooling
liquid flowrate in the heat exchanger (HE-03 and HE-05) will increase to allow more
heat transfer from the inlet stream to the cooling liquid contributing to the decrease in
the column’s temperature.

b) The pressure of the flash column by controlling the the top outlet stream
(vapour stream) flowrate

The pressure of the column is also an important parameter to make sure

efficient separation is achieved in between the components in the flash column. The
pressure of the column is controlled using a feedback controller that controls the
flowrate of stream 11. When the pressure inside the flash column changes from the
desired setpoint, the flowrate of stream 11 will be changed by the pneumatic valve to
do necessary changes to bring back the pressure to the setpoint. For instance when the

189
column pressure increases, the stream 11 flowrate will be increased to allow more of
the gas leaves the reactor thus contributing to the decrease in the reactor’s pressure.

c) The level of the flash column by controlling the bottom stream (liquid
stream) flowrate

The level of the liquid inside the column is important to make sure that there
is no over-flooding in the reactor that causes inefficiency in the separation between the
vapour and liquid. The base liquid level must be controlled to prevent a potential built
up of pressure as well as a back flow of liquid to the vapour feed inlet.

5.2.4.1 Flash Column F-101

Figure 5.29 Flash Column-101 control system

190
 Table 5.9 Flash Column-101 variable and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Pressure of Inlet feed Flowrate of

8.5 bar Feedback
F-101 flowrate (S10) S11

Inlet feed Flowrate of

Temperature
80°C temperature coolant in HE- Feedback
of F-101
(S10) 03

30-90% of the
height from the
Level of Inlet feed Flowrate of
bottom of the Feedback
F-101 flowrate (S10) S12
column to the
feed piping

5.2.4.2 Flash Column F-102

Figure 5.30 Flash Column-102 control system

191
 Table 5.10 Flash Column-102 variables and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Inlet feed
Pressure of Flowrate of
30 bar flowrate Feedback
F-102 S19
(S18)

Inlet feed Flowrate of

Temperature
100°C temperature coolant in Feedback
of F-102
(S18) HE-05

30-90% of the
height from the Inlet feed
Level of F- Flowrate of
bottom of the flowrate Feedback
102 S20
column to the (S18)
feed piping

5.2.5 Distillation Columns, D-101, D-102 & D-103

D-101, D-102 and D-103 are distillation columns that is used to separate
different components based on their volatility. Unlike flash columns, the distillation
columns have internal packings and tray that is used to increase the efficiency of the
separation between the components in the column. The distillation is done based on
the vapour pressure of the key components in the column. D-101 and D-102 have
methanol as light key and water as heavy key while D-103 have DME as light key and
Methanol as heavy key. The distillation columns used in this process uses partial
reboiler and partial condenser in it. The objective of the control system in the
distillation column is to control:

192
a) The bottom temperature of the distillation column by controlling the
flowrate of thermal oil supplied to the reboiler.

The temperature of the column is important to make sure efficient separation

is achieved in between the components in the distillation column. The temperature of
the distillation column is controlled using a feedback controller that controls the
flowrate of thermal oil supplied to the reboiler. When the temperature inside the
distillation column changes from the desired setpoint, the flowrate of the thermal oil
that heats up the components in the reboiler is changed to offset the disturbance. The
reboiler duty will be manipulated by the flowrate of thermal oil (heating liquid) inside
it to bring back the temperature of the column to the set value.

b) The temperature of liquid leaving the condenser by controlling the

flowrate of cooling water supplied to the condenser.

This temperature is important to make sure that a suitable reflux ratio is

achieved by controlling the amount of vapour that flow through the condenser turns
into liquid that will be directed back to the column. When the temperature at the
condenser outlet changes from the set point, the flowrate of the cooling water that cools
down the components in the condenser is changed to offset the disturbance. The
condenser duty will be manipulated by the flowrate of water (cooling liquid) inside it
to bring back the temperature of the outlet to the set value.

c) The pressure of the distillation column by controlling the flowrate of

vapour leaving the reflux drum

The pressure of the column is also important to make sure efficient separation
is achieved in between the components in the distillation column. The pressure of the
column is controlled using a feedback controller that controls the flowrate of vapour
leaving the reflux drum. For instance when there is an increase in the column’s
pressure, the flowrate of the vapour exiting the reflux drum will be increase to allow
reduce in the pressure of the column back to its set point.

193
d) Level of distillation column by controlling the bottom flowrate leaving the
reboiler

The level of the liquid inside the column is important to make sure that there
is no over-flooding and disruption in the efficiency of the trays and packing inside the
distillation column. Besides, high liquid levels are necessary to be avoided as it might
cause a backflow through the inlet stream. Low liquid levels on the other hand are also
a big issue as this would limit the flow of liquid through the reboiler and would
eventually cause damage to it. The base liquid level will be controlled by controlling
the bottom product outflow from the reboiler using a pneumatic valve controlled by
the level controller.

e) Level of reflux drum by controlling the flowrate of reflux entering back

the distillation column

The liquid level in a reflux drum is important to be controlled to prevent the

liquid from exiting the vapour outlet as well as to prevent a pressure build up within
the pipelines above the reflux drum. The reflux flowrate is controlled at its set point
by the pneumatic valve that controls the flow of liquid components that leave the reflux
drum back to the column.

194
5.2.5.1 Distillation Column 1, D-101

Figure 5.31 Distillation Column-101 control system

Table 5.11 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-101)

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Heating
Temperature Temperature of
utility
at reboiler 212°C liquid entering Feedback
flowrate for
outlet the reboiler
reboiler

Temperature Temperature of
Cooling
of condenser 164°C vapour entering Feedback
utility
outlet the condenser

195
 flowrate for
condenser

1. Inlet feed
pressure (S-
21) Flowrate of
Pressure of vapour
23 bar 2. Boil-up rate Feedback
D-101 leaving the
3. Temperature reflux drum
of cooling
water utility

1. Inlet flowrate
30% to of D-101
90% of
2. Flowrate of
height
condensate
between the Flowrate of
Level of D- entering the
column’s liquid leaving Feedback
101 distillation
bottom and the reboiler
column
the 1st tray
from 3. Heating utility
bottom temperature
and flowrate

1. Cooling utility
Flowrate of
Level of 20% - 50% flowrate
condensate
reflux drum height of 2. Outlet flowrate Feedback
leaving the
of D-101 reflux drum of distillate
reflux drum
stream

196
5.2.5.2 Distillation Column 2, D-102

Figure 5.32 Distillation Column-102 control system

Table 5.12 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-102)

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Temperature of Heating
Temperature
liquid entering the utility
at reboiler 171°C Feedback
reboiler flowrate for
outlet
reboiler

197
 Temperature of Cooling
Temperature
vapour entering utility
of condenser 103°C Feedback
the condenser flowrate for
outlet
condenser

1. Inlet feed
pressure (S-27)
Flowrate of
Pressure of 2. Boil-up rate vapor leaving
8.5 bar Feedback
D-102 the reflux
3. Temperature of
drum
cooling water
utility

30% to 1. Inlet flowrate of

90% of D-102
height
2. Flowrate of
between
condensate
the Flowrate of
Level of D- entering the
column’s liquid leaving Feedback
102 distillation
bottom the reboiler
column
and the
1st tray 3. Heating utility
from temperature and
bottom flowrate

20% - 1. Cooling utility

Flowrate of
Level of 50% flowrate
condensate
reflux drum height of 2. Outlet flowrate Feedback
leaving the
of D-102 reflux of distillate
reflux drum
drum stream

198
5.2.5.3 Distillation Column 3, D-103

Figure 5.33 Distillation Column-103 control system

Table 5.13 Process Control of Distillation Column (D-103)

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Temperature of
Temperature Heating utility
liquid entering
at reboiler 154°C flowrate for Feedback
the reboiler
outlet reboiler

199
Temperature Temperature of Cooling utility
of condenser 53°C vapour entering flowrate for Feedback
outlet the condenser condenser

1. Inlet feed
pressure (S-
21)
Flowrate of
Pressure of
12 bar 2. Boil-up rate vapour leaving Feedback
D-103
the reflux drum
3. Temperature
of cooling
water utility

30% to 1. Inlet flowrate

90% of of D-103
height
2. Flowrate of
between
condensate
the Flowrate of
Level of D- entering the
column’s liquid leaving Feedback
103 distillation
bottom the reboiler
column
and the
1st tray 3. Heating utility
from temperature
bottom and flowrate

1. Cooling utility
20% -
flowrate Flowrate of
Level of 50%
2. Outlet condensate
reflux drum height of Feedback
flowrate of leaving the
of D-103 reflux
distillate reflux drum
drum
stream

200
5.2.6 Storage Tanks, DME (T-101) & Methanol (T-102)

A control system is needed in the tank to ensure the products are kept in the
state that it will be sold. For instance, DME which exist as vapour at room temperature
and pressure is stored in the liquid phase in the storage tank. Therefore, it is important
to control the temperature of storage tank.

5.2.6.1 DME Storage Tank, T-101

Figure 5.34 DME storage tank control system

Table 5.14 DME storage tank variables and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Accumulation Cooling utility

Temperature
30°C of temperature flowrate of Feedback
of T-101
in the reactor. heat exchanger

201
5.2.6.2 Methanol Storage Tank, T-102

Figure 5.35 Methanol storage tank control system

Table 5.15 Methanol storage tank variables and control configuration

Controlled Manipulated Control

Set point Disturbance
variable variable Configuration

Accumulation Cooling utility

Temperature
30°C of temperature flowrate of Feedback
of T-102
in the reactor. heat exchanger

202
5.3 Conclusion

As a conclusion, there are total 54 control loop system in this DME production
plant. The overall plant control system details can be seen in the Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) that is attached in the appendix. Apart from a well-
developed P&ID, the objectives of the control system are only achievable through an
integration of automatic control, manual monitoring and thorough on-line analysis.

203
 CHAPTER 6

PROCESS SAFETY

6.1 Process Safety

Every organisation has the responsibility to safeguard the health and welfare
of its employees and the public. The chemical industry has traditionally devoted
considerable attention to safety, beginning with the research and development new
processes through plant design and construction. The Health and Safety at Work (Act
1974) offered a new legal administrative framework to promote, simulate and
encourage even better standards of health and safety at work.

Study of process safety is an important factor in designing a chemical plant

because it can greatly prevent and minimise the major accidents and also it ensures the
safety of all people in plant and also the public. The chemical industry has traditionally
devoted considerable attention to safety, beginning with the research and development
new processes through plant design and construction. It is the most effective to carry
out studies early in a project when there is the greatest potential for reducing the
hazardous characteristics of a planned process thus this chapter will deal with the
possible danger occurred throughout the plant operation, measures which may be
applied to avoid it.

This chapter includes the hazard identification, Chemical Health Risk

Assessment (CHRA), Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP), and the Safety
Operating Procedure (SOP) for the start-up and shut down of the DME manufacturing
plant.

204
6.2 General Safety Studies

General safety rules and guidelines are required for a company to ensure the
employees is working at a safe workplace to prevent any accident or mishap may
damage equipment that might cause injury or death. Therefore, in this subchapter,
studies of general safety divided into six categories, there are, storage of chemical,
plant location, plant layout, transportation, process, and maintenance.

6.2.1 Storage of Chemicals

Chemical storage is a place where all the chemicals are arranged and stored to
avoid any hazard accident occurs. Chemicals are hazardous and need to be kept away
from exposure. It is important to refer the regulation that may include specific
requirement for storing chemicals. Proper Protective Protection Equipment (PPE)
must be prepared and need to be wear when handling chemical and entering the
chemical storage room. The arrangement of the chemical in the storage room is neatly
arranged to prevent trip hazard. The passageways and emergency equipment area are
clear. The chemicals need to be labelled completely and need to be in good condition
and the safety data sheet (SDS) are readily available. Each chemical should have
specific storage space. Spill kit with appropriate adsorbent material, clean up utensils
and neutralizing agent are available in the storage room.

6.2.2 Plant Location

The location of plant for the DME production need to consider mainly the
safety of the plant, environment and the residential nearby. The site selection for the
plant is referred to the Guidelines for Sitting and Zoning of Industry and Residential

205
Area by the Department of Environment, Ministry Of Natural Resources And
Environment Malaysia. The sites selected are in the industrial zone which has less
residential population, thus, reduce any hazard that is related to the residential area in
case of catastrophes. The site is nearer to the Kuantan Port which reduces the travelling
time and prevents any accidents while transporting the product to the port. Even though
Gebeng Industrial Park is exposed to the North-East Monsoon wind, however the
safety precaution is made for each unit with proper calculation and assessment to
ensure the prevention of any hazard related to the climate. Gebeng Industrial Park also
has a lot of space available. This is to ensure that the plant could have enough space to
increase the efficiency of the production, thus, reduces the hazard.

6.2.3 Transportation

Transportation is necessary for product distribution and raw material delivery.

The road was planned so that the truck or lorry for product distribution and raw
material delivery is not entering process plant area. The road is only can be used by
manufacture transportation including the forklift and the lorry. This is to prevent any
accident hazard that may lead to catastrophes. Only truck for distribution and waste
management with permit are allowed to enter the gate. The truck only limited to be at
the loading bay and scheduled waste area only. Pedestrian is not allowed to use same
road as transportation. Pedestrian walk is provided in the plant area for the worker to
walk to another unit. This is to ensure the safety of the worker and avoid any accident.

6.2.4 Process

Process is a series of actions which the reactions are carried out in order to
produce the desired products such as methanol and dimethyl ether. General safety in

206
terms of process needs to be considered consists of two parts, there are analysis of
process hazard and layers of protection in the process defends.

6.2.4.1 Process Hazard Analysis

Process Hazard Analysis purpose is to identify and analyse the process hazards
based on the highly hazardous chemicals. This step is tabulated on the Chemical
Hazardous Risk Assessment (CHRA) Table. It provides information that will help the
employees to handle the chemicals and make the right decision to improve the safety
of the process and reduce the hazards risk. It identifies the causes and consequences
such as fires, explosion, and release of toxic from properties of chemicals. It focuses
on identifying risk from equipment, instrumentation, utilities, human actions (routine
and nonroutine), and external factors that might affect the process (Robert, 2019).

6.2.4.2 Process Defends

There were few layers of protection in the process defends. The first line of
defence is ensuring the process is operating at the optimum condition and it can be
maintained. In this first layer also ensure the chemicals inserted into the tank were
obtained at the right amount of quantity. The second layer acts as a backup to control
the released chemicals to the surrounding. It will act to avoid things like overflow from
happening. This included the system like sprinkler, drainage system and water spray.
The second line purpose basically is to control the hazardous chemicals from unwanted
release to the surrounding. This is called a control system (Robert, 2019).

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6.2.5 Maintenance

Maintenance is the operations being done on the process equipment, facilities,

management aiming on maintaining the optimum condition to carry out the process.
Maintenance is important to ensure the process will operate at the best condition and
a safe workplace can be applied without giving any injuries to the workers. If
maintenance is defective, not only it will give harmful during the maintenance service
period but also during the restart or during the process operation time. By doing
maintenance not only it will improve the safety of the workplace but also reduce the
risk of production breakdowns, equipment availability and improve the profit of the
company (Mobility Work, 2020).

6.2.5.1 Maintenance Hazards Sources

Maintenance work can cause accidents in the workplace and it is easy to

overlook without a proper risk assessment (Hseni, n.d.).

Maintenance works cause hazards due to:

i. Dangerous activities such as working at height, working with electricity and

dangerous equipment such as heat exchanger, compressor, tank reactor

ii. Maintenance work does not have proper risk assessment for regular basis

iii. Maintenance work done by contractors that does not familiar with the workplace

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6.2.5.2 Type of Maintenance

Type of maintenance work that will be done:

Table 6.1 Preventative and Corrective Maintenance (Hseni, n.d.)

Type of Maintenance Work
Preventative Corrective
 Inspection including measuring,  Fault detection
observing and testing  Repair
 Condition monitoring  Replacement of parts
 Compliance testing
 Routine
 Servicing
 Overhaul
 Renovation

6.2.5.3 Safe Maintenance

Safe maintenance rules are to ensure the maintenance done at the workplace was safe
to be done by the employees and contractors (Hseni, n.d.);

i. Good plans and safe work system to control hazards

ii. The hazards are isolated from the workers to ensure safe work area
iii. Usage of the right equipment for the task
iv. Employees and contractors work according to plan
v. Final checking was done to ensure safe maintenance was done

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6.2.6 Safety at Workplace

Safety in the workplace is really necessary for any employee in the industry as
all the employees should operate in a secure atmosphere. In order to ensure the
wellness of all workers and clients, safety at the workplace is the main consideration
across all sectors. Each employee has a part to play in enforcing safety measures.
Training is important to ensure that workers are informed and aware of the value of
safety and how safety is to be implemented at the workplace. Workplace safety
contributes to less injuries, resulting in lower employers’ insurance expenses and less
retraining time for workers who are expected to substitute an injured worker. The
reduction of harm to machinery or equipment would result in less cost of repair.

6.2.6.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

According to Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), PPE is attire and
equipment used to reduce exposure to dangers causing severe injury and illnesses in
the workplace. These accidents and illnesses may result from contact with chemical,
radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical or other dangers to the workplace.
According to Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (2006) in Part
IV, Section 15 and 26 state that employers, as far as practicable, proper PPE is to be
considered as a part of needs to be provided to workers for the purpose of protecting
them from the risk and without any cost to the workers. The management should ensure
that the workers is provided with suitable information, instruction and training to
enable them to make proper and effective use of any PPE provided for their protection.

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 Table 6.2 Categories of PPE Based on Type of Protection
Type of Protection Equipment
Respiratory Airline, cartridge, half or full-face respirator
Hearing Ear muffs/ plugs
Eye Goggles, shields, visor
Hand Gloves
Foot Safety shoes
Head Helmets
Skin Long sleeved clothes
Working from Heights Harness, fall arrest devices

6.2.6.2 Emergency Response Plan

OSHA requires each workplace to provide an emergency response plan.

Workplace safety needs transparent evacuation planning, as well as other systems and
procedures to ensure protection at the workplace and appropriate emergency response
plan. Emergency response plan should include a preferred method for reporting fires
and other emergencies, an evacuation policy, emergency escape procedures and route
assignments such as floor plans, safe and refuge areas, procedure for employees who
remain to perform or shut down critical plant operations and medical duties for any
workers designated to perform them.

An emergency response coordinator and a back-up coordinator must be

designated. Members of emergency response team should be thoroughly trained for
potential emergencies and physically capable of carrying out their duties. Furthermore,
management must provide emergency alarms and ensure that employees know how to
report emergencies. Training must be conducted at least annually to ensure every
worker familiar and know the details of the emergency response plan.

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6.3 Plant Layout Design

A layout refers to the sufficient relatives position or arrangement of equipment

and unit within a given space whereas related to the minimum distance between units
or equipment. Necessary to arrange the units to its maximum used considering the
economic aspect. Practical road layout, safely located drop zone around equipment,
adequate laydown areas, access road, egress around equipment, and safety egress from
unit is considered to maximize the use of space (Barker, 2018). A proper layout and
spacing are important to prevent accidents such as fire and explosion at the plant which
leads to huge loss. Global Asset Protection Services (GAPS) as refer at Appendix F
is used as a guideline to plan the layout and spacing for the unit.

Figure 6.1 Plant Layout

The plant area is divided into two areas, Zone 1 and Zone 2 as in Figure 6.1
The two area is separated by gate where only authorized personal and worker are
allowed to enter Zone 2 area. The Zone 1 area consists of an administrative office
where minor units such as the café, meeting room, clinic, and surau are located,

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parking and Research And development and Quality Control Lab. The room for
electric supply by the Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) is located in the Zone 1 for easy
access by the TNB worker when the electric supply is shut. All unit that is needed for
the production are located in Zone 2.

The administrative office and the TNB room are located further away from the
production plant. This is to ensure a safe distance from the unit operation and storage
tank that operates in high pressure and temperature. The unit operation and tank
contain hazardous chemicals. The car park located in front of the administrative office
and within walking distance from the administrative to ease the worker to walk to the
office. The car park can be used for assembly areas in case of emergency. The
Research and Development and Quality Control Lab is located beside the
Administrative Office this is to ease the measuring and assurance of the product quality
to meet the customer’s expectations.

The roads are properly planned so that the traffic inside the plant can be
reduced and for easy transport of the product. The tank farm is located at the southwest
of the plant near to the loading bay and Gate B for the easy access of the truck to load
the raw material for production and the product to be export. The location of the
loading bay is near to the exit to prevent the truck to have a long travel distance and
limit accident hazards.

The shaded area is left clear and considered for the expansion of production in
the future. The production is controlled and monitored in the control room that is
located at the opposite side of the process plant in order to have a visual contact toward
the unit operation and the production line thus ensure the safety of the workers. The
Production Room is located beside the Control Room so that it is easy to communicate
if there is a problem occurs on the production. The workshop is located on the north
side and near to the control room. The plant produced highly flammable gas. The fire

213
station is located on the south side of the control room, opposite the process plant so
that in any case of fire, it would give the shortest time to put out the fire.

The waste management area located on the east side of the plant. Waste
management area consists of Waste Water Treatment Plant and Scheduled Waste that
will be collected by Kualiti Alam are located at the southeast of the plant near to Gate
B for easy access of the truck to pick up the waste generated by the plant and limiting
the accident hazard. As mentioned in Chapter 3 (3.7. Waste Management Facilities),
the waste gas produced will be managed by the subsidiary plant that is located beside
the DME plant to produce CO2 and sell it.

The Process Plant is located at the center of Zone 2 and near to the Tank House.
This is to reduce the traveling time of the product to the tank which could lead to
energy loss. The process plant is zoned as the Red Zone where it is highly hazardous.
This is due to the equipment that operates at high temperature and high pressure. The
arrangement of the unit operation for the DME production is shown in Figure 6.2. The
distance between each unit is referred to the GAPS Guidelines. The process consists
of 9 Heat Exchanger and each spaced at minimum 5 ft from one another. The DME
tank operates at 11 bar and 30ºC while the methanol tank operates at 1 bar and 30 ºC.
both tanks are place at a considerable distance as there are no specific distance stated
in GAPS. Methanol reactor (R-102) and water gas shift reactor (R-101) are considered
high hazard reactors and spaced minimum 25 ft from each other and 15 ft away from
DME reactor (R-101) which is considered a moderate hazard reactor. Distillation
columns and flash drums are spaced minimum 15 ft from each other and 25 ft away
from reactors as stated in the GAPS guidelines.

214
 Figure 6.2: unit operation layout

The arrangement of the unit is made considering the safety, travelling distance
from unit to unit and the distance from each unit is referred from the GAPS guideline.
This is to make sure that the process could be run efficiently and safe. The hazardous
unit need to be separated from other hazardous unit to avoid any fire spread. GAPS
stated that the layout of the equipment within unit can be used one of two general ways
which is used group layout where similar equipment is grouped together or use flow
line layout where the equipment is arranged is sequenced similar to the process flow
diagram.

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6.4 Hazard Identification

Hazard Identification is identifying undesired events that lead to the occasion

of hazards and the way the hazards can happen. It is impossible to eliminate all hazards
thus the only way is to eliminate if possible or to control the hazards that have high
potential of risk from the workers to protect them from harm (Rout & Sikdar, 2016).

6.4.1 Chemicals Hazard

Chemical hazard is the risks that can happen involving the usage of chemicals
at the workplace. These hazards include the health hazards and physiochemical
hazards. Health hazards are due to the workers being exposed to the chemicals through
any route of exposure such as inhalation, absorption through skin, ingestion and
swallowing. These chemical hazards can cause a prolonged effect to the health that is
being considered as dangerous. Physiochemical hazards are due to the nature of
chemicals that can damage or harm the workplace itself or the environment. For
example, such as the hazard that can be caused by this chemical hazard is fire or
explosion due to chemical flammable properties (Walter, 2019).

According to SDS of the chemicals involved as stated in Appendix A to E,

hazard of hydrogen, dimethyl ether, methanol, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide,
the hazard posed by the chemicals present in the plant is presented from Table 6.3 to
Table 6.7. From the tables, it can be summarized that hazard potentially exposed to
the plant and workers are flammable hazard, gas under pressure hazard, toxic hazard,
harmful or irritant hazard, and health hazard.

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 Table 6.3 Hazard of Hydrogen
Flammability (gas) Category 1
Gases under pressure Compressed gas
Auto ignition temperature 566 °C
Explosion Limits 4 – 7 vol %
Additional Information Burns with Invisible Flame
Hazard pictogram

Table 6.4 Hazard of Dimethyl Ether

Flammability (gas) Category 1
Gases under pressure Compressed gas, may explode if heated
Auto ignition temperature 350 °C
Hazard pictogram

Table 6.5 Hazard of Methanol

Flammability (Liquid) Category 2
Acute toxicity (Oral) Category 3
Acute toxicity (Dermal) Category 3
Acute toxicity (Inhalation) Category 3
Specific target organ toxicity Category 1
(Single exposure)
Explosion Limits 5.5 - 36.5 vol %
Hazard pictogram

217
 Table 6.6 Hazard of Carbon Monoxide
Flammability (gas) Category 1
Gases under pressure Compressed gas
Acute toxicity (Inhalation-gas) Category 3
Toxic to reproduction Category 1A
Specific target organ toxicity Category 1
(repeated exposure)
Explosion Limits 10.9 - 74.2 vol %
Hazard pictogram

Table 6.7 Hazard of Carbon Dioxide

Gases under pressure Liquefied gas, may explode when heated
Hazard pictogram

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6.5 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA)

Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) Forms is a documented evaluation

concerning the use, handling, storage or transportation of chemicals to health in the
workplace to the employee. These documents are enforced by the Occupational Safety
and Health Regulation 2000.

6.5.1 CHRA Forms

CHRA consists of four types of form which are Form A (work unit
description), Form B (list of chemical hazardous to health assessed), Form C (work
unit assessment) and Form D (control measures and recommendation). All of these
forms are mainly to provide practical guidance and advice for an assessment of risk to
health related to the use of chemicals hazardous to health (CHTH) at the workplace of
production of DME from raw material --- oil palm frond.

6.5.1.1 CHRA Form A

The CHRA Form A is functioning in assessing the safety of the work unit
operation. This form is done by assessing a group of workers that has a high risk of
exposing them to hazards. The exposal is not only for the work unit operation but also
to the chemical exposal in 8 hours working time.

Based on Table 6.8, the CHRA Form A is evaluated by assessing each operator
at the workplace of DME production plant. There were total of 20 process operators
which consisted of 18 male workers and 2 female workers working at the plant. All of
them work on shift hours by rotating their shift from 8 am to 4 pm, from 4 pm to 12

219
pm and from 12 pm to 8 am. Their shift working patterns are 2 weeks day shift and 2
weeks night shift.

Table 6.8 CHRA Form A

FORM A: WORK UNIT DESCRIPTION
1. Work Process operator 2. Date of 3rd March 2020
Unit assessment
3. Work Production of 4. Number Male: 20 Female: 10
area DME of workers
5. Workin Working Arrangement: Normal Shift work /
g hours
6. Worker health feedbacks 9. Possibility of abnormal
exposures
N/A Leakage of chemicals
7. Report on health effects 10. Possibility of mixed
exposures
N/A N/A
8. Susceptible conditions related to 11. Possibility ingestion
chemical(s) in use
Bronchial asthma, lung cancer, allergies None
12. Other information
Incorrect PPE usage, safety hazards, non-routine entry, confined space entry

220
6.5.1.2 CHRA Form B

CHRA Form B is to assess the list of chemicals hazardous to health. All of the
chemical will be listed according to its hazardous ingredient, physical form, hazards
classification including the hazards rating either the chemical gives hazards through
dermal and/or ingestion. This form detects the chemical properties such as the
hazardous ingredient like Carbon Dioxide, Methanol, DME, Hydrogen, Carbon
Monoxide and all of this ingredient form either it is in liquid or gas. The hazards
classification is to identify the chemicals are flammable, high pressure or toxicity
properties that can give hazards. This is also to detect if the chemical exposure can be
hazards through dermal or ingestion.

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 Table 6.9 CHRA Form B
FORM B: LIST OF CHEMICALS HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH ASSESSED
WORK UNIT: Process operator DATE OF ASSESSMENT: 3rd March 2020
TABLE B1: CHEMICALS USED IN WORK UNIT

Name of Hazardous Physical Source of Dermal Ingestion

No. Hazard classification H - code HR
chemical ingredient form information (Y/N) (Y/N)
Carbon Carbon Gases under pressure - SDS of
1. Gas H280 5 N N
Dioxide Dioxide Liquefied gas PRAXAIR

Flammability - Category 2 H225

Acute toxicity (Oral) -

H301
Category 3
Acute toxicity (Dermal) -
H311 SDS of
2. Methanol Methanol Liquid Category 3 5 Y Y
VALTECH
Acute toxicity (Inhalation) -
H331
Category 3
Specific Target Organ
Toxicity following Single H370
Exposure - Category 1

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 Flammable gas - category 1 H220

Gases under pressure - SDS of

3. DME DME Gas H280 5 Y N
Compressed gas PRAXAIR
Cause drowsiness and
H336
dizziness

Flammable gas - category 1 H220

SDS of
4. Hydrogen Hydrogen Gas 5 N N
Gases under pressure - PRAXAIR
H280
Compressed gas

Flammable gas - category 1 H220

Gases under pressure -

H280
Compressed gas
Specific Target Organ
Carbon Carbon SDS of
5. Gas Toxicity - Repeated H372 5 N N
Monoxide Monoxide PRAXAIR
Exposure Category 1
Acute toxicity (Inhalation) -
H331
Category 3
Reproductive toxicity -
H360D
Category 1A

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6.5.1.3 CHRA Form C

CHRA Form C is the work unit assessment form. Table C1 is for the inhalation
exposure. The hazards will be listed based on the job or task performed by the workers. During
the working period of performing the task, all of the chemicals exposed to them will be listed
with the frequency rating (FR), the degree of release and chemical inhaled that will determine
the magnitude rating of the chemical hazards. Table C2 is focused on dermal assessment to the
workers. These hazards were identified to ensure there is no harm or risk to the workers in a
short term or long-term cause of hazards during working time. The outcome of this form is to
ensure that the workers being exposed is not over limit by the time set to ensure the chemical
is not giving hazards to the worker’s health in any form of danger.

224
 Table 6.10 CHRA Form C (Table C1)
FORM C: WORK UNIT ASSESSMENT
WORK UNIT: Process operator DATE OF ASSESSMENT: 3rd March 2020
Table C1: Inhalation Exposure Assessment
Name of Degree of release Degree of
Job or task FR DR FDR PEL MR ER HR RR
chemical or exposure level chemical inhaled
Carbon Dioxide 5 5 5 9 High Moderate 4 5 5 25
mg/L
Methanol 5 5 5 200 High Moderate 4 5 5 25
Transferring mg/L
chemical by DME 5 5 5 0.0019 High Moderate 4 5 5 25
using pipeline mg/L
Hydrogen 5 5 5 - High Moderate 4 5 5 25

Carbon 5 5 5 0.055 High Moderate 4 5 5 25

Monoxide mg/L

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 Table 6.11 CHRA Form C (Table C2)
Table C2: Dermal Assessment
Extent of Duration of exposure
Name of Hazardous
Job or task dermal Level of risk
chemical properties Short term (<15min/shift) Long term (>15min/shift)
contact
Carbon Dioxide N/A - -
Methanol Acute Large √ M1
Toxicity
Transferring
Skin
chemical by
Absorption
using
DME N/A Large √
pipeline
Hydrogen N/A - -
Carbon Skin Large √ H1
Monoxide Absorption

226
6.5.1.4 CHRA Form D

CHRA Form D is to identify the control measures that have been done and
recommended ways in order to prevent the hazards from happening. This prevention is
following the Hazard Identification Risk Assessment and Risk Control (HIRARC) as a guide.
Form D documented way is included in Technical Control and Organizational Control which
are the Table D1 and Table D2. Table D3 is the emergency response preparedness and Table
D4 is the exposure monitoring & medical surveillance in case if the accidents happened during
the operation. The outcome of doing this form is to ensure that appropriate action can be taken
when handling all of the chemicals to reduce the risk of hazards can happen.

227
 Table 6.12 CHRA Form D (Table D1)
TABLE D1: Technical Controls (TC)

Existing technical controls

Engineering
Recomm
Job or Name of Isolation or enclosure control & PPE Overall
ROE endation AP
Task chemical ventilation Adequacy
on TC
Adequacy Adequacy Adequacy (Y/N/NA)
Specify Specify Specify
(Y/N/NA) (Y/N/NA) (Y/N/NA)

Mask,
Loading Restricted to
LEV Glove,
of Carbon involved
Y installa Y Goggle Y Y
chemicals Dioxide workers
tion , Safety
to tank for only.
Shoes
transporta Inhalation
Carbon Mask,
tion and
Monoxide Cover layer LEV Glove,
transferrin
, of the Y installa Y Goggle Y Y
g in
Hydrogen pipeline tion , Safety
pipeline.
Shoes

228
 Methanol, P & ID Mask,
Restricted to
DME and Glove,
Inhalation involved
Y LEV Y Goggle Y Y
Dermal workers
installa , Safety
only.
tion Shoes

Table 6.13 CHRA Form D (Table D2)

Table D2: Organisational Control (OC)

Existing organisational control (OC) Adequacy (Y/N/NA) Recommendation

(a) Adoption of safe work systems and practices Y

(please specify):
i. Applying Permit to Work System to all workers.
ii. Work instructions are provided to all jobs and tasks.
iii. PPE Issuance and maintenance programme.
(b) Providing information, instruction and training to workers Y
(please specify):
i. Safety induction seminar to new workers.
ii. Provide chemical safety training each time an employee is
assigned to new chemicals where they are exposed to chemical
hazard.

229
 iii. Review training programme and record availability of such
trainings.
iv. Availability of SDS and chemical labelling as specified in
CLASS Regulations format at working area.
(c) Personal hygiene Y
(please specify):
i. All workers are abided to hygiene rules in places such as
chemical plants, public places and changing rooms.
ii. No eating and drinking at production area, workers rest area.
iii. Do not litters.
iv. Ensure all workers with short fingernails.

Table 6.14 CHRA Form D (Table D3)

Table D3: Emergency Response Preparedness
Emergency response preparedness Adequacy (Y/N/NA) Recommendation
Firefighting measure Y
Evacuation point Y
First aid kit Y
Alarm system Y
Safety interlock system Y
Relief system Y

230
 Table 6.15 CHRA Form D (Table D4)
Table D4: Exposure Monitoring & Medical Surveillance
Existing Programme Recommendation (indicate necessary)
(a) Monitoring of personal exposures and general air levels
(please specify):
i. Monitoring of exposure is highly require for methanol, DME,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
b) Medical surveillance a) Health effects monitoring.
(please specify): b) Investigation of occupational disease and poisoning including
ii. Medical surveillance is highly required for methanol, DME, workplace inspections.
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide c) Notification of occupational disease and poisoning.
d) Return to work examination after medical removal protection.
e) Record keeping and monitoring.

231
 Table 6.16 CHRA Form D (Table D5)
Table D5: Specific Action to be Taken
Specific action to be taken
Name of chemical Recommendation
a) Methanol i. Limit exposure at source.
b) DME ii. Clean floors, walls and other surfaces at regular interval
c) Carbon Monoxide iii. Establish specific Organisational Controls for example safe
d) Carbon Dioxide work procedures, training, exposure monitoring, medical
e) Hydrogen surveillance, medical removal protection programme.
iv. Use suitable and sufficient warning signs.
v. Review/design appropriate work process, systems and
engineering controls.
vi. Provide suitable work equipment and materials.
vii. Consider PPE as a last resort or for special situations.
viii. Storing, handling and disposing of carcinogens safely,
including using closed and clearly label containers.

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6.6 Protection Layers

The concept of protection layers is designed for risk reduction to prevent the
accidents or hazardous events that are seen to be possible to occur. A protection layer
consists of a grouping of equipment and administrative controls that preform with other
protection layers to control or mitigate process risk. Therefore, all major equipment used
are identified based on hazard evaluation procedure such as Hazard and Operability
Study (HAZOP) which will be clearly discussed and presented with technical support
and justification in this subtitle.

6.6.1 Alarm System

Alarms are implemented to reduce risks by drawing attention of operators to a

condition that is outside the desired range of conditions for a normal manufacturing
operation or process. In the production of dimethyl ether, an alarm is installed in all the
pressure control loops (except for the gasifier pressure control system) to make sure that
the operators are being alerted for them to discover the source of the issue and take
corrective actions to solve the issue. The alarm is mainly fixed at the pressure control
loop because most of the reactor is highly pressurised and pressure is the most critical
parameter that needs to be monitored and given the attention in case of any abnormalities
in the process. The alarm will turned on when there is a fluctuation of ±2% in the set
point value.

6.6.2 Non-Return Valve (NRV)

Non-return valve (NRV) is a valve allows fluid to flow through a pipe in only
one direction. This valve is fitted to ensure the fluid flows in the right direction although
there is a change of pressure conditions may cause backflow. Generally, NRV is
installed at the outlet stream of each equipment to ensure proper operation in order to

233
reduce loss of production and downtime due to increased saving of energy, low-pressure
drop and very effective in blocking water hammer (BM Engineering Supplies Ltd, n.d.).

6.6.3 Drain Valve

Drain valve is a valve allows water to flow out of the system by draining off the
medium inside the vessel once it is overloaded. Once the system is overloaded, the
column will lead to rust and corrosion due to the chemicals involved in this production
are corrosive, it will corrode the sidewall of the column. Thus, a manual drain valve is
installed at the bottom stream of flash columns and distillation columns in case there is
still overflooding occurring during the operation or for the maintenance purpose.

6.6.4 Pressure Relief System

Pressure relief system is one of the protection layers in which also known as
under pre-release physical protection layer. A large protection against hazards can be
performed by mechanical safety devices including pressure relief valves and rupture
disc.

6.6.4.1 Pressure Relief Valve

A pressure Relief Valve is a safety device designed to protect a pressurized

vessel or system during an overpressure event. An overpressure event refers to any
condition which would cause pressure in a vessel or system to increase beyond the
specified design pressure or maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). The
primary purpose of a pressure Relief Valve is protection of life and property by venting
fluid from an over pressurized vessel. The sole source of power for the pressure Relief
Valve, is the process fluid mainly to make sure it is able to operate at all time even
during power failure. Once a condition occurs that causes the pressure in a system or

234
vessel to increase to a dangerous level, the pressure Relief Valve may be the only device
remaining to prevent a catastrophic failure. The pressure Relief Valve must open at a
predetermined set pressure, flow a rated capacity at a specified overpressure, and close
when the system pressure has returned to a safe level. Spring loaded pressure relief
valves are used in the columns whereas breather valves are used in the storage tanks in
the plant.

Figure 6.2 Images of Pressure Relief Valve (Musk, 2020)

6.6.4.2 Rupture Disc

Rupture disk is a device designed to function by the bursting of a pressure-

retaining disk. This assembly consists of a thin, circular membrane usually made of
metal, plastic, or graphite that is firmly clamped in a disk holder. When the process
reaches the bursting pressure of the disk, the disk ruptures and releases the pressure.
Rupture disks can be installed alone or in combination with other types of devices. Once
blown, rupture disks do not reseat; thus, the entire contents of the upstream process
equipment will be vented. The burst tolerances of rupture disks are typically about ±5%
for set pressures. Rupture disks are used where instantaneous and full opening of a
pressure relief device is required. These devices are also utilized where "zero" leak-age

235
is required of a relief device. These devices can also be used in series as "quick opening"
valves.

Figure 6.3 Image of Rupture Disc (Musk, 2020)

6.6.4.3 Rupture disc in series with pressure relief valve

The ASME Pressure Vessel Code permits the use of a rupture disk (bursting
disc) device at both a safety relief valve’s inlet and outlet which is known as rupture
disk in series with pressure relief valve. This combination of rupture disks (bursting
discs) and safety relief valves is becoming more and more common in oil, chemical, and
petrochemical plants.

This valve-disk combination may have previously been considered by some

merely as an added expense. It is now well accepted, however, that isolating a safety
relief valve in this manner actually saves money in the following ways:

(a) The most important reason for isolating safety relief valves with rupture disks
(bursting discs) is to prevent the process from leaking into the atmosphere. A
rupture disk (bursting disc) used at the inlet of a relief valve acts as a solid metal
barrier between the process and the valve. Not only does the disk prevent air
pollution (thereby satisfying EPA regulations), it can save money. Leakage that
customarily wastes expensive products every hour of every day is stopped with
a rupture disk (bursting disc)/safety relief valve combination.

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(b) Safety relief valve life extension is the second major advantage for using a
disk/valve combination. The rupture disk (bursting disc) acts as a solid metal
barrier between the valve and the process. The disk prevents product build up
from adhering to mechanical components of the valve that otherwise could affect
valve performance and the safety of the system. Because the process media will
not come in contact with the internal surfaces and parts of the valve, it will
remain in better condition until called upon to relieve pressure.

(c) Because the valve’s internals are not normally exposed to process
contamination, they remain in a protected condition, allowing longer periods
between major overhauls.

(d) The large initial cost of the safety relief valve can be reduced by ordering valves
from less expensive metal and isolating the valve with a rupture disk (bursting
disc).

To isolate safety relief valves with rupture disks (bursting discs), a reverse
buckling disk is used. This disk can withstand pressures in two directions; thus,
allowing the valve to be field checked in place and eliminating the necessity of a vacuum
support for vacuum process.

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6.7 HAZOP Analysis

A Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) is an organised analysis of a process

to work out whether the deviations from the design or operational intent will result in
unwanted consequences. HAZOP study usually includes the use of the piping and
instrument diagram (P&ID), or a plant model, as a guide to study each equipment and
component of a process. HAZOP team deliberate potentially risky situations that might
arise in every part of pipe, valve, and every vessel within the system. The design team
examines the completed P&ID before analysing in what way of each parameter may be
affected under the conditions represented by the guide words for the particular node.

The main equipment that’s been considered under the HAZOP analysis for the
DME production plant from OPF is Downdraft Gasifier (G-101), Water Gas Shift
Reactor (R-101), Methanol Reactor (R-102), DME Reactor (R-103), Flash Column 1
(F-101), Flash Column 2 (F-102), Distillation Column 1 (D-101), Distillation Column
2 (D-102) and Distillation Column 3 (D-103).

238
6.7.1 Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Table 6.17 General Information of Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Project: DME Production Page: 1 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-001 Rev No.: 1 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Subsystem Intention: To produce syngas in G-101

239
Diagram:

Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet streams of G-101 (S1 & S2)] : OPF and Steam enter the G-101 with desired amount in the ratio of
1-to-1.

Node 2 [outlet stream of G-101 (S4)]

240
Normal Process
700ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 1 bar

Table 6.18 HAZOP Form of Downdraft Gasifier (G-101)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Composition LESS/ Less 1. Leakage in the feed 1. Leakage of 1. Install flow 1. Regular
PART Composition pipe combustible and indicator maintenance and
OF 2. Control valve CV- toxic gases controller at S1 inspection
105 opened less 2. Reduced quality of and S2 2. Install low flow
than intended product/ Poor quality 2. Install alarm
ratio
3. Malfunction of of product calculation
ratio calculator 3. Decreased between S1 and
(FY-101) production rate as S2
less syngas is
produced
MORE/ More 1. Control valve CV- 1. Increase in gasifier 1. Install flow 1. Regular
MORE Composition 105 opened more pressure indicator maintenance and
THAN than intended 2. Reduced quality of controller at S1 inspection

241
 2. Malfunction of product/ Poor quality and S2 2. Install high flow
ratio calculator of product alarm
2. Install ratio
(FY-101) 3. Decreased calculation
production rate as between S1 and
less syngas is S2
produced
2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Degradation of 1. Interruption of 1. Install 1. Regular
Temperature heating system of product formation as temperature maintenance and
gasifier the rate of reaction is transmitter and inspection
(BR-01) been affected by the controller 2. Install low
temperature temperature
alarm

HIGH High 1. High heat supply 1. Gasifier overheats 1. Install 1. Regular

Temperature from (BR-01) to 2. Thermal stress on temperature maintenance and
the system gasifier transmitter and inspection
3. Interruption of controller 2. Install high
product formation temperature
alarm

242
3. Pressure LOW Low Pressure 1. Malfunction of 1. Less feed flow from 1. Install pressure 1. Regular
control valve, CV- S2 transmitter and maintenance and
101 at S2 causing 2. Backflow of the controller inspection
steam flow rate products into the 2. Install safety
decreases gasifier relief valve and
2. Leakage in the safety interlock
reactor or feed system
pipeline 3. Install check
valve (NRV-01)
at S4

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of 1. Excess feed flow 1. Install pressure 1. Regular

Pressure control valve, CV- from S2 transmitter and maintenance and
101 at S2 causes 2. Possibility of controller inspection
steam flow rate too explosion 2. Install safety
high. 3. More vapour leaded relief valve and
2. Blockage at the to upset of safety interlock
vapour stream of gasification system
the reactor’s outlet

243
6.7.2 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Table 6.19 General Information of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Project: DME Production Page: 2 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-001 Rev No.: 2 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Subsystem Intention: To increase H2 content in the syngas and be optimised to use for the next step of reaction

244
Diagram:

Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet streams of R-101 (S7 & S8)]

Node 2 [outlet stream of R-101 (S9)]

245
Normal Process
200ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 10 bar

Table 6.20 HAZOP Form of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Composition LESS/ Less 1. Leakage in the feed 1. Leakage of 1. Install flow 1. Regular
PART Composition pipe combustible and indicator maintenance and
OF 2. Control valve, CV- toxic gases controller at S8 inspection
107 opened less than 2. Reduced quality of 2. Install ratio 2. Install low flow
intended product/ Poor alarm
calculation
3. Malfunction of ratio quality of product between S7 and
calculator (FY-107) 3. Decreased S8
production rate as
less syngas is going
into the system
MORE/ More 1. Control valve, CV- 1. Increase in reactor 1. Install flow 1. Regular
MORE Composition 107 opened more pressure indicator maintenance and
THAN than intended 2. Reduced quality of controller at S8 inspection

246
 2. Malfunction of ratio product/ Poor 2. Install ratio 2. Install high flow
calculator (FY-107) quality of product calculation alarm
3. Decreased between S7 and
production rate as S8
less syngas is going
into the system
2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Interruption of 1. Install 1. Regular
Temperature 106 that causes product formation temperature maintenance and
excessive coolant as the rate of transmitter and inspection
flowrate into the heat reaction is been controller 2. Install low
exchanger (HE-02) affected by the temperature
2. Malfunction of CV- temperature alarm
108 that opens more
than intended causing
excessive coolant
flow into the cooling
jacket
HIGH High 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Cooling water will 1. Install 1. Regular
Temperature 106 that causes not be cold enough temperature maintenance and
insufficient coolant to cold down the transmitter and inspection
reactor controller

247
 flowrate in the heat 2. Interruption of 2. Install high
exchanger (HE-02) product formation temperature
2. Malfunction of CV- alarm
108 that opens less
than intended causing
less coolant flow into
the cooling jacket

3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Less feed flow 1. Install low 1. Regular
Pressure 107 due to lesser from S7 pressure alarm maintenance and
percentage opening 2. Backflow of the 2. Install pressure inspection
2. Less compression by products into the transmitter and
CPR-01 and CPR-02 reactor controller
3. Leakage in the 3. Install safety
reactor or feed relief valve and
pipeline safety interlock
system
4. Install check
valve (NRV-
02) at S9

248
HIGH High 1. Excessive 1. Excess feed flow 1. Install high 1. Regular
Pressure compression by CPR- from S7 pressure alarm maintenance and
01 and CPR-02 2. Possibility of 2. Install pressure inspection
2. Blockage at the explosion transmitter and
vapour stream of the 3. Possible leakage of controller
reactor’s outlet combustible gases 3. Install safety
if there is a tube relief valve and
rupture or rupture safety interlock
of the reactor shell system

249
6.7.3 Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Table 6.21 General Information of Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Project: DME Production Page: 3 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-002 Rev No.: 3 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Subsystem Intention: To separate water from syngas

250
Diagram:

251
Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of F-101 (S10)]

Node 2 [outlet streams of F-101 (S11 & S12)]

Normal Process
80ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 8.5 bar

Table 6.22 HAZOP Form of Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Level LOW Low Level 1. The inlet stream too 1. Equipment failure due 1. Install level 1. Regular
hot due to to excess heat duty transmitter and maintenance and
malfunction of heat 2. Inefficiency in the controller at inspection
exchanger separation inside the outlet of 2. Install low level
2. Less condensation of column downstream alarm
water vapour 3. Release of toxic gases (S12)
3. Leakage at the feed into the environment
pipeline
HIGH High Level 1. The inlet stream too 1. Inefficiency in the 1. Install level 1. Regular
cold due to separation inside the transmitter and maintenance and
malfunction of heat column controller at inspection

252
 exchanger 2. Reverse flow into the outlet of 2. Install high level
2. Blockage at outlet feed pipeline downstream alarm
stream (S12)

2. Install drain valve

(DV-01) at the
bottom

2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Poor separation 1. Install 1. Regular

Temperature 110 that causes efficiency of the flash temperature maintenance and
excess coolant column transmitter and inspection
flowrate in the heat controller 2. Install low
exchanger (HE-03) temperature
alarm

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Water evaporated and 1. Install 1. Regular

Temperature 110 that causes enter the vapour temperature maintenance and
insufficient coolant stream. transmitter and inspection
flowrate in the heat 2. Poor separation controller 2. Install high
exchanger (HE-03) efficiency of the flash temperature
column alarm

253
3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Leakage at the feed 1. Lower syngas vapor 1. Install low 1. Regular
Pressure pipeline recovered at the top of pressure alarm maintenance and
2. Leakage of flash flash column 2. Install pressure inspection
column 2. Could cause fire and transmitter and
explosion controller
3. Reverse flow of top 3. Install check
effluent back into valves (NRV-03
flash column and NRV-04) at
stream S11 and
S12 respectively

HIGH High 1. Blockage at vapour 1. Risk of flash column 1. Install high 1. Regular
Pressure stream explosion pressure alarm maintenance and
2. Install pressure inspection
transmitter and
controller

254
6.7.4 Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Table 6.23 General Information of Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Project: DME Production Page: 4 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-002 Rev No.: 4 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Subsystem Intention: To produce methanol

255
Diagram:

Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of R-102 (S15)]

Node 2 [outlet stream of R-102 (S16)]

256
Normal Process
220ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 50 bar

Table 6.24 HAZOP Form of Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of 1. Interruption of 1. Install temperature 1. Regular

Temperature CV-115 that product formation transmitter and maintenance and
supplies excess as the rate of controller inspection
coolant flowrate reaction is been 2. Install low
in the heat affected by the temperature alarm
exchanger (HE- temperature
04)
2. Malfunction of
CV-116 that
opens more than
intended causing
excessive coolant
flow into the

257
 cooling jacket

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of 1. Cooling water will 1. Install high 1. Regular

Temperature CV-115 that not be cold enough temperature alarm maintenance and
supplies to cold down the 2. Install temperature inspection
insufficient reactor transmitter and 2. Install high
coolant flowrate 2. Interruption of controller temperature alarm
in the heat product formation
exchanger (HE-
04)
2. Malfunction of
CV-116 that
opens less than
intended causing
lesser coolant
flow into the
cooling jacket

258
2. Pressure LOW Low 1. Less compression 1. Less feed flow 1. Install low pressure 1. Regular
Pressure by CPR-03 and from S15 alarm maintenance and
CPR-04 2. Backflow of the 2. Install pressure inspection
2. Leakage in the products into the transmitter and
reactor or feed reactor controller
pipeline 3. Install safety relief
valve and safety
interlock system
4. Install check valve-
NRV-05 at S16

HIGH High 1. Excessive 1. Excess feed flow 1. Install high pressure 1. Regular
Pressure compression by from S15 alarm maintenance and
CPR-03 and 2. Possibility of 2. Install pressure inspection
CPR-04 explosion transmitter and
2. Blockage at the 3. Possible leakage of controller
vapour stream of combustible gases 3. Install safety relief
the reactor’s if there is a tube valve and safety
outlet rupture or rupture interlock system
of the reactor shell

259
6.7.5 Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Table 6.25 General Information of Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Project: DME Production Page: 5 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-003 Rev No.: 5 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Subsystem Intention: To separate unreacted syngas from methanol and water

260
Diagram:

Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of F-101 (S18)]

Node 2 [outlet streams of F-101 (S19 & S20)]

261
Normal Process
100ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 30 bar

Table 6.26 HAZOP Form of Flash Column 2 (F-102)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Level LOW Low Level 1. The inlet stream too 1. Equipment failure 1. Install level 1. Regular
hot due to due to excess heat transmitter and maintenance and
malfunction of heat duty controller at inspection
exchanger 2. Inefficiency in the outlet of 2. Install low level
2. Less condensation of separation inside the downstream alarm
water vapour column (S20)
3. Leakage in the feed 3. Release of toxic gases
pipeline into the environment
HIGH High Level 1. The inlet stream too 1. Inefficiency in the 1. Install high level 1. Regular
cold due to separation inside the alarm maintenance and
malfunction of heat column inspection
2. Install level
exchanger 2. Reverse flow into the 2. Install high level
transmitter and
2. Blockage at outlet feed pipeline alarm
controller at

262
 stream outlet of
downstream
(S20)

3. Install drain valve

(DV-02) at the
bottom

2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Poor separation 1. Install 1. Regular

Temperature 119 that causes efficiency of the flash temperature maintenance and
excess coolant column transmitter and inspection
flowrate in the heat controller 2. Install low
exchanger (HE-05) temperature
alarm

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Water evaporated and 1. Install 1. Regular

Temperature 119 that causes enter the vapour temperature maintenance and
insufficient coolant stream. transmitter and inspection
flowrate in the heat 2. Poor separation controller 2. Install high
exchanger (HE-05) efficiency of the flash temperature
column alarm

263
3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Leakage at the feed 1. Lower syngas vapour 1. Install low 1. Regular
Pressure pipeline recovered at the top of pressure alarm maintenance and
2. Leakage of flash flash column 2. Install pressure inspection
column 2. Could cause fire and transmitter and
explosion controller
3. Reverse flow of top 3. Install check
effluent back into valves (NRV-06
flash column and NRV-07) at
stream S19 and
S20 respectively

HIGH High 1. Blockage at vapour 1. Risk of flash column 1. Install high 1. Regular
Pressure stream explosion pressure alarm maintenance and
2. Install pressure inspection
transmitter and
controller

264
6.7.6 Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Table 6.27 General Information of Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Project: DME Production Page: 6 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-003 Rev No.: 6 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Subsystem Intention: To separate methanol from water

265
Diagram:

266
Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of D-101 (S21)]

Node 2 [outlet streams of D-101 (S22 & S23)]

Normal Process
100ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 23 bar

Table 6.28 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 1 (D-101)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Level LOW Low Level 1. Leakage at inlet 1. Leakage of 1. Install level 1. Regular
stream flammable mixture transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- to the surrounding column and inspection
124 that causes 2. Inefficient controller at the 2. Install low level
decrease in the separation leading coolant stream in alarm
coolant flowrate in to low production the condenser
the condenser purity
leading to decrease 3. More vapour inside
in condensate reflux drum

267
 HIGH High Level 1. High feed inlet into 1. Flooding in the 1. Install level 1. Regular
column column and might transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- causes reverse flow column and inspection
124 that causes into the feed controller at the 2. Install high level
increase in the pipeline heating liquid alarm
coolant flowrate in 2. Inefficient stream in the
the condenser separation leading reboiler
leading to increase to low production 2. Install drain valve
in condensate purity (DV-03) at bottom

2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Flooding of reflux 1. Install temperature 1. Regular
Temperature 124 that causes drum transmitter at the maintenance and
higher flow rate of 2. Inefficient outlet of the inspection
cooling utility in separation leading condenser and 2. Frequent cleaning
the condenser to low production controller at the of heating utility
2. Malfunction of CV- purity coolant stream in piping
126 that causes the condenser 3. Install low
insufficient flow temperature alarm
2. Install temperature
rate of heating transmitter at the
utility in the outlet of the reboiler
reboiler and controller at the

268
 heating liquid
stream in the
reboiler

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of 1. Low condensate 1. Install temperature 1. Regular

Temperature CV-124 that causes level inside reflux transmitter and maintenance and
lower flow rate of drum controller inspection
cooling utility in 2. Frequent cleaning
the condenser of coolant piping
3. Install high
2. Malfunction of
temperature alarm
CV-124 that causes
high flow rate of
heating utility in
the reboiler

3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Lower boil-up rate 1. Weeping in the 1. Install low pressure 1. Regular
Pressure of reboiler distillation column alarm maintenance and
2. Leakage at the feed 2. Inefficient 2. Install pressure inspection
pipeline separation leading transmitter and
to low production controller

269
 3. Leakage of purity 3. Install check valves
distillation column 3. Could cause fire (NRV-07 and
and explosion NRV-08)
4. Reverse flow of the
products into the
column
HIGH High 1. High temperature 1. Risk of distillation 1. Install high pressure 1. Regular
Pressure cause vapour to column explosion alarm maintenance and
build up inside 2. Install safety relief inspection
column valve and safety
2. Blockage at vapour interlock system
upstream 3. Install pressure
transmitter and
controller

270
6.7.7 DME Reactor (R-103)

Table 6.29 General Information of DME Reactor (R-103)

Project: DME Production Page: 7 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-003 Rev No.: 7 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: DME Reactor (R-103)

Subsystem Intention: To produce DME

271
Diagram:

Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of R-102 (S25)]

Node 2 [outlet stream of R-102 (S26)]

272
Normal Process
180ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 10 bar

Table 6.30 HAZOP Form of DME reactor (R-103)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Temperature LOW Low 1. Inadequate heating of 1. Interruption of 1. Install temperature 1. Regular

Temperature HE-01 product formation transmitter and maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- as the rate of controller inspection
127 that opens more reaction is been 2. Install low
than intended affected by the temperature
causing excessive temperature alarm
coolant flow into the
cooling jacket
HIGH High 1. Excessive heating of 1. Cooling water will 1. Install temperature 1. Regular
Temperature HE-01 not be cold enough transmitter and maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- to cold down the controller inspection
108 that opens less reactor
than intended 2. Interruption of

273
 causing lesser product formation 2. Install high
coolant flow into the temperature
cooling jacket alarm

2. Pressure LOW Low 1. Leakage in the 1. Backflow of the 1. Install low 1. Regular
Pressure reactor or feed products into the pressure alarm maintenance and
pipeline reactor 2. Install pressure inspection
2. Possibility of transmitter and
explosion due to controller
leakage of 3. Install safety relief
combustible gases valve and safety
interlock system
4. Install check valve
(NRV-09) at S26

HIGH High 1. Blockage at the 1. Possibility of 1. Install high 1. Regular

Pressure vapour stream of the explosion pressure alarm maintenance and
reactor’s outlet 2. Possible leakage of 2. Install pressure inspection
combustible gases if transmitter and
there is a tube controller
rupture or rupture of 3. Install safety relief
the reactor shell valve and safety

274
 interlock system

6.7.8 Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Table 6.31 General Information of Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Project: DME Production Page: 8 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-004 Rev No.: 8 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Subsystem Intention: To separate DME and Methanol from water

275
Diagram:

276
Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of F-101 (S27)]

Node 2 [outlet streams of F-101 (S28 & S29)]

Normal Process
150ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 8.5 bar

Table 6.32 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 2 (D-102)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Level LOW Low Level 1. Leakage at inlet 1. Leakage of 1. Install level 1. Regular
stream flammable mixture transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- to the surrounding column and inspection
132 that causes 2. Inefficient controller at the 2. Install low level
decrease in the separation leading coolant stream in alarm
coolant flowrate in to low production the condenser
the condenser purity
leading to decrease 3. More vapour inside
in condensate reflux drum

277
 HIGH High Level 1. High feed inlet into 1. Flooding in the 1. Install level 1. Regular
column column and might transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- causes reverse flow column and inspection
132 that causes into the feed controller at the 2. Install high level
increase in the pipeline heating liquid alarm
coolant flowrate in 2. Inefficient stream in the
the condenser separation leading reboiler
leading to increase to low production 2. Install drain valve
in condensate purity (DV-04) at bottom

2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Flooding of reflux 1. Install temperature 1. Regular
Temperature 132 that causes drum transmitter at the maintenance and
higher flow rate of 2. Inefficient outlet of the inspection
cooling utility in separation leading condenser and 2. Frequent cleaning
the condenser to low production controller at the of heating utility
2. Malfunction of CV- purity coolant stream in piping
134 that causes the condenser 3. Install low
insufficient flow temperature alarm
2. Install temperature
rate of heating transmitter at the
utility in the outlet of the reboiler
reboiler and controller at the

278
 heating liquid
stream in the
reboiler

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of 1. Low condensate 1. Install high 1. Regular

Temperature CV-132 that level inside reflux temperature alarm maintenance and
causes lower flow drum 2. Install temperature inspection
rate of cooling transmitter and 2. Frequent cleaning
utility in the controller of coolant piping
condenser 3. Install high
temperature alarm
2. Malfunction of
CV-134 that
causes high flow
rate of heating
utility in the
reboiler

279
3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Lower boil-up rate 1. Weeping in the 1. Install low pressure 1. Regular
Pressure of reboiler distillation column alarm maintenance and
2. Leakage at the feed 2. Inefficient 2. Install pressure inspection
pipeline separation leading transmitter and
3. Leakage of to low production controller
distillation column purity 3. Install check valves
3. Could cause fire (NRV-10 and
and explosion NRV-11)
4. Reverse flow of the
products into the
column
HIGH High 1. High temperature 1. Risk of distillation 1. Install high pressure 1. Regular
Pressure cause vapour to column explosion alarm maintenance and
build up inside 2. Install safety relief inspection
column valve and safety
2. Blockage at vapour interlock system
upstream 3. Install pressure
transmitter and
controller

280
6.7.9 Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Table 6.33 General Information of Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Project: DME Production Page: 9 of 9

Drawing No.: P&ID-004 Rev No.: 9 Date: 9 March 2020

HAZOP Team Members: Hui Jia, Karthikan, Humaira, Siti Nurfatiha, Wafy Meeting Date: 9 March 2020

Subsystem Description: Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Subsystem Intention: To separate DME from Methanol

281
Diagram:

282
Node Design Intent: Node 1 [inlet stream of F-101 (S31)]

Node 2 [outlet streams of F-101 (S32 & S33)]

Normal Process
70ºC
Temperature:

Normal Process Pressure: 12 bar

Table 6.34 HAZOP Form of Distillation Column 3 (D-103)

Guide
No. Parameter Deviation Possible causes Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word

1. Level LOW Low Level 1. Leakage at inlet 1. Leakage of 1. Install level 1. Regular
stream flammable mixture transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- to the surrounding column and inspection
139 that causes 2. Inefficient controller at the 2. Install low level
decrease in the separation leading coolant stream in alarm
coolant flowrate in to low production the condenser
the condenser purity
leading to decrease 3. More vapour inside
in condensate reflux drum

283
 HIGH High Level 1. High feed inlet into 1. Flooding in the 1. Install level 1. Regular
column column and might transmitter in the maintenance and
2. Malfunction of CV- causes reverse flow column and inspection
139 that causes into the feed controller at the 2. Install high level
increase in the pipeline heating liquid alarm
coolant flowrate in 2. Inefficient stream in the
the condenser separation leading reboiler
leading to increase to low production 2. Install drain valve
in condensate purity (DV-05) at bottom

2. Temperature LOW Low 1. Malfunction of CV- 1. Flooding of reflux 1. Install temperature 1. Regular
Temperature 139 that causes drum transmitter at the maintenance and
higher flow rate of 2. Inefficient outlet of the inspection
cooling utility in separation leading condenser and 2. Frequent cleaning
the condenser to low production controller at the of heating utility
2. Malfunction of CV- purity coolant stream in piping
141 that causes the condenser 3. Install low
insufficient flow temperature alarm
2. Install temperature
rate of heating transmitter at the
utility in the outlet of the reboiler
reboiler and controller at the

284
 heating liquid
stream in the
reboiler

HIGH High 1. Malfunction of 1. Low condensate 1. Install temperature 1. Regular

Temperature CV-139 that level inside reflux transmitter and maintenance and
causes lower flow drum controller inspection
rate of cooling 2. Frequent cleaning
utility in the of coolant piping
condenser 3. Install high
temperature alarm
2. Malfunction of
CV-141 that
causes high flow
rate of heating
utility in the
reboiler

285
3. Pressure LOW Low 1. Lower boil-up rate 1. Weeping in the 1. Install low pressure 1. Regular
Pressure of reboiler distillation column alarm maintenance and
2. Leakage at the feed 2. Inefficient 2. Install pressure inspection
pipeline separation leading transmitter and
3. Leakage of to low production controller
distillation column purity 3. Install check valves
3. Could cause fire (NRV-12 and
and explosion NRV-13)
4. Reverse flow of the
products into the
column
HIGH High 1. High temperature 1. Risk of distillation 1. Install high pressure 1. Regular
Pressure cause vapour to column explosion alarm maintenance and
build up inside 2. Install safety relief inspection
column valve and safety
2. Blockage at vapour interlock system
upstream 3. Install pressure
transmitter and
controller

286
6.8 Safety Operating Procedure (SOP)

For this section, SOP for the start-up, normal operation, emergency operation
and shut down of the DME plant is developed to systemize all the processes.

6.8.1 Start-Up Operation

A start-up procedure is important to ensure that the process is being operated at the
desired steady state as well as to ensure that the desired operating conditions have been
satisfied in each equipment and instrument. In addition to that, Start-up is usually the
point where many unforeseen problems start to surface and can be rectified in advance
before proceeding to the full operation of the plant.

1. Perform column and vessel commissioning including alarm and safety

equipment test.

2. Ensure the heaters, coolers and compressors are started before operating the
major equipment.

3. Start introducing the heating and cooling utilities into the heaters and coolers.

4. Purge the reactors and columns with Nitrogen gas to remove any impurities
and vent the gas out by opening the vent valve.

5. Ensure that all drain valves, pressure relief valves and vent valves are closed.

6. Gradually introduce the feed into the first equipment.

7. Monitor the operating temperature and pressure of main streams and

equipment.

8. Ensure that each equipment is operated at its full capacity and has achieved the
desired operating conditions.

9. Open the isolation valve after each equipment has reached its desired steady
state conditions.

287
 10. Take the sample frequently to make sure that the desired output composition is
achieved.

6.8.2 Normal Operation

When the process is operating under steady state conditions, each equipment and
process is frequently monitored under a centralized control system to detect any
abnormalities during operation which could potentially cause an undesired incident
from occurring

1. Ensure that each equipment is operated strictly according to its respective SOP.

2. Constantly monitor and control every unit operation to maintain the process
parameters at its desired set point.

3. Schedule regular inspections and maintenance for equipment that operates at

extreme conditions.

4. Frequently inspect each line, valve and joints for any physical damage or
leakage.

5. Record and report all unusual findings during operation

6. Ensure the quality of the product by consistently obtaining and testing samples
from the process.

7. Ensure that the waste produced is managed properly with accordance to the
environmental quality act, EQA 1974.

6.8.3 Abnormal/ Emergency Operation

The main objective of the SOP during an emergency would be to prevent any casualties
or injuries from occurring as well as to minimize its exposure to the surroundings. It

288
is crucial to identify, solve and execute any preventive measures immediately after the
first sign of the problem has been identified.

1. Identify the cause of the emergency.

2. Troubleshoot the problem by referring to the equipment’s emergency manual.

3. Implement an interim containment action as a temporary solution to prevent

the problem from getting worse.

4. Obtain appropriate consent from supervisor for an emergency shutdown.

5. Evacuate all personnel to the safe emergency gathering point.

6. Perform a root cause analysis on the problem.

7. Develop and implement permanent corrective actions.

8. Develop and implement preventive measures to prevent the recurrence of the

problem.

6.8.4 Scheduled Shutdown Operation

The main objective of the shut-down procedure is to ensure that all operations will
stop in a smooth and safe manner.

1. Reduce each equipment’s capacity.

2. Gradually reduce the supply of heating utility to the heater.

3. Gradually reduce the feed flowrate to the plant.

4. Shut down all compressors and pumps.

5. Drain all residual liquids in the columns and vessels.

6. Depressurize each equipment to atmospheric pressure

7. Gradually reduce the supply of cooling utility to the cooler.

289
 CHAPTER 7

PROCESS ECONOMICS

7.1 Economic Analysis

The economic analysis of the Dimethyl Ether plant is done by calculating the
Total Capital Investment (CTCI) and the Payback Period in order to assess the
profitability of the product and the process designs proposed.

The first part of the report focusses on the calculation of bare module cost of
individual equipment in the plant. Following the Total Bare Module Cost Costing,
CTBM calculations done, the site cost, building cost, off-site facility cost is calculated
to find out the Total Permanent Investment, CTPI. The working capital cost CWC is will
be added to the CTPI to give the CTCI. The later part of the report displays the Cash Flow
analysis where the payback period and return of investment (ROI) will be determined
to analyse the profitability of the product and the process designs.

Generally, the purchase cost of the equipment used in a chemical plant is

obtained from charts, equations, or quotes from vendors. However, due to the
fluctuations in the cost, an estimate of the purchase cost at a later date is obtained by
multiplying the cost from an earlier date by the ratio of a cost index, I, at that later date
to a base cost index, Ibase, which corresponds to the date that applies to the purchase
cost as shown in Eq. (7.1).

𝐼
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐼 ) (7.1)
Base

Where,
Cost = Updated cost;
Base Cost = Calculated Cost based on a particular year;
I = Latest Cost Index;
IBase = Cost Index on a particular year.

290
 The index that is considered for the calculation of equipment cost would be the
Chemical Engineering (CE) Plant Cost Index which is published in each monthly issue
of the magazine Chemical Engineering. In this report, the base year taken for the
calculation is 2013 with the cost index of 567 and updated to year 2018 with a cost
index of 603.2. Therefore, Eq. (7.1) is simplified as,

603.2
CP (2018) = CP (2013) ( 567 ) (7.2)

7.2 Bare Module Cost (CBM) Calculation

Bare-module costs accounts for delivery, insurance, taxes, direct materials and
labour for installation. Bare-module cost or installed cost is estimated using bare-
module factor FBM based on free-on-board (f.o.b., exclude delivery costs) purchase cost
of equipment. The formula used for calculation of bare module cost is as Eq. (7.3) and
Table 7.1 shows the bare-module factors based on equipment. The CBM calculated in
this section is in USD ($).

CBM = FBM × CP (2018) (7.3)

291
Table 7.1 Bare-Module Factors of Guthrie (1974) for Ordinary Materials of
Construction and Low-to-Moderate Pressures.
Equipment Bare-Module Factor, 𝑭𝐁𝐌
Furnaces and direct-fired heaters, 2.19
Shop-fabricated
Furnaces and direct-fired heaters, 1.86
Field-fabricated
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers 3.17
Double-pipe heat exchangers 1.80
Fin-tube air coolers 2.17
Vertical pressure vessels 4.16
Horizontal pressure vessels 3.05
Pumps and drives 3.30
Gas compressor and drivers 2.15
Centrifuge 2.03
Horizontal conveyors 1.61
Bucket conveyors 1.74
Crushers 1.39
Mills 2.30
Crystallizers 2.06
Dryers 2.06
Evaporators 2.45
Filters 2.32
Flakers 2.05
Screens 1.73

292
7.2.1 Reactors

There are total of 4 reactors that involves in the production of DME from OPF
such as Gasifier (G-101), Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101), Methanol Reactor (R-102)
and DME Reactor (R-103). Since all reactors are considered as pressure vessel in
vertical, the method of calculating the bare module cost, CBM is as stated below.

The purchase cost of the reactors is determined by the equation

𝐶p = 𝐹M 𝐶V + 𝐶PL (7.4)

Where, vertical pressure vessels for 4,200 < W < 1,000,000 lb:

𝐶V = exp[7.1390 + 0.18255 ln(𝑊) + 0.02297ln(𝑊)2 ] (7.5)

Where, vertical vessels for 3 < Di < 21 ft and 12 < L < 40 ft:

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410 (𝐷i )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684 (7.6)

W = weight;
Di = internal diameter;
L = length.

To find the W for Cv, the equation is

𝑊 = 𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 ρ (7.7)

Where L is the length and Di is the internal diameter of the reactor. The density of
Stainless Steel 316, ρ is given with values 0.289lb/in3. To find the thickness, ts, the
average thickness, tv is needed. The equation for tv is,

𝑡𝑝 +(𝑡𝑤 +𝑡𝑝 )
𝑡𝑣 = (7.8)
2

293
The thickness tp is calculated from the ASME pressure-vessel code formula
considering the corrosion, wind and earthquake and for internal pressure is greater than
external pressure.
𝑃𝑑 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 = (7.9)
2𝑆𝐸−1.2𝑃𝑑

The allowable stress, S intake by the vessel is determine by the type of material and
the design temperature. Taking 50ºF or higher added to the operating temperature.

Table 7.2 Maximum allowable stress in recommended temperature for Stainless

Steel 316
Temperature (ºF) Maximum Allowable Stress (psi)
-20 to 650 15,000
700 15,000
750 15,000
800 14,750
850 14,200
900 13,100

The equation for Pd is

𝑃𝑑 = exp{0.60608 + 0.91615[ln(𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.00155655[𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )]2 } (7.10)

Where, Po is the operating pressure of the vessel. Since the vessel is vertical and may
subject to wind load, the bottom thickness, tw + tp, is calculated where the equation for
tw is as follow and Do is the outer diameter.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
𝑡𝑤 = (7.11)
𝑆𝐷𝑜2

From the value of tv, the ts is determined by adding 1/8 inch to the tv value and the
thickness of the vessel can be assumed by the following increment.

1 3 1
-in increments for 16 to 2 in. inclusive
16

294
 1 5
-in increment for 8 to 2 in. inclusive
8

1 1
-in increment for 2 4 to 3in. inclusive
4

The material factor, FM can be referred as in the Table 7.3

Table 7.3 Material factor for pressure vessel

Material of Construction Material Factor
Carbon steel 1.0
Low-alloy steel 1.2
Stainless steel 304 1.7
Stainless steel 316 2.1
Carpenter 20CB-3 3.2
Nickel-200 5.4
Monel-400 3.6
Inconel-600 3.9
Incoloy-825 3.7
Titanium 7.7

In this process, the materials chosen for all reactors is stainless steel 316. The major
advantages of it include its high corrosion resistance allowing it to be used in rigorous
environments. It is also resistance to heat allowing it to resist scaling and retain
strength at high temperature since the range of pressure and temperature for all reactors
are 1 bar to 50 bar and 180°C to 700°C, respectively. Furthermore, all the reactors used
in the process is fixed bed reactor and considered as vertical pressure vessel with a
length to diameter ratio of 1 to 3 are particularly effective in this respect (Dorai et al,
2012).

295
7.2.1.1 Cost of Gasifier (G-101)

Table 7.4 Gasifier (G-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 1292 °F
Operating pressure 14.50 psig
Inner diameter, Di 180 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 190 Inch
Length, L 315 Inch
Allowable stress, S 13,100 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 1.00 -
Weight, W 15,885.643 lb
Cv 11,489.89 $
CPL 1,113,497.47 $
Design pressure, Pd 23.765 psig
tp 0.1634 Inch
tw 0.0096 Inch
tbottom 0.1731 Inch
tv 0.08653 Inch
ts 0.21153 Inch
Cp (2013) 1,137,626.24 $
Cp (2018) 1,210,257.75 $
CBM 5,034,672.25 $

296
7.2.1.2 Cost of Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101)

Table 7.5 Water Gas Shift Reactor (R-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 392 °F
Operating pressure 145.038 psig
Inner diameter, Di 160 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 180 Inch
Length, L 400 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15000 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 1.00 -
Weight, W 63,817.8075 lb
Cv 158,006.63 $
CPL 1,208,345.36 $
Design pressure, Pd 258.1489 psig
tp 1.3912 Inch
tw 0.01434 Inch
tbottom 1.4055 Inch
tv 0.70275 Inch
ts 0.82775 Inch
Cp (2013) 1,540,159.29 $
Cp (2018) 1,638,490.45 $
CBM 6,816,120.25 $

297
7.2.1.3 Cost of Methanol Reactor (R-102)

Table 7.6 Methanol Reactor (R-102) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 428 °F
Operating pressure 725.2 psig
Inner diameter, Di 252.0 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 259.12 Inch
Length, L 480.0 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15,000 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 1.00 -
Weight, W 854,780.59 lb
Cv 1,107,482.44 $
CPL 52,856.37 $
Design pressure, Pd 819.66 psig
tp 7.1185 Inch
tw 0.0139 Inch
tbottom 3.5662 Inch
tv 3.5662 Inch
ts 5.3662 Inch
Cp (2013) 2,378,569.49 $
Cp (2018) 2,530,428.78 $
CBM 10,526,583.73 $

298
7.2.1.4 Cost of DME Reactor (R-103)

Table 7.7 DME Reactor (R-103) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 356 °F
Operating pressure 145.04 psig
Inner diameter, Di 236.16 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 237.60 Inch
Length, L 432.96 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15000 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 1.00 -
Weight, W 340,842.038 lb
Cv 536,197.95 $
CPL 46,836.36 $
Design pressure, Pd 182.23 psig
tp 1.4450 Inch
tw 0.0124 Inch
tbottom 0.7287 Inch
tv 0.7287 Inch
ts 2.5287 Inch
Cp (2013) 1,172,852.05 $
Cp (2018) 1,247,732.55 $
CBM 5,190,567.42 $

299
7.2.2 Flash Columns, F-101 & F-102

F-101 and F-102 are flash columns that is used to separate different
components based on their volatility. F-101 separates syngas from the water produced
in the water gas shift reactor whereas F-102 functions to separate the unreacted syngas
from the methanol that’s been produced in the methanol reactor. Flash Column is in
the vertical position with cylindrical shape and 2 dome that were call head capped at
each end of the vessel. The ratio of length and diameter for it basically at 3 to 1 ratio
(Loh, Lyons and Charles W. White, 2002). In the process, both vessels operate at
temperature range 80ºC to 100ºC and pressure range 8.5 bar to 30 bar. Since the
process are corrosive where methanol and carbon dioxide are presences, stainless steel
316 is chosen as it has a high resistant to corrosive.

Since both of flash columns, F-101 and F-102 are under the category of
pressure vessel, bare module cost for both the flash column, F-101 and F-102 are
calculated using Eq. (7.4, 7.7 - 7.11), however, to calculate CV and CPL for vertical
pressure vessels of towers is calculate by using the formulas shown in Eq. (7.12 -
7.13).

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(10.5449 − 0.4672 (𝑙𝑛(𝑊)) + 0.05482 (𝑙𝑛(𝑊))2 ) (7.12)

Where, only for Towers in the range of 9,000 < W < 2,500,000 lb;

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161 (7.13)

Where, only for Tower in the range of 3 < Di < 24 ft and 27 < L < 170 ft.

300
7.2.2.1 Cost of Flash Column 1 (F-101)

Table 7.8 Flash Column (F-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 176 °F
Design temperature 250 °F
Operating pressure 123.282 psig
Inner diameter, Di 96.7 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 97.95 Inch
Length, L 159.6 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15000 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 0.85 -
Weight, W 9,142.98 lb
Cv 45,018.02 $
CPL 118,875.54 $
Design pressure, Pd 156.48 psig
tp 0.598 Inch
tw 0.005 Inch
tbottom 0.602 Inch
tv 0.301 Inch
ts 0.438 Inch
Cp (2013) 213,413.38 $
Cp (2018) 227,038.71 $
CBM 944,481.03 $

301
7.2.2.2 Cost of Flash Column (F-102)

Table 7.9 Flash Column (F-102) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Operating temperature 212 °F
Design temperature 270 °F
Operating pressure 453.113 psig
Inner diameter, Di 96.7 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 97.95 Inch
Length, L 159.6 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15,000 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 0.85 -
Weight, W 34,374.79 lb
Cv 114.211.03 $
CPL 10,126.18 $
Design pressure, Pd 527.215 psig
tp 2.05 Inch
tw 0.005 Inch
tbottom 2.06 Inch
tv 1.03 Inch
ts 1.63 Inch
Cp (2013) 249,969.34 $
Cp (2018) 265,928.58 $
CBM 1,039,872.44 $

302
7.2.3 Distillation Columns, D-101, D-102 & D-103

In the manufacturing of DME, material of distillation columns (D-101, D-102,

and D-103) used is Stainless Steel 316 since the column operates at the temperature
range of 70°C to 150°C which below its temperature limit 1400°F (760°C) Besides
that, corrosive chemicals such as dimethyl ether, methanol and carbon dioxide will be
entering the three columns, therefore, Stainless Steel 316 with the properties of high
resistance to corrosion is chosen as construction material for pressure vessel and trays
for distillation column (Teadit, 2008).

The distillation column utilises trays (plates) instead of packing due to tray
have better distribution, high resistance to corrosion and can handle high liquid
flowrates (Mcdonnell, 2016). Sieve tray is chosen due to it is the cheapest cost and
high capacity with the minimum capacity of 70% (Hoon et al., 2013). According to
Seider et al. (2019), the purchase cost of a distillation column is the summation of cost
for pressure vessel and cost for the installed trays.

Since the distillation columns, D-101, D-102 and D-103 are under the category
of pressure vessel, cost for pressure vessel is calculated by using Eq. (7.4, 7.7 - 7.11),
however, to calculate CV and CPL for vertical pressure vessels of towers is calculate by
using the formulas shown in Eq. (7.12 - 7.13) whereas the purchase cost of installed
trays, CT, is calculated by using the formulas shown in Eq. (7.14).

𝐶T = 𝑁T 𝐹NT 𝐹TT 𝐹TM 𝐶BT (7.14)

Where,
NT = number of trays;
FNT = factor for number of trays, (If NT  20, FNT = 1);
FTT = factor for the type of tray, (For the sieve type, FTT = 1.0);
FTM = material factor, (For Stainless Steel 316, FTM = 1.401 + 0.0724 Di, Di in
feet);
CBT = base cost of trays.

303
As the base cost of sieve trays, CBT is calculated using the formula shown in Eq. (7.15):

CBT = 468 exp (0.1482 Di) (7.15)

Where,
Di = inside diameter of the tower, unit in feet.

Diameter, D and the height of distillation, L columns are important in

controlling the cost and have to be estimated even for preliminary design. In this case,
sizing of the columns mainly based on the amount of flowrate of feed in fluid entering
each equipment. Column height is calculated based on the tray column by multiplying
the actual number of trays separation. Besides, the additional height is considered due
to height is needed at the top and bottom of the column. According to Ateah (2016),
the additional height added to the top and bottom is about 15% of the total height of
the trays. The formula used to calculate column height is shown in Eq. (7.16 – 7.17).

L = (Nact )(tray spacing) (7.16)

Where, Nact = actual number of trays

Corrected Column Height = L + 15% Additional Height (7.17)

After that, in order to decide whether this ratio is acceptable or not, L/D ratio will be
calculated as shown in Eq. 7.18. From the heuristic, the ratio of height to diameter
should lie between 20 and 30 (Ateah, 2016)
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (7.18)

Table 7.10 Summary information of three distillation columns

Parameter D-101 D-102 D-103
Temperature, T (°C) 100 150 70
Pressure, P (bar) 23 8.5 12
Actual number of trays (trays) 20 22 22
Actual feed stage 14 10 10
Column height, L (ft) 111 99 94
Inside diameter, Di (ft) 3.80 3.90 3.45

304
Table 7.11 Distillation Column (D-101) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Tray Type Sieve Trays -
Number of Trays 14 trays
Operating temperature 212.00 °F
Operating pressure 333.59 psig
Inner diameter, Di 45.60 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 46.32 Inch
Length, L 1,334.00 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15,000.00 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 0.85 -
Weight, W 72,877.98 lb
Cv 196,074.62 $
CPL 1,225,464.47 $
Design pressure, Pd 396.39 psig
tp 0.72 Inch
tw 0.78 Inch
tbottom 1.50 Inch
tv 0.75 Inch
ts 1.25 Inch
CBT 821.91 $/tray
CP,vessel (2018) 1,741,749.23 $
CP,tray (2018) 29,311.40 $
CP,total (2018) 1,771,060,63 $
CBM 7,367,612.20 $

305
Table 7.12 Distillation Column (D-102) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Tray Type Sieve Trays -
Number of Trays 22 trays
Operating temperature 302.00 °F
Operating pressure 123.28 psig
Inner diameter, Di 46.80 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 47.09 Inch
Length, L 1,189.10 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15,000.00 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 0.85 -
Weight, W 66,894.30 lb
Cv 183,782.52 $
CPL 1,136,090.81 $
Design pressure, Pd 156.63 psig
tp 0.29 Inch
tw 0.61 Inch
tbottom 0.90 Inch
tv 0.45 Inch
ts 1.25 Inch
CBT 834.18 $/tray
CP,vessel (2018) 1,619,208.06 $
CP,tray (2018) 32,865.28 $
CP,total (2018) 1,652,073.34 $
CBM 6,872,625.11 $

306
 Table 7.13 Distillation Column (D-103) Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Material Stainless Steel 316 -
Density of material 0.289 lb/inch3
Tray Type Sieve Trays -
Number of Trays 22 trays
Operating temperature 158.00 °F
Operating pressure 174.05 psig
Inner diameter, Di 41.40 Inch
Outer diameter, Do 41.75 Inch
Length, L 1,128.00 Inch
Allowable stress, S 15,000.00 psi
Fractional weld efficiency, E 0.85 -
Weight, W 56,209.58 lb
Cv 193,493.00 $
CPL 1,007,710.92 $
Design pressure, Pd 215.98 psig
tp 0.35 Inch
tw 0.64 Inch
tbottom 0.99 Inch
tv 0.50 Inch
ts 1.25 Inch
CBT 780.36 $/tray
CP,vessel (2018) 1,504,325.72 $
CP,tray (2018) 30,149.94 $
CP,total (2018) 1,534,475,66 $
CBM 6,383,418.73 $

Therefore, the calculated purchase cost for the three distillation columns, D-101, D-
102, and D-103 are 7,367,612.20 USD, 6,872,625.11 USD, and 6,383,418.73 USD
respectively.

307
7.2.4 Cost of OPF Storage Bin

A typical storage vessel for bulk solids, called a bin, consists of an upper
section with vertical walls and a lower section with at least one sloping side, referred
to as a hopper. The upper part of the bin is square or circular in cross section, while
the hopper is frequently conical in shape. Eq. (7.16) used to calculate the Cp for storage
bin. Once all the purchase cost of the equipment are calculated, the bare module cost,
CBM is calculated. The FBM used is 2.30 which is of the mill value. The OPF storage
bins in the plant have storage capacity approximately 2.5 days.

Cp= 𝑁 × 570 𝑆 0.46 (7.16)

Where,
N = Number of bins needed for storage,
V = Volume of Bin Needed.

Table 7.14 OPF Storage Bin Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation
OPF STORAGE BIN
OPF Flowrate (kg/h) 60000
OPF Density (kg/m3) 700
Volume of OPF ft3/h 3027
Bin Volume Required (ft3/day) 72648
Bin Volume (ft3) 100,000
Bin Needed for Storage 2
Cp (2013) 227,459.90
Cp (2018) 241,982.04
CBM ($) 556,558.68

308
7.2.5 Storage Tanks, DME (T-101) & Methanol (T-102)

Methanol storage tank is of cone-roof type whereas DME storage tank is of

spherical type. Spherical type tank is use to withstand the high-pressure storage of the
DME product. In total, the plant requires five 1 million galloon DME storage tank and
one 50,000 galloon Methanol tank to store the products produced for 2 days. Eq. (7.17)
used to calculate the Cp for methanol tank whereas Eq. (7.18) for DME tank.

Cp= 𝑁 × 265 𝑉 0.513 (7.17)

Cp= 𝑁 × 53 𝑉 0.78 (7.18)
Where:
N = Number of tanks needed for storage
V = Volume of Tank Needed

Once all the purchase cost of the equipment are calculated, the bare module
cost, CBM is calculated. The FBM is taken the same as for pressure vessel which is 4.16.

Table 7.15 Methanol & DME Storage Tank Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

Storage Tanks
METHANOL DME
Flowrate (kg/h) 3177.77 21697.50
Density (kg/m3) 854.53 54.90
Volume (G) 981.75 104,336.12
Storage Tank Volume
23,562.01 2,504,066.79
Required (G/day)
Tank Volume (G) 50,000.00 1,000,000.00
Tank Needed for Storage 1 5.00
Cp (2013) 68,205.20 12,683,697.45
Cp (2018) 72,559.75 13,493,485.54
CBM ($) 301,848.55 56,132,899.84

309
7.2.6 Compressors (CPR-01 to CPR-05)

The type of compressor that’s been used in the plant is centrifugal compressor
that use electric to drive its motor since it’s more efficient than the steam and gas drive
turbine. The centrifugal compressor has become exceedingly popular in the last few
decades because it is easily controlled, delivers a smooth flow rate (which, however,
is dependent on the required discharge pressure), has small foundations and low
maintenance, and can handle large flow rates and fairly high pressures. Centrifugal
compressor efficiency is between 70-75 %. Based on Eq. (7.19), the brake horsepower
of the compressor was calculated using this formula:

𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑄𝑖 𝑃 𝑃
𝑃𝐵 = 0.00436 (𝑘−1) [( 𝑃𝑜 ) 𝑘 − 1] (7.19)
𝜂𝐵 𝑖

Where,
K= specific heat ratio,
𝑃𝐵 = brake horsepower
𝑄𝑖 = inlet volumetric flowrate (cubic feet per minute)
𝑃 = pressure inlet (pound force per square inch)
𝑃𝑖 = pressure inlet (bar)
𝑃𝑜 = pressure outlet
𝜂𝑐 = compressor efficiency

Next, the power consumption of the compressor was calculated by using Eq. (7.20)
and the base purchase cost, 𝐶𝐵 of the compressor was calculated using Eq. (7.21).

𝑃
𝑃𝑐 = 𝜂 𝐵 (7.20)
𝑀

Where:
𝑃𝑐 = power consumption
𝜂𝑀 = electric motor efficiency (90 %)

310
 𝐶𝐵 = exp{9.1553 + 0.63 [ln(𝑃𝐶 )]} (7.21)
Where,
𝑃𝑐 = power consumption.

The purchase cost of the compressor is calculated using the Eq. (7.3) where
the Cb is 2.5 for stainless steel.

stainless st

311
 Table 7.16 Compressors Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

C01 C02 C03 C04 C05

P in, Pi (bar) 1.00 3.16 8.50 20.61 7.00
P out, Po (bar) 3.16 10.00 20.61 50.00 12.00
P in (Pound Force Per Square Inch) 14.50 45.83 123.28 298.93 101.53
Inlet flowrate (kg/h) 117804.01 117804.00 124146.10 124146.10 24875.27
Inlet flowrate (kg/m3) 0.2461 0.6035 5.6964 11.0367 9.0295
Inlet flowrate (m3/h) 478715.36 195187.00 21793.76 11248.44 2754.88
Inlet flowrate (ft3/min) 281763.02 114883.40 12827.40 6620.62 1621.47
Average Specific Heat Ratio, K 1.38 1.38 1.37 1.37 1.36
Compressor eff (electric motor) 𝜼𝑪 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Brake horsepower, Pb 32,137.78 41,467.73 9,191.46 1,1510.62 554.07
Motor eff, 𝜼𝑴 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Pc (in horsepower) 35,708.64 46,075.25 10,212.73 12,789.58 615.64
Cb($) 6,987,848.06 8,205,044.45 3,175,818.11 3,659,449.34 541,216.78
Cp (2013) ($) 17,469,620.16 20,512,611.12 7,939,545.28 9,148,623.34 1,353,041.95
Cp (2018) ($) 5,853,367.45 6,790,563.30 8,446,443.94 9,732,715.34 1,439,426.64
CBM ($) 39,957,673.70 46,917,804.44 18,159,854.47 20,925,337.98 3,094,767.28

312
7.2.7 Heat Exchangers (HE-01 to HE-09)

In order to calculate the bare module cost, 𝐶BM for all the heat exchangers installed
in the plant, the heat transfer area, A is calculated first using the Eq. (7.22) where U is
assumed as 1600 W/m2K.

A= Q/ [U (∆ 𝑇𝑀 )] (7.22)
Where,
Q = heat duty;
U = overall heat transfer coefficient;
∆ 𝑇𝑀 = log mean temperature difference.

All the heat exchangers used in the plant is shell-and-tube heat exchangers with
U-tubes. The purchase cost, Cp is calculated using the Eq. (7.23). The FL is assumed
to be 1.0 for the tube length of 20 feet.

𝐶P = 𝐹P 𝐹M 𝐹L 𝐶B (7.23)
Where,
𝐹P = Pressure factor
𝐹M = Material-of-construction Factor
𝐹L = Tube length correction
𝐶B = Base cost

The material-of-construction Factor, 𝐹M is calculated using Eq. (7.24). In the

heat exchanger, the process fluid passes inside the tube while the cooling water or cold
fluid contains the shell part. Therefore, the shell part of the heat exchanger is made up
of carbon steel while the tube is made up of stainless steel.

𝐹𝑀 = a + [( A/100 )^ b] (7.24)

Where,
a = 1.75 (Carbon steel shell)
b = 0.13 (Stainless steel tube)

313
 The pressure factor, Fp of the heat exchangers are calculated using the Eq.
(7.25) where P is the inlet pressure in psig.

𝑃 𝑃
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018 (100) + 0.0017 (100) ² (7.25)

The FL which is the tube length correction factor is taken to be 1.00 for a tube
length of 20 ft and the Base cost, 𝐶B is calculate using Eq. (7.26).

𝐶B = 𝑒xp (11.5510-0.9186((𝐴)+0.09790ln(𝐴)^2) (7.26)

314
 Table 7.17 Heat Exchangers Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

HE01 HE02 HE03 HE04 HE05

Ti 1327.89 1326.00 200.00 277.29 220.00
Hot fluid
To 1326 200 80 220 100
ti 164 35 35 35 35
Cold fluid
to 180 50 50 50 50
C 1,154.93 543.13 87.21 205.42 109.21
Tlm
K 1,428.08 816.28 360.36 478.57 382.36
Cooling utility GJ/h 891.74 245,949.73 57,483.95 12,690.87 66,290.78
Q W 24,770,555.56 6,831,936,944.44 1,596,776,388.89 352,524,166.67 1,841,410,555.56
m2 10.84 5,230.98 2,769.40 460.39 3,009.91
Area
ft2 116.69 56,306.29 29,809.84 4,955.61 32,398.64
Cb $ 12,047.79 549,509.11 262,624.40 50,128.89 287,981.69
Fp 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.20 1.09
Fm 2.50 3.42 3.29 2.97 3.31
Cp (2013) $ 30,409.61 1,899,576.92 868,409.35 178,669.35 1,038,750.19
Cp (2018) $ 32,351.11 2,020,855.02 923,852.76 190,076.46 1,105,068.98
CBM $ 102,553.01 6,406,110.41 2,928,613.26 602,542.37 3,503,068.67

315
 Table 7.17 Heat Exchangers Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

HE06 HE07 HE08 HE09

Ti 180.00 130.81 52.82 76.28
Hot fluid
To 150 70 30 30
ti 35 35 25 25
Cold fluid
to 50 50 50 50
C 122.35 54.75 3.81 12.82
Tlm
K 395.50 327.90 276.96 285.97
Cooling utility GJ/h 3,837.79 8,907.73 6,370.53 1,711.14
Q W 106,605,277.78 247,436,944.44 176,959,166.67 47,531,666.67
m2 168.47 471.64 399.34 103.88
Area
ft2 1,813.38 5,076.69 4,298.48 1,118.18
Cb $ 26,108.02 51,044.29 45,162.46 20,470.30
Fp 1.01 1.02 1.01 0.98
Fm 2.82 2.97 2.95 2.75
Cp (2013) $ 74,002.33 154,321.70 134,880.06 55,433.16
Cp (2018) $ 78,727.00 164,174.33 143,491.45 58,972.28
CBM $ 249,564.58 520,432.64 454,867.90 186,942.12

316
7.2.8 Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

Wastewater treatment plant in the chemical process plant is important because

the process uses a huge amount of water and it contains some percentage of methanol
in the wastewater stream exiting the separation column. This plant utilises primary up
till tertiary treatment mainly because the water used is recycled and fed back to the
process. Therefore, tertiary treatment is necessary to make sure that the water fed to
the process doesn’t cause any problems like scaling in the pipelines and also uneven
heat transfer into the water stream. The formula to calculate CBM for the WWTP used
is Eq. (7.27.

CBM = 99,790𝑄 0.64 (7.27)

Where,
Q = amount of wastewater (gal/min)

Table 7.18 WWTP Bare Module Cost, CBM Calculation

S12 S23 S29

Wastewater (kg/hr) 18657.5 2196.87 8402.71
Wastewater (kg/hr) 29257.08
kg/day 702169.92
gal/min 3087.82

CBM ($) 17,079,067.28

317
7.3 Total Bare Module Cost (CTBM) Calculation

The bare module cost of all the equipment is totaled up before converting the USD to
MYR where USD 1.00 = RM 4.36 as of 30/3/2020.

Table 7.19 Total Bare Module Cost (CTBM) Calculation

No Item Reference Cost (USD million/yr)
1 Downdraft Gasifier , G-101 Table 7.4 5,034,672.25
2 WGS Reactor, R-101 Table 7.5 6,816,120.25
3 Methanol Reactor, R-102 Table 7.6 10,526,583.73
4 DME Reactor, R-103 Table 7.7 5,190,567.42
5 Flash Columns F-101 & Table 7.8 & 1,529,529.69
F-102 Table 7.9
6 Distillation Columns D-101, Table 7.11, Table 20,623,656.04
D-102 & D-103 7.12 & Table 7.13
7 OPF Storage Bin Table 7.14 556,558.68
8 DME Storage Tank, T-101 Table 7.15 56,132,899.84
9 Methanol Storage Tank, Table 7.15 301,848.55
T-102
10 Compressors Table 7.16 129,055,437.87
(CPR-01 to CPR-05)
11 Heat Exchangers Table 7.17 14,954,694.96
(HE-01 to HE-09)
12 Wastewater Treatment Plant Table 7.18 17,079,067.28
Total Bare Module Cost, CTBM (USD million/yr) 267,801,636.56
Total Bare Module Cost, CTBM (RM million/yr) 1,167,615,135.40

318
7.4 Total Capital Investment, CTCI

The method used to calculate CTCI is preliminary estimate (based on individual

factors Method of Guthrie, 1969, 1974). The accuracy of this method is improved to
perhaps 20% compared to using order of magnitude estimate (50%) and study estimate
(35%) to calculate CTCI.

Table 7.20 Total Capital Investment, CTCI Calculation

No Item Reference Cost (RM
million/yr)
1 Total Bare Module Table 7.19 1,167,615,135.40
Cost, CTBM

2 Site Cost, Csite 20.0% CTBM 233,523,027.08

3 Building Cost, Cbuilding 10.0% CTBM 116,761,513.54
4 Off-Site Facility Cost. 5.0% CTBM 58,380,756.77
Coff-site facility

5 Total Permanent 1.18 1,860,010,910.70

Investment, CTPI (CTBM + Csite + Cbuilding
+ Coff-site facility )

6 Working Capital, CWC 17.5% CTPI 325,501,909.37

7 Total Capital CTPI + CWC 2,185,512,820.07
Investment, CTCI

319
7.5 Total Production Cost

Total Production cost also known as cash cost of production (CCOP) is the sum
of the fixed (FCOP) and variable cost of production (VCOP). Raw material and
utilities are classified as FCOP whereas Total Operating Labour Cost (O),
Maintenance (M), Operating Overhead and Property Taxes & Insurance are classified
as VCOP.

Table 7.21 Raw Material Costing

Raw Material Production Rate RM/tonne RM/yr

(tonne/yr)

Oil Palm Frond 475,200 65 30,888,000.00

Total 30,888,000.00

Table 7.22 Utilities Costing Calculation

Utilities Unit Unit/yr RM/unit* RM/yr

Electricity (TNB) kWh 6.5 x 108 0.329 213,850,000.00

Thermal Oil m3 3.2 x 106 8.48 27,136,000.00

(Supplier : Guangdong Litten
Lubricants Co., Ltd.)

Water (SPAN) m3 7.5 x 107 0.840 63,000,000.00

Total 303,986,000.00

*Price as of 30/3/2020

320
 Table 7.23 Total Operating Labour Cost

Average
Number Total Salary
Job Position Monthly Salary*
of Staff (RM/yr)
(RM/yr staff)

Top Executives
6 33,783.00 2,432,376.00
(General Manager & Manager)

Executive (Engineers, Safety,

Quality Control, Accountant, 15 4,151.00 747,180.00
Administration)

Supervisors 35 3,872.00 1,626,240.00

Clerk 10 2,500.00 300,000.00

Line Leader 10 2,420.00 290,400.00

Skilled Operators 120 2,130.00 3,067,200.00

Forklift Driver 8 1,680.00 161,280.00

Unskilled Employees 50 1,543.00 925,800.00

Total Operating Labour Cost 9,550,476.00

*Average Salary as stated in Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA)

– Human Resource

321
 Table 7.24 Total Annual Production Calculation
No Item Reference Cost (RM/yr)
VCOP
1 Raw Materials Table 7.21 30,888,000.00
2 Utilities Table 7.22 303,986,000.00
Total VCOP 334,874,000.00
FCOP
3 Total Operating Labour Table 7.23 9,550,476.00
Cost (O)
4 Maintenance (M) 10% of CTPI 186,001,091.07
5 Operating Overhead 22.8% M&O-SW&B 44,585,757.29
6 Property Taxes & 2% of CTPI 37,200,218.21
Insurance
Total FCOP 277,337,542.58
Total Annual Production Cost 612,211,542.58

SW&B : Salary Wages & Benefits

7.6 Total Revenue

For the sales, the amount of product (DME) and by-product (methanol) were
calculated. For the products revenue, each of the price which are DME and methanol
are USD 1.83/kg and USD 0.26/kg respectively. By assuming the 24 hours processing
hours and 330 working days, the production rate is determined.

21697.50 kg 24 hrs 330 days 1 tonne

DME : × × × =171,844.20 tonne DME/yr
hrs 1 day 1 yr 1000 𝑘𝑔

3177.77 kg 24 hrs 330 days 1 tonne

Methanol: × × × = 25,167.94 tonne CH3OH /yr
hrs 1 day 1 yr 1000 𝑘𝑔

322
 Table 7.25 Total Revenue Calculation
Production Rate
Products RM/tonne* RM/yr
(tonne/yr)
DME 171,844.20 7978.8 1,371,108,907.20

Methanol 25,168.94 1133.6 28,530,444.80

Total Revenue 1,399,639,352.00

*Price as of 30/3/2020

323
7.7 Cash Flow Analysis

The DME production from OPF plant have a project life span of 30 years. The
plant takes 3 years of construction in which in the first year it requires 30% of fixed
capital cost, second year requires 40% of fixed capital while final year requires 30%
of fixed capital cost needed which is used for procurement and construction. The
working capital is distributed by half during the last 2 years of construction period.
The investment is a total cost of CTDC and the Cwc. The assumptions of the performance
during initial production year is only 30% of design performance, 60% of design
performance on the second year of operation ,and full production at design rates on the
third year of operation onwards. Therefore the variable cost of production varies as the
performance of the plant varies for the first few years.

Example of cash flow analysis calculation at Year 5:

Gross Profit = Revenue – Production Cost

Take Lembaga Hasil Dalam Negeri Malaysia 2020 as reference, tax is calculated as
below:

For profit above 2 million = RM 517,650 (for the first 2 million) + ((Gross Profit –
2,000,000) x (30% tax rate))
= RM 236,145,992.83

Cash Flow (After Tax) = Gross Profit – Tax

= RM (787,427,809.42 - 236,145,992.83)
= RM 551,281,816.60

Net Cash Flow = Net Cash Flow +Cash Flow (After Tax)
= - RM 1,727,522,284.32+ RM 551,281,816.60
= - RM 1,176,240,467.73

324
 Table 7.26 Cash Flow Analysis of the Plant
Year Fixed Capital Working Production Revenue (RM) Gross Profit Tax (RM) Cash Flow Net Cash Flow
(RM) Capital (RM) Cost (RM) (RM) After Tax (RM) (RM)
0 558,003,273.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -558,003,273.21 -558,003,273.21
1 744,004,364.28 162,750,954.69 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -744,004,364.28 -1,302,007,637.49
2 558,003,273.21 162,750,954.69 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -720,754,227.90 -2,022,761,865.38
3 0.00 0.00 377,799,742.58 419,891,805.60 42,092,063.02 0.00 42,092,063.02 -1,980,669,802.36
4 0.00 0.00 478,261,942.58 839,783,611.20 361,521,668.62 108,374,150.59 253,147,518.04 -1,727,522,284.32
5 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 -1,176,240,467.73
6 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 -624,958,651.13
7 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 -73,676,834.53
8 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 477,604,982.06
9 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 1,028,886,798.66
10 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 1,580,168,615.26
11 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 2,131,450,431.86
12 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 2,682,732,248.45
13 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 3,234,014,065.05
14 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 3,785,295,881.65
15 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 4,336,577,698.24
16 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 4,887,859,514.84
17 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 5,439,141,331.44
18 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 5,990,423,148.03

325
Year Fixed Capital Working Production Revenue (RM) Gross Profit Tax (RM) Cash Flow Net Cash Flow
(RM) Capital (RM) Cost (RM) (RM) After Tax (RM) (RM)
19 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 6,541,704,964.63
20 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 7,092,986,781.23
21 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 7,644,268,597.83
22 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 8,195,550,414.42
23 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 8,746,832,231.02
24 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 9,298,114,047.62
25 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 9,849,395,864.21
26 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 10,400,677,680.81
27 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 10,951,959,497.41
28 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 11,503,241,314.00
29 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 12,054,523,130.60
30 0.00 0.00 612,211,542.58 1,399,639,352.00 787,427,809.42 236,145,992.83 551,281,816.60 12,605,804,947.20

From Table 7.26, it shows that this project is feasible as it is an earning plant project with huge amount of profit (around 12.6 billion Ringgit
Malaysia) at the end of the project study life. The break-even point of the project is determined by plotting the graph of net cash flow against
project timeline. The year where the net cash flow normalizes the negative value and starting to make profit is known as the pay-back period. In
other words, the payback period is the time where the all investment cost has been fully paid. The plot of cash flow analysis is shown in Figure
7.1.

326
 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0%
5,000,000,000.00

4,000,000,000.00

3,000,000,000.00
Net Cash Flow (RM)

Payback Period
2,000,000,000.00

1,000,000,000.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-1,000,000,000.00
Year
-2,000,000,000.00

-3,000,000,000.00

Figure 7.1 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 15

Figure 7.1 shows the cash flow diagram for the first 15 years of the project.
From the graph, the graph displays negative displacement of net cash flow (cumulative
annual cash flow) till the Year 2. The negative displacement in the graph resembles
the investment is required to design and heavy flow of capital to build the plant and
provide funds for start-up including working capital. Beginning Year 2 onwards, the
graph starts to turns up because the production had begun and there is some revenue
produced in the plant from it sales of DME and Methanol. There is some inconsistent
in the revenue produced till Year 4 as the plant only begun operating at its full design
capacity at Year 5. The net cash flow remains negative until the CTCI (fixed and
working capital) is fully been paid off in 7.2 years (which is at Year 8), where this
point is known as payback period. Beginning Year 8, the plant is expected to earn
money from selling product revenue and start to make profit annually. The overall cash
flow diagram till the project life span of 30 years can be seen in Figure 7.2 where it
can be seen that the project can reach profit up to RM12.6 billion.

327
 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0%
14,000,000,000.00

12,000,000,000.00

10,000,000,000.00

8,000,000,000.00
Ner Cash Flow (RM)

6,000,000,000.00

4,000,000,000.00

2,000,000,000.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

-2,000,000,000.00
Year
-4,000,000,000.00

Figure 7.2 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 15

328
 Table 7.27 Cash Flow Analysis for Different Interest Rates
0% Interest 5% Interest 10% Interest 15% Interest
N P/F P/F P/F
Cash Flow After Net Cash Flow PV NPV PV NPV PV NPV
Fac Fac Fac
Tax (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM) (RM)
tor tor tor
- -
0 -558,003,273.21 -558,003,273.21 1.00 -558,003,273.21 -558,003,273.21 1.00 -558,003,273.21 1.00 -558,003,273.21
558,003,273.21 558,003,273.21
- -
1 -744,004,364.28 -1,302,007,637.49 0.95 -708,575,585.03 -1,266,578,858.24 0.91 -1,234,370,877.10 0.87 -1,204,963,589.97
676,367,603.89 646,960,316.76
- -
2 -720,754,227.90 -2,022,761,865.38 0.91 -653,745,331.42 -1,920,324,189.66 0.83 -1,830,035,528.25 0.76 -1,749,957,335.07
595,664,651.15 544,993,745.10
3 42,092,063.02 -1,980,669,802.36 0.86 36,360,706.64 -1,883,963,483.02 0.75 31,624,389.95 -1,798,411,138.30 0.66 27,676,214.70 -1,722,281,120.38

4 253,147,518.04 -1,727,522,284.32 0.82 208,265,089.58 -1,675,698,393.45 0.68 172,903,161.01 -1,625,507,977.29 0.57 144,737,915.05 -1,577,543,205.33

5 551,281,816.60 -1,176,240,467.73 0.78 431,943,728.40 -1,243,754,665.04 0.62 342,302,634.94 -1,283,205,342.35 0.50 274,084,493.81 -1,303,458,711.52

6 551,281,816.60 -624,958,651.13 0.75 411,374,979.43 -832,379,685.61 0.56 311,184,213.58 -972,021,128.77 0.43 238,334,342.44 -1,065,124,369.08

7 551,281,816.60 -73,676,834.53 0.71 391,785,694.70 -440,593,990.92 0.51 282,894,739.62 -689,126,389.15 0.38 207,247,254.29 -857,877,114.79

8 551,281,816.60 477,604,982.06 0.68 373,129,233.04 -67,464,757.87 0.47 257,177,036.02 -431,949,353.13 0.33 180,215,003.73 -677,662,111.05

9 551,281,816.60 1,028,886,798.66 0.64 355,361,174.33 287,896,416.45 0.42 233,797,305.47 -198,152,047.66 0.28 156,708,698.90 -520,953,412.15

10 551,281,816.60 1,580,168,615.26 0.61 338,439,213.64 626,335,630.10 0.39 212,543,004.97 14,390,957.31 0.25 136,268,433.83 -384,684,978.33

11 551,281,816.60 2,131,450,431.86 0.58 322,323,060.61 948,658,690.71 0.35 193,220,913.61 207,611,870.92 0.21 118,494,290.28 -266,190,688.05

12 551,281,816.60 2,682,732,248.45 0.56 306,974,343.44 1,255,633,034.15 0.32 175,655,376.01 383,267,246.94 0.19 103,038,513.29 -163,152,174.76

13 551,281,816.60 3,234,014,065.05 0.53 292,356,517.56 1,547,989,551.72 0.29 159,686,705.46 542,953,952.40 0.16 89,598,707.21 -73,553,467.55

329
14 551,281,816.60 3,785,295,881.65 0.51 278,434,778.63 1,826,424,330.35 0.26 145,169,732.24 688,123,684.64 0.14 77,911,919.31 4,358,451.76

15 551,281,816.60 4,336,577,698.24 0.48 265,175,979.65 2,091,600,310.00 0.24 131,972,483.86 820,096,168.50 0.12 67,749,495.05 72,107,946.82

16 551,281,816.60 4,887,859,514.84 0.46 252,548,552.05 2,344,148,862.05 0.22 119,974,985.32 940,071,153.82 0.11 58,912,604.39 131,020,551.21

17 551,281,816.60 5,439,141,331.44 0.44 240,522,430.52 2,584,671,292.57 0.20 109,068,168.48 1,049,139,322.29 0.09 51,228,351.65 182,248,902.86

18 551,281,816.60 5,990,423,148.03 0.42 229,068,981.45 2,813,740,274.02 0.18 99,152,880.43 1,148,292,202.73 0.08 44,546,392.74 226,795,295.60

19 551,281,816.60 6,541,704,964.63 0.40 218,160,934.71 3,031,901,208.73 0.16 90,138,982.21 1,238,431,184.94 0.07 38,735,993.68 265,531,289.28

20 551,281,816.60 7,092,986,781.23 0.38 207,772,318.77 3,239,673,527.51 0.15 81,944,529.28 1,320,375,714.22 0.06 33,683,472.77 299,214,762.05

21 551,281,816.60 7,644,268,597.83 0.36 197,878,398.83 3,437,551,926.34 0.14 74,495,026.62 1,394,870,740.84 0.05 29,289,976.32 328,504,738.37

22 551,281,816.60 8,195,550,414.42 0.34 188,455,617.94 3,626,007,544.28 0.12 67,722,751.47 1,462,593,492.31 0.05 25,469,544.63 353,974,283.00

23 551,281,816.60 8,746,832,231.02 0.33 179,481,540.89 3,805,489,085.17 0.11 61,566,137.70 1,524,159,630.02 0.04 22,147,430.11 376,121,713.11

24 551,281,816.60 9,298,114,047.62 0.31 170,934,800.85 3,976,423,886.02 0.10 55,969,216.09 1,580,128,846.11 0.03 19,258,634.88 395,380,347.99

25 551,281,816.60 9,849,395,864.21 0.30 162,795,048.43 4,139,218,934.44 0.09 50,881,105.54 1,631,009,951.65 0.03 16,746,639.02 412,126,987.01

26 551,281,816.60 10,400,677,680.81 0.28 155,042,903.26 4,294,261,837.71 0.08 46,255,550.49 1,677,265,502.14 0.03 14,562,294.80 426,689,281.82

27 551,281,816.60 10,951,959,497.41 0.27 147,659,907.87 4,441,921,745.58 0.08 42,050,500.45 1,719,316,002.59 0.02 12,662,865.05 439,352,146.86

28 551,281,816.60 11,503,241,314.00 0.26 140,628,483.69 4,582,550,229.27 0.07 38,227,727.68 1,757,543,730.27 0.02 11,011,187.00 450,363,333.86

29 551,281,816.60 12,054,523,130.60 0.24 133,931,889.23 4,716,482,118.49 0.06 34,752,479.71 1,792,296,209.97 0.02 9,574,945.22 459,938,279.08

30 551,281,816.60 12,605,804,947.20 0.23 127,554,180.21 4,844,036,298.71 0.06 31,593,163.37 1,823,889,373.34 0.02 8,326,039.32 468,264,318.39

330
 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0%, 5%, 10% & 15%
5,000,000,000.00

4,000,000,000.00

3,000,000,000.00
Net Cash Flow (RM)

2,000,000,000.00

1,000,000,000.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-1,000,000,000.00 Year

-2,000,000,000.00

-3,000,000,000.00

0% 5% 10% 15%

Figure 7.3 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 15

Meanwhile Table 7.27 and Figure 7.3 are constructed to analyse the net present value
which is the cumulative cash flow behaviour at i = 0% and various investment rate of
return (discount value) which are i = 5%, 10% and 15%. Present value (PV) is the
current value of a future sum of money or stream of cash flows given a specified rate
of return. Future cash flows are discounted at the discount rate, and the higher the
discount rate, the lower the present value of the future cash flows. This analysis helps
assess the viability of a project or an investment by calculating the present value of
expected future cash flows using interest rate.

𝐹𝑉
Present Value = (7.28)
(1+𝑟)𝑛

Where,
FV = Cash Flow in year n;
r = rate of return;
n = number of years.

331
 Based on Figure 7.3, the payback period obtained for compound interest 0%,
5%, 10% and 15% is 7.2 years (at Year 8), 8.2 years (at Year 9), 9.9 years (at Year 10)
and 13.8 years (at Year 14) respectively. The net present value at the end life of the
process plant is RM12.6 billion for 0%, RM4.84 billion for 5%, RM1.82 billion for
10% and RM468 million for 15%. Since the net present value is positive for even
having the highest interest rate, i = 15 %, this shows that the project is viable and
profitable even when the payback period is longer. The overall cash flow diagram till
the project life span of 30 years for different rate of return can be seen in Figure 7.4
where it can be seen that the project can reach profit up to RM12.6 billion.

332
 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0%, 5%, 10% & 15%
14,000,000,000.00

12,000,000,000.00

10,000,000,000.00

8,000,000,000.00
Net Cash Flow (RM)

6,000,000,000.00

4,000,000,000.00

2,000,000,000.00

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

-2,000,000,000.00
Year
-4,000,000,000.00

0% 5% 10% 15%

Figure 7.4 Cash Flow Diagram at i = 0% from Year 0 till Year 30

333
7.8 Return Rate of Investment (ROI)

ROI is the annual interest rate made by the profits on the original investment.
ROI provides a snapshot view of the profitability of the plant. The net annual profit is
the cash flow after tax.

ROI at Year 5 (Full design capacity revenue; i = 0%):

Net Annual Profit

ROI = × 100%
Total Capital Investment
Total Revenue − Total Production Cost − Tax
= × 100%
Total Capital Investment
RM 1,399,639,352 − RM 612,221,542 − RM 236,145,992
= × 100%
RM 2,185,512,820
= 25.22%

The ROI is calculated using the above formula and it’s been determine to be
25.22% annually when the plant operate fully as the design capacity. According to
trendshare.org (2019), the good ROI after tax and inflation is 15 %, therefore the
plant’s ROI is considered to be profitable.

334
7.9 Conclusion

In brief, this production plant is a feasible investment as the breakeven period,

is just 7.2 years (at Year 8) ahead from the start of planning stage. Besides, the ROI of
the production plant is determined to be 25.22% annually when the plant operate fully
as the design capacity. Based on the calculations done, the net present value after 30
years of production values up to approximately RM12.6 billion
(RM12,605,804,947.20) with the total capital investment of approximately RM2.19
billion (RM2,185,512,820.07). The annual gross profit after deducting with the tax is
approximately RM551 million (RM 551,281,816.60). This DME production from OPF
is a great investment for the investors to invest in as it is profitable and simultaneously
have a great market in the future as it’s a form of green technology business.

335
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APPENDIX A

HYDROGEN
SAFETY DATA SHEET
According to Occupational Safety
and Health (Classification,
Revision Date 03.03.2020 Version 1.4
Labelling and Safety Data Sheet
of Hazardous Chemicals)
Regulations 2013 (CLASS 2013)

SECTION 1 : Identification

1.1 Product Identifier

Product form : Substance

Name : Hydrogen, compressed
Formula : H2
Other means of identification : Dihydrogen, parahydrogen, refrigerant gas
R702, water gas

1.2 Recommended use and restrictions on use

Recommended uses and : Industrial use.

restrictions Use as directed.

SECTION 2 : Hazard Identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture

Flam. Gas 1 H220

Compressed gas H280

350
2.2 Label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : DANGER

Hazard statements : Extremely flammable gas
Contains gas under pressure; may explode if
heated
May displace oxygen and cause rapid
suffocation
May form explosive mixtures with air
Burns with invisible flame
Precautionary statements : Do not handle until all safety precautions
have been read and understood
Leaking gas fire: Do not extinguish, unless
leak can be stopped safely
Eliminate all ignition sources if safe to do so
Use a back flow preventive device in the
piping
Use only with equipment rated for cylinder
pressure
Do not open valve until connected to
equipment prepared for use
Close valve after each use and when empty

SECTION 3 : Exposure controls

3.1 Control parameter

USA - OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) -

351
SECTION 4 : Physcial and chemical properties

4.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Physical state : Gas

Molecular mass : 2 g/mol
Colour : Colourless
Odour : Odorless
Melting point : -259.2 °C
Boiling point : -252.9 °C
Freezing point : No data available
Critical temperature : -239.9 °C
Density : 0.089 g/l
Vapor pressure : Not applicable
Flammability : No data available

SECTION 5 : Stability and reactivity

5.1 Reactivity

Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects

described below
Chemical stability : Stable under normal conditions.
Possibility of haradous reaction : Can form explosive mixture with air. May
react violently with oxidants
Condition to avoid : Keep away from heat/sparks/open
flames/hot surfaces. – No
smoking.
Incompatible materials : Oxidizing agents. Lithium. Halogens.

352
Hazardous decomposition products : Under normal conditions of storage and
use, hazardous decomposition
products should not be produced.

353
APPENDIX B

DIMETHYL ETHER
SAFETY DATA SHEET

According to Occupational Safety and

Revision Date 03.03.2020 Version 1.3
Health (Classification, Labelling
and Safety Data Sheet of
Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations
2013 (CLASS 2013)

SECTION 1 : Identification

1.1 Product Identifier

Product form : Substance

Name : Dimethyl Ether
Formula : C2H6O

1.2 Recommended use and restrictions on use

Recommended uses and : Industrial use

restrictions Use as directed.

SECTION 2 : Hazard Identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture

Flam. Gas 1 H220

Press. Gas (Liq.) H280
STOT SE 3 H336

354
2.2 Label elements
Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : DANGER

Hazard statements : Extremely flammable gas
Contains gas under pressure; may explode if
heated
May cause drowsiness or dizziness
May displace oxygen and cause rapid
suffocation.
May form explosive mixtures with air
May cause frostbite
Precautionary statements : Do not handle until all safety precautions
have been read and understood.
Keep away from Heat, Open flames, Sparks,
Hot surfaces. - No smoking
Avoid breathing gas
Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing.
Wash hands thoroughly after handling
Use and store only outdoors or in a well-
ventilated place.

SECTION 3 : Exposure controls

3.1 Control parameter

USA - OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) 1.9mg/m3

SECTION 4 : Physcial and chemical properties

355
4.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Physical state : Gas

Molecular mass : 46 g/mol
Colour : Colourless
Odour : Ethereal
Melting point : -141.5 °C
Boiling point : -24.8 °C
Freezing point : No data available
Critical temperature : 126.9 °C
Density : 668.3 kg/m³
Vapor pressure : 510 kPa
Flammability : No data available

SECTION 5 : Stability and reactivity

5.1 Reactivity

Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects

described in sub-sections below.
Chemical stability : Stable under normal conditions.
Possibility of haradous reaction : May occur. The presence of oxygen or
prolonged standing in or exposure
to direct sunlight may lead
to formation of unstable peroxides, which
may explode spontaneously or
when heated
Condition to avoid : High temperature. direct sunlight.
Incompatible materials : Oxidizing agents. Halogens. Acids.
carbon monoxide. Aluminum

356
 hydride. Lithium aluminium
hydride
Hazardous decomposition products : Thermal decomposition may produce :
Carbon monoxide. Carbon
dioxide.

357
APPENDIX C

METHANOL
SAFETY DATA SHEET
According to Occupational Safety and
Health (Classification, Labelling
Revision Date 03.03.2020 Version 1.2
and Safety Data Sheet of
Hazardous Chemicals)
Regulations 2013 (CLASS 2013)

SECTION 1 : Identification

1.1 Product Identifier

Product form : Substance

Name : Methanol
Formula : CH4O
Other means of identification : UCAR HTF, Heat Treating Fluid
Product group : Core Products

1.2 Recommended use and restrictions on use

Recommended uses and : No additional information available

restrictions

SECTION 2 : Hazard Identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture

Flam. Liq. 2 H225

Acute Tox. 3 (Oral) H301
Acute Tox. 3 (Dermal) H311

358
Acute Tox. 3 (Inhalation) H331
STOT SE 1 H370

2.2 Label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : DANGER

Hazard statements : Highly flammable liquid and vapour toxic if
swallowed, in contact with skin or if
inhaled causes damage to organs
Precautionary statements : Do not handle until all safety precautions
have been read and understood
Keep away from heat, hot surfaces, sparks,
open flames and other ignition
sources.
No smoking Keep container tightly closed
Ground/bond container and receiving
equipment Use explosion-proof
electrical, lighting, ventilating
equipment

SECTION 3 : Exposure controls

3.1 Control parameter

USA - OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) 260mg/m3

SECTION 4 : Physcial and chemical properties

359
4.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Physical state : Liquid

Molecular mass : 32.04 g/mol
Colour : Colourless
Odour : Alcohol-like
Melting point : -98 °C
Boiling point : 64.7 °C
Freezing point : -97.7 °C
Critical temperature : 239.8 °C
Density : 0.791 - 0.792 g/cm³
Vapor pressure : 0.13 bar
Flammability : Highly flammable liquid and vapour

SECTION 5 : Stability and reactivity

5.1 Reactivity

Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects

described in sub-sections below
Chemical stability : Highly flammable liquid and vapour. May
form flammable/explosive vapour-
air mixture
Possibility of haradous reaction : Not established
Condition to avoid : Extremely high or low temperatures. Open
flame.
Incompatible materials : Acids. Alkali metals. Halogens.
Halogenated compounds.
Oxidizing agents. Lead.
Magnesium.

360
Hazardous decomposition products : Thermal decomposition may produce :
Hydrogen

361
APPENDIX D

CARBON MONOXIDE
SAFETY DATA SHEET
According to Occupational Safety and
Health (Classification, Labelling
Revision Date 03.03.2020 Version 1.5
and Safety Data Sheet of
Hazardous Chemicals)
Regulations 2013 (CLASS 2013)

SECTION 1 : Identification

1.1 Product Identifier

Product form : Substance

Name : Carbon monoxide
Formula : CO
Other means of identification : Carbon monoxide, compressed
Compressed carbon monoxide
Carbon oxide (CO)
Product group : Core Products

1.2 Recommended use and restrictions on use

Recommended uses and : Industrial use.

restrictions Use as directed.

SECTION 2 : Hazard Identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture

Flam. Gas 1 H220

362
Compressed gas H280
Acute Tox. 3 (Inhalation:gas) H331
Repr. 1A H360
STOT RE 1 H372

2.2 Label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : DANGER

Hazard statements : Extremely flammable gas contains gas under
pressure; may explode if heated toxic
if inhaled
May damage fertility or the unborn child
causes damage to organs (central
nervous system) through prolonged
or repeated exposure (inhalation)
may form explosive mixtures with air
Precautionary statements : Do not handle until all safety precautions
have been read and understoods
Use and store only outdoors or in a well-
ventilated area
Wear protective gloves, protective clothing,
eye protection, respiratory
protection, and/or face protection

SECTION 3 : Exposure controls

3.1 Control parameter

USA - OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) 55mg/m3

363
SECTION 4 : Physcial and chemical properties

4.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Physical state : Gas

Molecular mass : 28 g/mol
Colour : Colourless
Odour : Odorless
Melting point : -205.1 °C
Boiling point : -191.5 °C
Freezing point : No data available
Critical temperature : -139.8 °C
Density : 1.2501 kg/m³
Vapor pressure : Not applicable
Flammability : 12.5 - 74 vol %

SECTION 5 : Stability and reactivity

5.1 Reactivity

Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects

described in sub-sections below.
Chemical stability : Stable under normal conditions.
Possibility of haradous reaction : May occur. Can form explosive mixture
with air. Oxidizing agents
Condition to avoid : Keep away from heat/sparks/open
flames/hot surfaces. – No smoking
Incompatible materials : Oxidizing agents, Oxygen, Flammables,
Metal oxides, halogenated
fluorides, metals in the presence of
moisture and/or sulfur compounds.

364
Hazardous decomposition products : Carbon monoxide will decompose above
752°F (400°C) to form carbon
dioxide and carbon

365
APPENDIX E

CARBON DIOXIDE
SAFETY DATA SHEET
According to Occupational Safety and
Health (Classification, Labelling
Revision Date 03.03.2020 Version 1.1
and Safety Data Sheet of
Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations
2013 (CLASS 2013)

SECTION 1 : Identification

1.1 Product Identifier

Product form : Substance

Name : Carbon dioxide
Formula : CO2
Other means of identification : Carbon anhydride, Carbonic acid gas,
Carbon Dioxide
Product group : Core products

1.2 Recommended use and restrictions on use

Recommended uses and : Industrial use

restrictions Medical applications
Semiconductor
Use as directed

SECTION 2 : Hazard Identification

2.1 Classification of the substance or mixture

366
Simple asphyxiant H380
Compressed gas H280

2.2 Label elements

Hazard pictograms :

Signal word : WARNING

Hazard statements : Contains refrigerated gas; may cause
cryogenic burns or injury
May displace oxygen and cause rapid
suffocation
May cause frostbite
May increase respiration and heart rate

Precautionary statements : Do not handle until all safety precautions

have been read and understood
Use and store only outdoors or in a well-
ventilated area
Wear cold insulating gloves and either face
shield or eye protection
Use a back flow preventive device in the
piping
Close valve after each use and when empty

SECTION 3 : Exposure controls

3.1 Control parameter

USA - OSHA OSHA PEL (TWA) 9000mg/m3

SECTION 4 : Physcial and chemical properties

367
4.1 Information on basic physical and chemical properties

Physical state : Gas

Molecular mass : 44 g/mol
Colour : Colourless
Odour : No odour
Melting point : -78.5 °C
Boiling point : -78.4 °C
Freezing point : No data available
Critical temperature : 31 °C
Density : 762 kg/m³
Vapor pressure : 5730 kPa
Flammability : Non flammable

SECTION 5 : Stability and reactivity

5.1 Reactivity

Reactivity : No reactivity hazard other than the effects

described in sub-sections below
Chemical stability : Stable under normal conditions.
Possibility of haradous reaction : None
Condition to avoid : None
Incompatible materials : Alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals,
Acetylide forming metals,
Chromium, Titanium > 1022°F
(550°C), Uranium (U) > 1382°F (750°C),
Magnesium > 1427°F (775°C).
Hazardous decomposition products : Electrical discharges and high
temperatures decompose carbon
dioxide into carbon monoxide

368
 and oxygen. The welding process may
generate
hazardous fumes and gases.

369
APPENDIX F

Intra-unit spacing recommendations for oil and chemical plant

(Global Asset Protection Services LLC., 2015)

370
APPENDIX F (CONTINUED)

Intra-unit spacing recommendations for oil and chemical plant

(Global Asset Protection Services LLC., 2015)

371
 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
DIMETHYL ETHER (DME) PRODUCTION FROM OIL PALM FROND (OPF)

G-101 CPR-01 HE-01 R-101 F-101 R-102 V-01 D-101 R-103 T-101
Condition Indicator
GASIFIER COMPRESSOR HEAT WATER GAS FLASH METHANOL VALVE DISTILLATION DME FIXED STORAGE C Temperature
EXCHANGER SHIFT COLUMN FIXED BED COLUMN BED TANK bar pressure
REACTOR REACTOR REACTOR

OIL PALM FROND

(PROCESSED) STEAM UNREACTED
S1 SYNGAS
700 S11 CPR-03
1 S8 S13
G-101 200 80 S19
10 8.5 100
S4 220 30
STEAM 50
S2
S6 S7 S9 S10 F-101
S5 S17
S14 S15 S16 S18
CPR-01 CPR-02 V-01 F-102
HE-01 HE-02 CPR-04 HE-03 HE-04
S3 R-101 S12 R-102
WATER S20
ASH

V-02

S21
70
12
100
23 180 150 S28 S32 S34
S22 S25 10 8.5 DME
S24 S30 S31 D-103
V-03 HE-08
D-101 HE-05
S26 S27 CPR-05 HE-07
D-102
T-101
HE-06
R-103

S23 WATER
V-04
HE-09
METHANOL
S29 WATER
T-102

Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 S28 S29 S30 S31 S32 S33 S34 S35 S36
Phase Solid Vapor Solid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Liquid Mixed Liquid
Tempeature °C 700.00 700.00 700.00 700.00 981.59 1327.89 200.00 200.00 200.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 169.19 277.29 220.00 220.00 220.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 164.05 212.44 164.05 180.00 180.00 150.00 103.35 170.50 130.81 70.00 52.82 153.60 30.00 76.28 30.00
Pressure bar 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.16 10.00 10.00 10.00 8.50 8.50 8.50 8.50 20.61 50.00 50.00 48.50 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 23.00 18.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 8.50 9.00 7.00 8.00 12.00 12.00 11.00 11.50 11.00 1.00 1.00
Enthalpy Flow kJ/hr - - - -6.28E+08 -5.65E+08 -4.85E+08 -7.32E+08 -3.27E+08 -1.07E+09 -1.13E+09 -9.34E+08 -1.96E+08 -9.15E+08 -8.91E+08 -9.04E+08 -1.00E+09 -1.00E+09 -1.07E+09 -7.27E+08 -3.41E+08 -3.41E+08 -2.41E+08 -5.94E+07 -2.41E+08 -2.40E+08 -2.48E+08 -2.52E+08 -1.33E+08 -1.37E+08 -1.32E+08 -1.41E+08 -1.05E+08 -3.38E+07 -1.11E+08 -3.38E+07 -3.56E+07
Mole Flow kmol/hr 7684.13 3330.51 5916.97 183.00 5916.97 5916.97 5916.97 1387.71 7304.68 7304.68 6269.02 1035.66 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 3012.55 1160.89 1160.89 1038.95 121.95 1038.95 1038.95 1038.95 1038.95 572.53 466.42 572.53 572.53 471.28 101.24 471.28 101.24 101.24
Mass Flow kg/hr 60000.00 60000.00 2195.99 117804.01 117804.01 117804.01 117804.01 25000.00 142804.12 142804.12 124146.06 18658.06 124146.06 124146.06 124146.06 124144.77 124144.77 124144.77 88672.36 35472.41 35472.41 33275.50 2196.90 33275.50 33275.50 33277.99 33277.99 24875.27 8402.72 24875.27 24875.27 21697.50 3177.77 21697.50 3177.77 3177.77
Frond kg/hr 60000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 5532.80 5532.80 5532.80 5532.80 0.00 6221.32 6221.32 6221.32 0.00 6221.32 6221.32 6221.32 1769.36 1769.36 1769.36 1769.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 47840.86 47840.86 47840.86 47840.86 0.00 38272.69 38272.69 38272.69 0.00 38272.69 38272.69 38272.69 12094.17 12094.17 12094.17 12094.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 64430.35 64430.35 64430.35 64430.35 0.00 79464.10 79464.10 79463.59 0.51 79463.59 79463.59 79463.59 74482.77 74482.77 74482.77 74464.84 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 17.93 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 0.00 0.00
CH3OH kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 33571.13 33571.13 33571.13 335.71 33235.42 33235.42 33235.39 0.03 33235.39 33235.39 3124.13 3124.13 3124.12 0.00 3124.12 3124.12 31.24 3092.88 31.24 3092.88 3092.88
CH3OCH3 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 21648.34 21648.34 21648.34 0.00 21648.34 21648.34 21648.32 0.02 21648.32 0.02 0.02
H2O kg/hr 0.00 60000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25000.00 18846.01 18846.01 188.46 18657.55 188.46 188.46 188.46 2227.34 2227.34 2227.34 8.28 2219.06 2219.06 22.19 2196.87 22.19 22.19 8487.59 8487.59 84.88 8402.71 84.88 84.88 0.01 84.87 0.01 84.87 84.87
ASH kg/hr 0.00 0.00 2195.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

PFD-01 DATE:
22 NOVEMBER 2019
CLIENT:

YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL

CONSULTANCY
 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
DIMETHYL ETHER (DME) PRODUCTION FROM OIL PALM FROND (OPF)
Condition Indicator
G-101 CPR-01 HE-01 R-101 F-101 R-102 V-01 D-101 R-103 T-101 C Temperature
GASIFIER COMPRESSOR HEAT WATER GAS FLASH METHANOL VALVE DISTILLATION DME FIXED STORAGE bar pressure
EXCHANGER SHIFT COLUMN FIXED BED COLUMN BED TANK
REACTOR REACTOR REACTOR

OIL PALM FROND

(PROCESSED) STEAM UNREACTED
S1 CPR-03 SYNGAS
700 S8
S11
1
G-101 200 80 S19
10 8.5 S13 100
S4 220 30
STEAM HE-01 HE-02 50
S2
S7 S9 S10 F-101
S5 S37 S17
S15 S16 S18
CPR-01 CPR-02 S6 HE-03 S14 V-01 F-102
CPR-04 HE-04 HE-05
S3 R-101 S12 R-102
WATER S20
ASH

V-02

S21
70
12 S32
100 S22
23 180 150 S34
10 S28 DME
S24 8.5 S31
S25 S30 D-103
V-03 HE-08
D-101
S26 S27 HE-07
D-102
T-101
HE-06 CPR-05
R-103
S33
S23 WATER
V-04
HE-09
METHANOL
S29 WATER
T-102

Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S37 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 S28 S29 S30 S31 S32 S33 S34 S35 S36
Phase Solid Vapor Solid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Liquid Vapor Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Vapor Mixed Vapor Liquid Liquid Mixed Liquid
Tempeature °C 700.00 700.00 700.00 700.00 981.59 1327.89 1326.00 200.00 200.00 200.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 169.19 277.29 220.00 220.00 220.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 164.05 212.44 164.05 180.00 180.00 150.00 103.35 170.50 130.81 70.00 52.82 153.60 30.00 76.28 30.00
Pressure bar 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.16 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 8.50 8.50 8.50 8.50 20.61 50.00 50.00 48.50 30.00 30.00 30.00 30.00 23.00 18.00 20.00 10.00 10.00 8.50 9.00 7.00 8.00 12.00 12.00 11.00 11.50 11.00 1.00 1.00
Enthalpy Flow kJ/hr - - - -6.28E+08 -5.65E+08 -4.85E+08 -4.85E+08 -7.32E+08 -3.27E+08 -1.07E+09 -1.13E+09 -9.34E+08 -1.96E+08 -9.15E+08 -8.91E+08 -9.04E+08 -1.00E+09 -1.00E+09 -1.07E+09 -7.27E+08 -3.41E+08 -3.41E+08 -2.41E+08 -5.94E+07 -2.41E+08 -2.40E+08 -2.48E+08 -2.52E+08 -1.33E+08 -1.37E+08 -1.32E+08 -1.41E+08 -1.05E+08 -3.38E+07 -1.11E+08 -3.38E+07 -3.56E+07
Mole Flow kmol/hr 7684.13 3330.51 5916.97 183.00 5916.97 5916.97 5916.97 5916.97 1387.71 7304.68 7304.68 6269.02 1035.66 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 6269.02 3012.55 1160.89 1160.89 1038.95 121.95 1038.95 1038.95 1038.95 1038.95 572.53 466.42 572.53 572.53 471.28 101.24 471.28 101.24 101.24
Mass Flow kg/hr 60000.00 60000.00 2195.99 117804.01 117804.01 117804.01 117804.01 117804.01 25000.00 142804.12 142804.12 124146.06 18658.06 124146.06 124146.06 124146.06 124144.77 124144.77 124144.77 88672.36 35472.41 35472.41 33275.50 2196.90 33275.50 33275.50 33277.99 33277.99 24875.27 8402.72 24875.27 24875.27 21697.50 3177.77 21697.50 3177.77 3177.77
Frond kg/hr 60000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 5532.80 5532.80 5532.80 5532.80 5532.80 0.00 6221.32 6221.32 6221.32 0.00 6221.32 6221.32 6221.32 1769.36 1769.36 1769.36 1769.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 47840.86 47840.86 47840.86 47840.86 47840.86 0.00 38272.69 38272.69 38272.69 0.00 38272.69 38272.69 38272.69 12094.17 12094.17 12094.17 12094.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 64430.35 64430.35 64430.35 64430.35 64430.35 0.00 79464.10 79464.10 79463.59 0.51 79463.59 79463.59 79463.59 74482.77 74482.77 74482.77 74464.84 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 17.93 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 17.93 17.93 0.00 17.93 0.00 0.00
CH3OH kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 33571.13 33571.13 33571.13 335.71 33235.42 33235.42 33235.39 0.03 33235.39 33235.39 3124.13 3124.13 3124.12 0.00 3124.12 3124.12 31.24 3092.88 31.24 3092.88 3092.88
CH3OCH3 kg/hr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 21648.34 21648.34 21648.34 0.00 21648.34 21648.34 21648.32 0.02 21648.32 0.02 0.02
H2O kg/hr 0.00 60000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 25000.00 18846.01 18846.01 188.46 18657.55 188.46 188.46 188.46 2227.34 2227.34 2227.34 8.28 2219.06 2219.06 22.19 2196.87 22.19 22.19 8487.59 8487.59 84.88 8402.71 84.88 84.88 0.01 84.87 0.01 84.87 84.87
ASH kg/hr 0.00 0.00 2195.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

PFD-01 DATE:
22 NOVEMBER 2019
CLIENT:

YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL

CONSULTANCY
 G-101 BR-01 NRV-01 CPR-01 CPR-02 HE-01 HE-02 R-101 NRV-02 NRV-03
Condition Indicator
C Temperature
GASIFIER BURNER -01 NON- COMPRESSOR- COMPRESSOR- HEAT HEAT WATER GAS NON- NON- bar pressure
REVERSIBLE 01 02 EXCHANGER- EXCHANGER- SHIFT REVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE
VALVE-01 01 02 REACTOR VALVE-02 VALVE-03

STEAM S8
CV-107
FIC
107

FIC FT
105 105

OIL PALM FROND FY

÷ FT
S1 107 107
(PROCESSED)
CV-105
200
10 PT
109
700 PAH
1 NRV-01 S4
FT CV-118 FT
101 PAL
107 PIC

FIC
÷
FY
109

101 101
PT PIC
M
118 118
FT SC CPR-01 S7 P&ID-002
101 103
HE-02
PIC
S5
PT
103 103
STEAM S2 S37 CV-108
CV-101 CV-102 TIC TT
FUEL M
106 106 cw
CV-106
BR-01 HE-01
G-101 SC CPR-02 TIC TT
104 108 108
S6 CW R-101
TIC TT
102 102

PIC PT
104 104 S9
NRV-02

S24

S25

S3 ASH

P&ID-004

P&ID-003

ABREVIATION P&ID-001 DATE:

4 MARCH 2020
FT FLOW TRANSMITTER PIC PRESSURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER
FY RATIO CONTROLLER SC SPEED CONTROLLER CLIENT:
FIC FLOW INDICATOR CONTROLLER PAH PRESSURE ALARM HIGH
TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER PAL PRESSURE ALARM LOW YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL
TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER TAH TEMPERATURE ALARM HIGH CONSULTANCY
PT PRESSURE TRANSMITTER TAL TEMPERATURE ALARM LOW
CW COOLING WATER
 HE-03 F-101 DV-01 CPR-03 CPR-04 HE-04 R-102 NRV-03 V-01
HEAT FLASH COLUMN - DRAIN VALVLE - COMPRESSOR- COMPRESSOR-04 HEAT METHANOL NON- THROTTLING C Temperature
bar pressure
EXCHANGER - 01 01 03 EXCHANGER- FIXED BED REVERSIBLE VALVE-01
03 04 REACTOR VALVE-03

CV-111

S11
NRV-03

PT PIC 220
111 111
M 50

PAH PAL SC CPR-03 S13

112

PIC PT
80 112
112
8.5 S15

M
P&ID-001 S9 S10
SC CPR-04 S17 P&ID-003
HE-03 114
TT V-01
HE-04
116
TIC TT
PIC PT 115 115 TIC
114 114
116
LT
TIC TT
CV-110 113
110 110
S16
F-101 LIC CW
113
CW CV-116
S12 CW PT PIC CV-117
117 117
R-102

PAH PAL
NRV-04

NRV-05

WATER
CV-113

ABREVIATION
FT FLOW TRANSMITTER SC SPEED CONTROLLER
FIC FLOW INDICATOR CONTROLLER PAH PRESSURE ALARM HIGH
P&ID-002 DATE:
TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER PAL PRESSURE ALARM LOW 4 MARCH 2019
TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR TAH TEMPERATURE ALARM HIGH CLIENT:
CONTROLLER
PT PRESSURE TRANSMITTER TAL TEMPERATURE ALARM LOW
CW COOLING WATER LAH LEVEL ALARM HIGH YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL
PIC PRESSURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER LAL LEVEL ALARM LOW CONSULTANCY
 HE-05 F-102 NRV-06 NRV-07 DV-02 V-02 D-101 NRV-08 DV-03 V-03 R-103 NRV-10
HEAT FLASH NON- NON- DRAIN THROTTLING DISTILLATION NON- DRAIN THROTTLING DME NON-
EXCHANGER COLUMN -02 REVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE VALVE-02 VALVE-02 COLUMN-01 REVERSIBLE VALVE-03 VALVE-03 REACTOR REVERSIBLE C Temperature
-05 VALBE-06 VALBE-07 VALVE-08 VALBE-10 bar pressure

UNREACTED
SYNGAS

CV-120

S19
NRV-06
CW
PT PIC
120 120

PAH PAL
TIC
CV-124
124

100 NRV-08
30
TT S25
124
P&ID-002 S17 S18
HE-05 180
PAH
PIC 10
122
PAL PAH
PAL
100
23 LT CV-122
PT 125
LT PT PIC
TT 122
CV-119
TIC 121 S22 128 128
119 119 LIC
CV-125
F-102 LIC 125
NRV-07 121
CW
P&ID-004
S20
TT CV-128
S21 127
D-101
CV-121 V-02 S26
TIC
127

TT CW
LT 126
123
CV-127

TIC NRV-10
126 R-103

LIC
123 TO

CV-123

S23 WATER
NRV-09

P&ID-001 S24
V-03

P&ID-001

ABREVIATION
P&ID-003 DATE:
TO THERMAL OIL SC SPEED CONTROLLER 4 MARCH 2019
TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER PAH PRESSURE ALARM HIGH
TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR PAL PRESSURE ALARM LOW CLIENT:
CONTROLLER
PT PRESSURE TRANSMITTER TAH TEMPERATURE ALARM HIGH YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL
CW COOLING WATER TAL TEMPERATURE ALARM LOW CONSULTANCY
PIC PRESSURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER LAH LEVEL ALARM HIGH
LAL LEVEL ALARM LOW
 HE-06 D-102 NRV-11 NRV-12 DV-04 CPR-05 HE-07 D-103 NRV-13 NRV-14 DV-05
HEAT DISTILLATION NON- NON- DRAIN COMPRESSOR- HEAT DISTILLATION NON- NON- DRAIN
EXCHANGER - COLUMN-02 REVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE VALVE-04 05 EXCHANGER-07 COLUMN-03 REVERSIBLE REVERSIBLE VALVE-05 C Temperature
06 VALBE-11 VALBE-12 VALVE-13 VALVE-14 bar pressure

CW

TIC
CV-132
132

NRV-11
CW
TT
132

TIC
CV-139
139
PIC
PAH
130
S28 NRV-13
PAL
150
8.5 LT CV-130
PT 133 TT
130 139

CV-133
LIC
133
M
CPR-05 PIC CV-137
PAH
SC 137
135 S32 P&ID-005
PAL
70
P&ID-003 S27 12 LT
PIC PT 140
HE-06 D-102 PT
137
135 135
LIC
CV140
S30 140

TIC TT TT
CV-129 134
129 129 LT
131
S31
TIC HE-07 D-103
CW 134

LIC
131 TO TIC TT TT
CV-136 141
136 136 LT
138

TIC
141
NRV-12 CW
LIC
138 TO

NRV-14
CV-138

CV-131 S33 P&ID-005

S29 WATER

ABREVIATION P&ID-004 DATE:

TO THERMAL OIL SC SPEED CONTROLLER 4 MARCH 2019
TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER PAH PRESSURE ALARM HIGH
TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER PAL PRESSURE ALARM LOW
CLIENT:
PT PRESSURE TRANSMITTER TAH TEMPERATURE ALARM HIGH
CW COOLING WATER TAL TEMPERATURE ALARM LOW YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL
PIC PRESSURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER LAH LEVEL ALARM HIGH CONSULTANCY
LT LEVEL TRANSMITTER LAL LEVEL ALARM LOW
LIC LEVEL INDICATOR CONTROLLER
 V-04 HE-08 HE-09 T-101 T-102
C Temperature
THROTTLING HEAT HEAT DME TANK METHANOL bar pressure
VALVE-04 EXCHANGER - EXCHANGER - TANK
08 09

P&ID-004 S32 S34

HE-08
TIC TT
142 142

DME

CW DME

T-101

P&ID-004 S33
V-04 HE-09

TIC TT
144 144

METHANOL
CW
METHANOL

T-102

ABREVIATION P&ID-005 DATE:

CW COOLING WATER 4 MARCH 2019
TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER
TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR CLIENT:
CONTROLLER
YASHINOVATION MJIIT CHEMICAL
CONSULTANCY