12 COMPONENTS OF ABRIDGE J Broadly a bridge can be divided into (iy) Substructure ajor parts: (1) Superstructure: The superstructure of a bridge ts analogous to a single story building roof and substructure to that of walls, columns and foundations supporting it Superstructure consists of structural members carrying a communt cation route. Thus, handratis, guard stones and flooring supported by any structural system such as beams, girders, arches and cables above the le cl of bearings constitutes the superstructure Substructure is a supporting system for superstructure [t consists of the following (1) Abutments, (1) Piers and Abutment piers, (in) Wing walls, and (iv) Foundations for the piers and abutments. The other main parts of bridge structure are approaches, bearings and river traning works, like aprons, revetment for slopes at abutments, etc Super Structure Elevation Linear Waterway ———-y -— Bridge Length —, — Aeon Avproach | Wing Abutment 4 Wall Plan Fig. 1.2.1 Components of a bridge4.3 DEFINITIONS The following engineeril 1. 10. M, - Foot Bridge. The foot bridge is a bridge exclusively used . Culver 1 erms used in {efinitions of certain important term de ire given below cture facilitating ! ridge. A structure " ue en shy ffic or other moving loads over a depressio we stream, channel, road or railway. The communication er, stream, channel, a communication route for carryi ae — be a railway track, a tramway, @ roadway, a footpath, veyele track or a combination of them phe bres wn High Level Bridge or Non-submersible Bridge he ae which does not allow the high flood waters to pass over them. All the flood water is allowed to pass through its vents. In other words it carries the roadway above the highest flood level of the channel Submersible Bridge. A submersible bridge is a structure which allows flood water to pass over bridge submerging the communi-cation route. Its formation level should be so fixed as not to Cause interruption to traffic during floods for more than three days at a time nor for more than six times in a year. Causeway. Itis a pucca submersible bridge which allows floods to pass over it. It is provided on less important routes in order to reduce the construction cost of cross drainage structures. It may have vents for low waterflow for carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals. When a small stream crosses a road with linear waterway less than about 6 metres, the cross drainage structure so provided is called culvert. Deck Bridges. These are the bridges whose floorings al top of the superstructures. Through Bridges. These are the bridges whose floorings are supported or suspended at the bottom of the superstructures. Semi-Through Bridges. These are the bridges whose floorings are Supported at some intermediate level of the superstructure Simple Bridges, They inciude all beam, girder or truss bridg Supported at both ends only. It is suitable for span Cantilever Bridges, Bridges which are more or less fixed at one end and free at the other. It cz n be used for spans varying from 8 metres to 20 metres. , vm are supported s S up to 8 metres._ Materials used for Construction. Under this category, bridges may be classified as timber bridges, masonry bridges, steel bridges, reinforced cement concrete bridges, pre-stressed bridges and composite bridges. w Alignment. Under this the bridge can be classified as straight or a skew bridge. 3. Location of Bridge Floor. Under this category, bridge can be classified as deck, semi-through or through bridges Purpose. Under this the bridge can be classified as an aqueduct, viaduct, highway bridge, railway bridge and foot bridge, ete. Nature of Superstructure Action. Under this the bridges may be classified as portal frame bridges, truss bridges, balanced cantilever bridges and suspension bridges. a . Position of High Flood Level. Under this the bridges may be classified as submersible and non-submersible bridges. . Life. Under this the bridges may be classified as permanent and temporary bridges. These permanent and temporary types of bridges are further classified as given in Chart I] od Loadings. Road bridges and culverts have been classified by Indian Roads Congress into Class AA, Class A and Class B bridges according to the loadings they are designed to carry. . Fixed or Movable. For navigable channels where permanent and sufficient clear waterway cannot be provided, the following movable bridges are used. (a) Swinging bridges, (b) Bascule bridges, and (c) Lift bridges . Span Length. Under this category the bridges can be classified as culverts (span less than 8 m), minor bridges (span between 8 to 30 m), major bridges (span above 30 m) and long span bridges (span above 120 m). . Degree of Redundancy. Under this the bridges can be classified as determinate bridges and indeterminate bridges. 12. Type of Connection. Under this category the steel bridges can be classified as pinned connected, riveted or welded bridges. 1.5 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL BRIDGE ae rae eee An ideal bridge meets the following requirements to fulfil the three criteria of efficiency, effectiveness and equity (1) Iserves the intended function with utmost safety and convenience.sound Itis jesthetically sound a) a iii) It is economical. , nts of traffic. ed in subsequent chapters uniformity of practice esthetics and economy tor I The requiremen a ges shall be discuss bri ner and for ensur For the guidance of the de: ¥ 2 ed follc comprehensive and Indian Roads Congress has evolved followir I exhaustive codes. 1, IRC “standard specifications and code of practice for road bnd (fourth revision), 1998 section ]-General features of des , >. IRC “standard specifications and code of practice for road bri section I]-Load and stresses, IRC : 6-1997 3, IRC “standard and specifications and code of practice for road bridges” section I1]-Cement concrete (plain and reinforced) IRC : 21-1997 4. IRC “s bridges” section IV-Bricks, stone and block masonry” IRC 40-1995 5. IRC “standard and specifications and code of practice for road bridges” section V-Steel road bridges IRC : 24-1984 6. IRC “standard and specifications and code of practice for road bridges” section VI-Composite construction for road culverts and medium span bridges IRC : 22-1991 tice for road andard and specifications and code of pra A comprehensive draft code for foundations and substructure (section VII) has been finalised by Bridge Commitiee of IRC in 1995 A few more codes are on the preparation or finalisation of drafts for defining the scopes of various sections, bearings in1982, river training works (1997) centering for bridges, ete. A code for prestressed concrete toad bridges based on the limit state approach is also under finalisation. These codes incorporate the latest trends in bridge design practice. In order to plan and coordinate the research work in the country, a separate cell headed by a chief engineer has been created in the roads wing for Standards and research co-ordination in bridges. : Highway Research Board of IRC has set inform: : up a committee for collecting ation on bridges and disseminating knowledge through the Highest eegcrgare reports on selected bridge topics of importance. thes a os Board has also identified areas of Tesearch on which methods, Thece lene of thinking and no uniformity in design scour depths ——e er the subjects like rational methods for evaluating . nin bridge decks, behaviour of concrete in s ‘awaterand marine atmosphere, effects of live load surcharge on abutments structural function of bottom plug in wells, different types of expansion joints and wearing coats, river training works, stability of well founded on hard strata, transverse moments in box type bridge decks. use of flyash in concrete. and so on. A monitoring committee has also been set up to ensure that the research is proceeding on the right lines and as per targets in advance 1.6_IDENTIFICATION OF BRIDGES _ Separate numbers are assigned to all culverts and bridges on a highway for their easy idenuf The specifications and standards committee of the Indian Roads Congress tion by the maintenance and inspection personnel has laid down the following uniform system of numbering the cross drainage structures Methods of Numbering. The culverts and bridges on @ road should be numbered in serial order, in each kilometre separately The number should be in the form of a fraction, the numerator denoting the number of kilometre in which the struciure ts situated and the denominator the kilometrewise serial number of the structure. For instance. the drainage structure in Sth kilometre (1e., between Kilometre st and 5) should be designed as 5/3, and the 6th structure in 12 as 12/6. In case of any new culverts or bridges which are built subsequently say between Sth and 6th structure kilometre 250, the same should be 250 250 Kilometre designated as ete } The number of the structure should be inscribed near the top of the left hand side parapet wall as seen by the traffic in the end elevation when approaching the structure from each direction in accordance with the recommended practice for numbering bridges and culverts IRC 7-197]. 'uepiiy Fung Mo; pasurpy- sur} wonewiamo adky ody gdh day, | Soe ' I ne p | ae IN amd iw tei ssmuy, \ kusq YT atnoeyaxy— aqnaseg = Suing ad, ay uorsuadsng odky, aq \aplig | | | i lineal scare mnie each el our sisiens| im mesviogerea Ntsubis jarerea adKy, | J a | yary — asodoy = aaainuey —ajquaow uorsuadsng apy | aapuip youy youy yory paqqny add dung Mog = potup-¢ pasuy-c — jeapuedg uadg = jaumeg poxty ' Quis wry dig adky x0g | | | | | ouresy weg Jowouos youg | wasjuey euog = oy pu qeiS. ges. YOIV ortnaas ai aiesou0D 1 0 weld possansaig spaang, [aig pur woay sospug ‘JOU pure Aruoseyy 2u01$ L | | | squip uo p84 s9|lq UO : WIT woowog =e SRP = OEP =—sSoBPU =—-BuAJY— ss OT \ | | | | | | | \ sofpug Areiodway, U T sopug yo uonwoysst}9 LV HO soSpug jusueuniag _2.1 SELECTION OF BRIDGE SITE ed ground reconnaissance, collection of adequate hydraulic/ground cata and subsoil investigation form an essential part of engineering survey ciding the best possible location and type of bridge. The site for bridge ts usually governed by engineering, economic, social and aesthetic considerations. In case of old alignments, the bridge site may be governed Sy existing roadway or railway alignments. On the other hand, in case ‘i new alignments, the bridge site is so chosen as to give the maximum 1 commercial and social benefits keeping in view the three criteria of ency, effectiveness and equity. The planning process containing various stages of goal formulation, studies and surveys, analysis of ‘la. Torecasting of future requirements, design alternatives, choice of “aleny and implementation including management should be strengthened with in built review, monitoring and evaluation at each and every sti ge “ith necessary feedbacks into the system for improved performance ‘ending towards the optimal afler a number of successive reviews. In select a least objectionable bridge site one must know the Characteristics of an ideal site order t following2.1.1 Ideal Bridge Site Characteristics inyreldir ino able material for foundation should 1. Suitable, unyielding and non-crod Foun be available at a short depth for the abutments and piers of a bridge The hearing strata should be free from the tendency to slip or slide sink under loads and away from fault zone In other words, it should be geologically suitable: e side should be well defined and as narrow >. The stream at the bridg! as possible ore 3. There should be a straight reach of stream at brid. permanent, straight and high banks. he bridge site should be in site. 4 The site should have firm, 5. The flow of water in the stream at t Steady regime condition. It should be free from whirls and cross- currents. ; 6. There should be no confluence of large tributaries in the vicinity of bridge site It should be reasible to have straight approach roads and square alignment, i.e., right-angled crossing. 8. There should be no need for costly river training works in the vicinity of bridge site. 9. There should be minimum obstruction of natural waterway so as to have minimum afflux. 10. In order to achieve economy there should be easy availability of Jabour, construction material and transport facility in the vicinity of bridge site. . 7 Il. In order to have minimum foundation cost, the bridge site should be such that no excessive work is to be carried inside the water. 12. At the bridge site it should be possible to provide secure and economical approaches. 13. In the case of curved alignments the bridge should not be on the curve, but preferably on the tangent since otherwise there is a greater likelihood of “accidents as well as an added centrifugal force w hich increases the load effect on the structure and will require modification of design. 14. There should be reasonable proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be served, i.¢., avoidance of long detours The bridge site should be such that adequate vertical height and waterway is emray ts available underneath the bridge for navigational Ue 16. There should be no : 15 / adverse environmental input The ideal bridy SHE never exists in re, Ther Jer ne n reality. srefore, in orde select a least obje y. There CHonable site merits and demerits of different alternaare compared. ‘The best compromise is a matter of judgement sites a ‘a uy me which depends upon the experience of engineer. In actual practice the determination of the best possible site for any . » is truly an economic problem. The various factors which hould be carefully examined before settling finally upon the layout of sho ‘ a bridge are as follows: — proposed bridg (i). Grade on alignment, (i) Geographical conditions, (iii) Government requirements, (iv) Commercial influences, (v) Adjacent property consideration, (vi) General features of the bridge si.ucture. (vii) Future trends for enlargements, (vill) Time consideration, (ix) Stream characteristics, (x) Foundation consideration, (xi) Navigational considerations, (xii) Construction facilities available, (xiii) Erection considerations, (xiv) Aesthetics, (xv) Maintenance and repairs, and (xvi) Environmental impact. In a nutshell, the location of a bridge at any particular point depends upon (i) local demand, (ii) administrati Of a road project. The purely local © present and anticipated projected lines of travel for the future growth of traffic. Master plans for each town showing, specific areas for different the planner in forecasting and thereby fixi The locai demands can also arise out different groups of people belonging to by towns lying along the same river, In order to resolve conflicting claims regarding construction of bridges from different sources and to locate bridges to serve the best interests of the economy, it is necessary to justify each Proposal on sound economic and technical grounds. In other words, all the economic, social and ‘echnical gains of each bridge project should be evaluated and quantified in monetary terms. The result of such a study will settle claims for ng the location of bridges. of the conflicting claims by different districts o: states or2.2 BRIDGE ALIGNMENT Depending upon the angle which the bridge makes with the axis of the river, the alignment can be of two types: (a) Square Alignment. In this the bridge is at right angle to the axis of the river. . (b) Skew Alignment. In this the bridge is at some angle to the axis of river which is not a right angle, As far as possible, it is always desirable to provide the square alignment. The skew alignment suffers from the following disadvantages: (i) A great skill is required for the construction of skew bridges Maintenance of such type of bridges is also difficult. (ii) The water-pressure on piers in case of skew alignment is also excessive because of non-uniform flow of water underneath the bridge superstructure. (iii) The foundation of a skew bridge is more susceptible to scour action. Atcertain locations to avoid costly and unsafe approaches it becomes essential to provide skew alignment. In such locations, the following points are kept in mind. (i) There should be smooth entry and exit of water underneath the skew bridge. (ii) The skew alignment should not be curved. It is difficult to construct and maintain the curved bridge. The curved bridge has to resist an additional force due to centrifugal action. It is always desirable to arrange piers parallel to the axis of river. 24 COLLECTION OF BRIDGE DESIGN DATA, For complete and proper appreciation of the bridge project the engineer in charge of the investigation should carry out studies regarding its financial, economic, social and physical feasibility. The detailed informationto be collected may cover loading to be used for design based on the present and anticipated future traffic, hydraulic data based on stream characteristics, geological data, subsoil data, climatic data, alternative sites, aesthetics, cost, etc. The following drawings containing information as indicated should be prepared 1. Index Map. The index map to a scale of 1/50,000 should be procured from Survey of India. This map should show the proposed location of the bridge, the alternative sites investigated and rejected, the existing communications, the general topography and the important towns, etc, in the vicinity. . Contour Survey Plan. The contour survey plan showing the topographical or other features that might influence the location and design of the bridge and its approaches, should be plotted. The survey plan should extend to the distance shown below upstream and downstream of any of the proposed site and to a sufficient distance on either side. nN (a) 100 metres for catchment areas less than 3 sq km (Scale not less than 1/1000). (b) 300 metres for catchment areas of 15 sq km (Scale not less than 1/1000). (c) 1.5 km for catchment areas of more than 15 sq km (Scale not Jess than 1/5000). 3. Site Plan. This should show the details of the site selected and extend not less than 100 metres upstream and downstream from the centre line of the crossing and covering the approaches to sufficient distance which in case of a large bridge should not be less than 500 metres on either side of the stream. The plan should include the following information: (a) The name of the stream or bridge and of the road. (b) The approximate outline of the banks, and river at H.F.L. and L.W.L. (c) The direction of flow. (d) The alignment of existing and proposed approaches and also the alignment of proposed crossing, The angle and direction of skew if the proposed alignment !S on a skew. + The name of nearest inhabited locality. Position of the bench mark used as datum. Location of trial pits or borings. fe (f) (g) (h)oN a (i) Location of all nullahs, buildings, wells, out crops of rocks. ind other possible obstructions to a road alignment. 4) Locations of L-section and X-sections of road and stream. 1. Crosy-seetions, ‘The cross-sections at the site of the proposed bridge, 5. x ut D/s and U/s should be plotted to the scale not less than 1/1000 horizontally and to a scale of not less than 1/100 vertically. The following information should be indicated on ‘the cross-section: (a) The name of the stream. (b) The name of the road and chainage. (c) The bed line up to the top of banks and the ground line to a sufficient distance beyond the edges of the stream. (d) The position of the low water level, the ordinary flood level and the highest flood level Maximum discharge and average velocity of flow at the bridge site. (f) The depth of scour below H.F.L. (g) In case of tidal streams the following tidal information should be indicated: Highest high water (HHW) Mean high water springs (MHWS) Mean high water (MHW) Mean high water neaps (MHWN) Mean sea level (MSL) Mean low water neaps (MLWN) Mean low water (MLW) Mean low water springs (MLWS) Lowest low water (LLW). Longitudinal Section. The longitudinal section of the stream showing the site of the bridge with highest flood level, the ordinary flood level, the low water level and the bed levels to the scale not less than 1/2500 horizontally and to the scale not less than 1/1000 vertically should be drawn. fe Catchment Area Map. The catchment area map of the river at the proposed bridge site is plotted from the topographical map of Survey of India drawn to a scale of 1/50000. The included catchrnent area both in hilly parts and plains is computed separately Soil Profile. The soil profile data as obtained from subsoil exploration Programme along each of different alternative sites should be plotted showing the location of water table and depth, thickness and Composition of each soil strata. The levels of bed, bank and depth3.1.8 Criteria for Fixing Design Discharge Flood discharges should be calculated by as many methods as possible The highest of these values should be taken as the design discharge, provided it does not exceed the next highest discharge by more than 50 percent. If it does restrict it to that limit then the methods based on catchment area characteristics are not reliable. Similarly, rational method is reliable only for small culverts. It is not desirable to design a structure to pass a flood of any possible magnitude that can occur during the life-time of the structure. Small bridges should be designed to pass flood of 20 years frequency and the major bridges for 100 years __32WATERWAY The area through which the water flows under a bridge superstructure is known as the waterway of the bridge. The linear measurement of this area along the bridge is known as the linear waterway. This linear waterway is equal to the sum of all the clear spans. This may be called as artificial linear waterway. The natural waterway is the unobstructed area of the river or stream through which the water flows at the bridge site.Due to the construction of a bridge the natural waterway gets contracteg thereby increasing the velocity of flow under a bridge. This increaseg Velocity results into heading up of water on the upstream of the tiver or stream, Known as afflux. While fixing the waterway of a bridge the following guiding Principles must be kept ‘in mind to ensure the safety of the structure. () The increased velocity due to afflux should not exceed the permissible velocity under the bridge. Table 3.2.1 indicates the range of permissible velocities for the different foundation materials. Table 3.2.1 eee S.No Nature of bed Permissible velocity in metres /sec L Clay 2.10 2 Sandy Clay 150 3 Very Fine Sand 0.60 to 0.90 4 Fine Sand 0.90 to 0.50 5. Fine Gravel 1.50 to 1.80 6. Rocky Soil 3.00 7. Rock 4.20 to 6.00 (ii) There should not be too much heading up of water surface above the bridge, when it is necessary to restrict the waterw ay to such an extent that the resultant afflux will cause the stream to discharge at erosive velocities, protection against damage by scour should be afforded by deep foundation, curtain or cut of walls, rip rap, stream bed pavement, bearing piles, sheet piles or other suitable means. Likewise embankment slopes adjacent to all structures Subject to erosion should be adequately protected by pitching ryetment walls or other suitable construction. (H) The freeboard for high level bridges should not be less he" 600 mm. (iv) Clearance should be allowed according to navigational requireme The minimum clearance for opening of high level bridges ae are approximately rectangul following Table 3 222) nthe ance with ar should be in accordance “!Table 3.2.2 = No. Discharge Minimum Vertical ; Clearance, mm a 1 Below 0.3 m* per sec. 2 0.3-3.0 m’ per sec. i 3.1-30.0 m? per sec. 4. 31-300 m’ per sec. 5 301-3000 m* per sec 1200 6 Over 3000 m’ per sec 1500 The principles for fixing the waterway mainly depend upon the type of the stream to be bridged. The following are some of the recommendation for fixing the waterway: L. Waterway for Stream with Rigid Boundaries, The artificial irrigation, navigation and drainage channels, whose boundaries remain the same during and after the flood, the effective linear waterway should generally be equal to the width of channel at mid-depth. . Waterway for Quasi-Alluvial Stream. For non-meandering natural streams not wider than 30 m in alluvial beds but with well defined banks and for all natural channels in beds with rigid inerodible boundaries, the liner-waterway should be the distance between banks at the high flood level water surface. Waterway for Alluvial Streams: For large natural streams in alluvial beds and having undefined banks, the linear waterway should be determined from the designed discharge using the following formula proposed by Lacey for Regime conditions L=cJQ. Here, L = The linear waterway in metres or Regime surface width in metres, Q = The design maximum discharge in m’/sec ¢ = A constant usually taken as 4.8 for Regime channel but it may very from 4.5 to 6.3 according to local conditions. 4. Waterway for Streams with Shallow Sub-section: The W Should be provided equal to actual surface width of the active channel. v w erway33 ECONOMIC SPAN which reduces the overal The economic span of a bridge is the one cost of a bridge to be a minimum. The overall cost of a bridge depeng upon the following factors (i) Cost of material and its nature (ii) Availability of skilled labour (iii) Span length (iv) Nature of Stream to be bridged (v) Climatic and other conditions Typical cost components for prestressed concrete road bridges jy the span range 20 10 50 m are shown in Fig. 3.3. The 5 are based or computations of alternative designs with varied spans for a major brid ss Betwa river, adopting a two-girder prestressed concrete-reinfor concrete composite deck of two lane lor, | ‘ | | | | | 20 15 CeNparion _— 10 | gupERSTRUCTURS Ss 45 50 COST UNITS PER m 20. 25 30 35 40 SPAN BETWEEN CENTRES OF PIERS, m Fig. 3.3 Typical Cost Components for Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges It is not in the hands of engineers to bring down the cost of living index or the price of the materials like cement, steel, timber, etc. but they can help in bringing down the cost of bridges by evolving economical designs. Considering only the variable items, the cost of superstructure increase and that of the sub-structure decreases with an increase in the spa? length. Thus most economic span length is that, which satisfies the following i.e. The cost of the super-structure = The cost of the sub-structureme derivation for the economic span can be established on the basis The A ng assumptions: of the followi ji) The bridge has equal span lengths. In pr tice, generally equal spans are kept (ii) The cost of the supporting system of super-structure varies as the square of the span length. This assumption is nearly justified, because the design of supporting system sections of super-structure depends upon the bending moment, which in turn varies as square of span length. Cost of flooring and parapets varies directly as the span. This assumption is justified because as the span increases. the quantity of material also increases (iti) (iv) Cost of one pier and its foundation is constant This is more or less only approximately true, as the depth of foundation is decided by scour considerations, which is constant at a bridge site Cost of the abutments and their foundations is also constant. As the end span length increases the load on the abutment also correspondingly increases requiring costly design. The variation is negligible. Let, L = Total length of the bridge Span length. The total number of spans. =L/I = Cost of one pier with its foundation = Cost of one abutment and its foundation. Ay = Cost of one approach. T = Total bridge cost. (v = " > \ According to (ii) and (iii) assumptions: Cost of one span of super-structure = (a1? + a5!) Here, a, and ay 'are constants of variations. There are (n-1) number of piers, and two abutments The total cost of bridge = Cost of supporting system of super- structure + Cost of two abutments +Cost of (n-1) piers +Cost of approaches, railings and parapets. ie T=n(al +ayl)+2A, +2Ay +(n-1) PReplacing n=£ i Li a L r= 7 (al al)+(F-1] 424 +24, PL = Ll + ah + 5*— P+2A, +24, Therefore, = For T to be minimum, a 6 dl or a FF =0 oo +(3.3.1) or or economic span i.e. cost of supporting system of one span is equal to cost of one pier. In other words, cost of sub-structure is equal to the cost of super structure. As a rule, the number of spans should be kept minimum, & piers cause obstruction to water flow. If piers are necessary, an odd number of spans or even number of piers is to be preferred. This general equation of the above methods is given as l=KVP Where / is the length of economic span, K, the constant, and cost of one pier. The IRC, with a little modification, has recommended the follo principle: Cost of Variable part of super-structure = P. the wing Cost of variable part i" the sub-structureuae The broad principles deciding the Economic a | Bae ee eaus Saree out the minimum cost, the first ci f the cost equation of the bridge is equated to zero. In this anes it has to be assumed that length of the bridge is substantially ng h that the limit of ratio of number of piers to number of vents ie to unity. Therefore, for a bridge having less than 10 vents, Hae obtained deviate from the optimum value as recommended by IRC can be followed while Length of Span for a bridge Ho A recent study (March, 1986) has suggested a different method to overcome such variations. They have derived correction factors related to the number of vents to a bridge which, if applied to the approximate length of span arrived at by the method recommended by Code of Practice, would be give precise length of economic span, necessary for the particular bridge. The general equation is fe ell La Nee cies where / is the economic length of span (ELS), m, n, the number of vents, n—1, the number of piers; P, the cost of one pier including foundation (Rs), and K,, the constant indicating variable part of the superstructure While deriving the correction factors, it has been assumed that the 1 rn . . . ratio remains constant in the range of variation in the ELS n This factor, if applied to the approximate length of span arrived at by conventional method. gives precise length of economic span, necessary for a particular bridge. It is observed that the length of precise economic Span thus arrived at is smaller than the conventional one, The variation in the span length is from 5% to 15% when the number of spans to a bridge are between 5 and 10. When the number to spans are below 5, the variation is from 15% to 41%. Wherever approximate span height Fatlo is adopted, the cost of the bridge is always on higher side by 8% ‘0 20% over the optimum. Two tables indicating economic span height Fatios with necessary correction factors are included. One case study has also been discussed. The following thumb rules can be of great help to determine the ©conomic Span in small bridges:3g SCOUR DEPTH When the velocity of stream exceeds the limiting erodable particle of bed material can stand, the scour occurs. T scour depth is the depth of water in the middle of the stre is carrying the peak flood discharge. This can be easily actual soundings at or near the site proposed for the brid immediately after a flood before the scour holes have had ¢ up appreciably. Due allowance should be made in the ot for increase in scour resulting from. (i) The designed discharge being greater than tl during which the scour was observed (ii) The increase in velocity due to the obstruction in flow ed t construction of the bridge. The scour pattern at a bridge depends upon factors like floc bed slope, direction of flow, bed material alignment of p Le. its shape and size, etc. For a safe and sound design of a bridge it is important to estimate the correct scour depth. Where the practical method of d Scour is not possible, the following theoretical methods different types of streams (1) Scour Depth of Alluvial Streams Alluvial streams bed and banks are composed of loose granular that has been deposited by the stream and can be picked up and tran ‘gain by the current durir flood. These streams tend to sco “pull it has ection and more particu a slope acquired such a cros: that the resulting velocity is ‘non-silting’ and “non-scouring hen Such a stage occurs the stream becomes stable and ten Maintain the acquired shape and size of its cross-section and the acquired Slope. Such a stream is known as ‘regime channel’. The alluy ial sure m when comes to regime it acquires a regime wetted perimeter (P. ¢regime slope ‘s’, and a regime hydraulic mean depth ‘d™. As a r¢ this it will have a fixed area of cross-section and a fixed vel Lacy developed following equations for these regime ct an alluvial channel carrying a discharge of ‘Q” in cu.m. pe p=48/0 (Q 1B d =0.473) F j 0.0003 f s= Ql” v =0.44 Ql’ £13 239° eee f The scour depth can be calculated as given below in case case II. Case I. Linear Waterway of the Bridge is not less t Width: In this case the normal scour depth is equal to the R given by following the Lacy’s Regime equation d=0.473) Here, d = Normal depth of scour below H.F-L conditions in a stable channel (in m Q = The designed discharge in m* per sec f = Lacey’s silt factor for a representative the bed material ek = 1.76¥m, here m is the mean diameter of “* material in millimetre. oe are 5 The values of f normally recommended for various grades Table 3.4.1.Table 3.4.1 S.No. Type of bed material Mean dia. of particle yg to which applicable in mm panicle Value off 1 Very fine silt \ a 2 ( ? Fine silt Godavary 0.081 ou Western India ae 3 Fine silt 0.120 0.00 4 Fine silt Kistna Western 0.158 0.700 Delta type 5 Medium silt 0.233 0.850 6 Standard silt 0.323 1.000 7 Medium sand 0.505 1.250 8 Coarse sand 0725 1.500 9 Fine bajri and sand 0.988 1.750 10 Héavy sand 12) 2.000 Se gime Width: In this case of be given by the following Case IH. Lincar Waterway less than the Re the normal scour depth under the bridge can equation 061 w d=d ( =] L W = The Regime width of the stream (3.4.2) Here 1 = The waterway provided under the bridge on d = The normal scour depth when, L=W dy= The normal scour depth with contracted waterway This condition is depicted in Fig. 3.4.1 Face of Abuime rig StI) he oars| } $0210 it The maximum scour depth in this case too will occur at noses of pier Therefore, Maximum scour depth = 2d = 6.04 im For Case I: Check by the formula in case of bridge causing contractor d,, =d(WILy% m 3.02(83/ 70)" = 416m This value is less than 6.2 m Fherefore, adopt maximum scour depth = 6.2 m DEPTH OF FOUNDATION The depth of bridge foundation is determined by consideration of th afe bearing capacity of the soil after taking into account the cttec! scour, In all doubtful cases, the bearing capac ity of the foundation > is ascertained by actual field load tests. The bore holes are drivel | determine the adequacy of thickness of the foundation bearing hye! the soil The minunurn depth of foundation can be approxunately calculate by the following relationshipp (1-sing |" w (1+sino “ h = The depth of foundation in metres Here, . P = The bearing capacity of soil in kg /m* w = The specific weight of earth in kg and, @ = The angle of internal friction of the soil Table 3.5.1 gives the bearing capacity of various soil according to IS: 1904-1961 Note 1. Compactness or looseness of cohesionless materials may be determined by driving a wooden picket of dimensions 3x5x70cm with a sharp point. The picket shall be pushed vertically into the soil by the full weight of a person at least 70 kg. If the penetration of the picket exceeds 20 cm, the loose state shall be assumed to © ist Note 2. Dry means that the than the width of foundation be ground water level is at a depth not less ow the base of the foundation Note 3. The bearing capacity of peat, fills or made-up ground should se determined after investigation Note 4. Cohesive soils are susceptible to long term consolidation settlement. Note S. Increase or decrease the safe bearing capacity as follows (a) The safe beari the weight of the material removed from above the bearing le ie, the base of the foundation capacity may be increased by an amount equ al to (b) For cohesionless soils, the safe bearing should be reduced by 50 percent if the water-table is above or near the bearing surface of the soil. If the water-table is below the bearing surface of the soil ata discharge at ieast equal to the width of the foundations no such reduction should apply. For intermediate depths of the ater-table, proportional reduction of the safe bearing capacity may be made The maximum toe pressure on the foundation bearing layer resulting from the worst combination of direct forces and overturning moments should be calculated for each individual foundation. In calculating this Pressure the effect of passive resistance of the earth on the sides of the foundation may be taken into account below the maximum depth 0 F ma Scour. The effect of skin-friction on the sides of the foundation maybe ignored except in the case of well and pile where skin frict ion may be allowed on the portions below the maximum scour depth 4 Depth of Foundation for Hard Beds Where a substantial stratum of solid rock or other inerodable material at anticipated maximum velocity and of adequate safe bearing capacity is encountered on or ata shallow depth below the surface, the foundation should be securely anchored into it. The rock should be benched by chiselling and a number of dowel bars of approximately 38 mm diameter at about 0.8 m spacing should be provided to anchor the foundation to the rock. Then a levelling course with lean cement concrete is laid. Over this, the foundation is built. Depth of Foundation for Erodable strata Where only erodable strata is available, the foundations may be designed either as a deep foundation or as shallow foundation given below. In either case the safe bearing capacity of subsoil is not exceeded. Deep Foundations The foundations should be taken down to a depth below the maximum high flood level one-third greater than the calculated maximum scour depth. The depth below the scour line should in no case be less than 2 m for piers and abutments of arched bridges and 1.3 metres for other bridges, Shallow Foundations In case of sandy, incompressible foundation bearing stratum, the foundation is laid down to a comparatively shallow depth below the bed surface. 6 BFFLUX When a bridge is constructed, the structures such as abutment and piers cause the reduction of the natural waterway area. The contraction of the stream is desirable because it leads to tangible saving in the cost specially for alluvial streams whose natural surface width is too ae than required for stability. Therefore, to carry the maximum flood discharge, the velocity under a bridge increases. This incre: eee Rives rise to a sudden heading up of water on the upstream side ° i Stream, This phenomenon of heading up of water on the upstrear Of the stream is known as afflux. Greater the afflux gre: velocity under the downstream side of the bridge and depth of scour and consequently greater will be the deni aie required. The top levels and lengths of guide bunds and fle ased velocity ater will be the er will be the of foundations tionbunds are fixed based upon the amount of alti, Hats determines es 1 formation levels, free board and he ad room 7 The atflux is calculated by one of the following formula (a) Marriman’s Formula \ , ha (A/C, )° ~ CATA) 2 Here ha Afflux in metres V © Velocity of approach in metres per second 4 = Natural waterway area at the site a = Contracted area in square metres \, = The enlarged area upstream of the bridge square metre ic Coefficient of discharge 0.75 40.35 (a/A)— 0. HalAy approximately (b) Molesworth’s Formula (Va 2 ha =| —— + 0.015 | {(A/ay~ 1} 17.9 Here, V, A anda have the same meaning as in the Marriman’s formula Iiustrative Example 3.6.1 A bridge has a linear waterway of 150 metres constructed across a stream whose natural linear waten way 15 220 metres. If the average flood discharge is 1200 metre Kec and average flood depth is 3 metres, calculate the afflux under the bridge. Solution. The natural waterway area at the site = A= 2203 = 660 m? Contracted waterway area =a =150x3= 450m? The velocity of approach =V =Q/A Here,Q = Flood discharge = 1200 m? /sec V = 1200 /660 = 1.83 m/sec Using Molesworth formula, the afflux can be given by A ie + S|{(Alay -1) ha 5 f (0.187 40.015) ((060/450)° — 1} 0,202 «1.15 —0232n3.7 CLEARANCES " fo avoid any possibility of traffic striking any structural part ele srams are specified. The horizontal clearan cance al clearance 3 diag clear width and the vertical clearance the clear height ar height, i should be the ne of vehic ailable fo) passage of vehicular traffic as shown in the clearance dias nx 3.7.1 am in Fig Horizontal Clearance -» I, Horizontal Clearance 1825 11500 = - a t ‘Not Less Than 6800 for twa ce os Traffic Lanes for each gS3 8 Additional Traffic Lane Increase bh 300 ESS Road width by 3000 5 rest ? Maximum Moving Bao s Dimensions of S32, 2 Level of er’ im Vehicles 2 of Road 3300 x 4500 — 2 Half Section Showing Main g Single Lane Fixed Structure in the ae Intermediate Portions of a oaened Bridge a Bridge of Bridge Fig. 3.7.1 Clearance Diagram for Road Bridges For a bridge constructed on a horizontal curve with superelevated road surface, the horizontal clearance should be increa sed on the side of the inner kerb by an amount equal to 5m multiplied by the superelevation. The minimum vertical clearance should be measured from the superelevated level of the roadway. _38FREE BOARD Free board is the vertical distance between the designed high flood level, allowing for afflux, if any, and the level of the crown of the bridge at its lowest point tis essential to provide the free board in all types of bridges for the following reasons: (i) Free board is required to allow floating approach waves to pass under the bridge ; (ii) Free board is also required to aliow for the afflux during the XT flood discharge due to contraction of waterway. (i) Free board is required to allow the vessels ecrunks and lebris, fallen to cross the bridge in12.6 MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES The bridge maintenance problens are serious handicaps t0 the fy i: Hinecy en and construction mity result in worst problems for | § LO bridy, Poor dest Even if the bridges are well designed and c¢ UStHUCHed maintenance they may require | depend upon the bridge types. Normally the serviee jy ils ars for the superstructure ang seriodic maintenance, the extent of which woul oul however expectancy of a bridge is about 70 y 100 years for the substructure, Due to faulty maintenance the useful life may be drastically reduced. It is well said that prevention is better than cure, and in some areas of modern life the philosophy of preventiy action is practiced. The importance of management systems in bridge xtent of what maintenance maintenance is recognised but the full entails is still being determined and the concept of preventive maintenance, although logical, has not been fully adopted. Much of bridge maintenance is routine but some unforeseen technical problems will always occur These highlight the benefits of preventive action but can also pose problems as to the nature and form that the prevention should take. Some forms of preventive maintenance are clear, examples being: the ilar painting of steel structures, maintenance of drainage systems, tr and special inspections following the f to a family of bridges. eas, problems and potential problems have been identified typical examples against ‘ailure of any clement common but the optimum solution has not been determined, being the protection of reinforced and prestressed concrete salt attack, and the optimum time to change bearing and expansion! joints. At present maintenance is dominated by the backlog of remedial works: in the future the emphasis should change to prevention and afety and rather than cure. In order to assure bridge safety ane protection conserve the national investment on bridges, it is essential (0 evolve and implement suitable inspection and evaluation procedures: T°" should be a separate cell for bridge inspection which should maint? record of each bridge in its jurisdiction. The bridge inspections are mainly of two types: 1. Routine inspection. 2. In-depth inspection, prude / yr the 1. Routine Inspectio, It involves a general examination of i ce structure on regular basis to check outward physical 1 as distress that might require repair, This type o! inspe Particularly applicable to short span bridges——_ Indepth Inspection. It involves a detailed visual bridge Components. It must be scheduled once ion of in three all to five of old brid ‘atastrophic con eque In general the common locations of trouble spots in bridg ges are related to foundations, bearings, connections, floor i truss-members. The periodic addition of surface d common defect in bridge maintenance because it incre load in excess of original design years. This type of inspection is imperative in ca: where structural failure could result in c The other common defect generally met with is inoperative expansion bearings due to defective maintenance. Whatever may be the type of bridge, it is imperative to check the following trouble spots Cracks in concrete and metal work. Foundation settlement and movement, Expansion joints distress. Inoperative expansion bearings. Excessive vibration Loose connections Damaged members. Areas of past repairs. wwmrnwPwvnna Areas of distress on other similar structures. Special repairs are needed for special problems which have attributed to the bridge failures. The failure of the concrete and masonry bridges can be due to the following causes: 1. The formation of cracks formed due to subsidence or due to : : ansion joints. the absence of expansiol >. The breaking of surface as a result of the use of bricks or ones of insufficient strength. Th crumbling of mortar or masonry due to the lack of ec! 7 i ration 7 4. The oe ement due to excess of water used in the concrete sinfore of reinfor due to inadequate cover over the reinforcement i jue mix oF : yinecr must judge the quality of the concrete and The inspecting aie following they are automatic indicators of any O if he sees any “trouble”. (i) Cracking beam ition of max BM or shear cracks at end of at pos tness / | watertigh of concrete accompanied by the exposure } !(ii) Spalling of concrete — corrosion of reinforcement (iii) Segregation of concrete — pour construction cunts. (iv) Blistering of concrete — steel corrosion or poor a . standards. aie (v) Looseness of the exposed surface — poor construction carbonation of the concrete. a2 (vi) Members out of alignment. (vii) Anything else which looks wrong. The maintenance techniques for different types of bridges are briefly described below. 7 (i) Maintenance of Concrete Bridges: It is essential to maintain a regular inspection record to detect the exact nature of trouble. The prompt attention obviates costly repairs. The following matters need routine inspection. (a) The operation of the drainage system and proper functioning of weep holes. (b) The free action at expansion joints and at bearings Slight cracks detected either in the road surface or elsewhere should be kept under observation. The development of these cracks should be watched until the cause is ascertained and defects made good. Examination of piers and abutments for differential settlement and sign of scour. (d) Clearing of obstructions in river tending to cause a scour. (e) Examination for deterioration for road surface. (c) Reinforcement Corrosion in Bridges 1.A.B.S.E. (1970) has reported that corrosion dam accounted for as high as 56% of total number cf cases repo reinforced concrete while for prestressed concrete the percent to 40 percent, of the 25 cases of reinforced concrete bridge damage reported as many a1 17 were for overbridges over railways: Tews found that the greatest number of corroded reinforced concret construction was situated in ‘Industrial Atmosphere’ . the reported cases). In 22 percent of the corrosion cases the aim was simply humid followed by normal atmosphere account! percent. Marine atmosphere accounted for a mere 4 perce shows that the durability problems for an R.C.C. ot prestressed coral bridge mostly relates to the corrosion of reinforcement 1s electrochem active. The reaction of the metal with the environment : ages tO bridges ted for age fell (32 percent nosphere for ent. TAS rele depends ulature of products of corrosion. However, ine aided in good concrete is effectively p Ce aeene ata ae Bee more than | rrne passivity of the steel depends upon the impermeability and continuity of the embedment which reduces the entry and cont ihe active reagents with the steel. The protective passivity of steel isappears when the pH value falls below & to 10. This decrease of pH is due to carbonation of free calcium hydrates when the concrete is permeable and moist which has been found that the depth of carbonation does not exceed 2 cm in case of dense and sound concrete even after 50. years. On the other hand in case of permeable concrete, the depth of ¢ ‘arbonation’ can be as high as 10 cm. This destroys the passivity of reinforcement. No concrete can be made absolutely impermeable to water or air. However, good dense concrete with ordinary Portland cement h as been found impermeable enough to provide adequate Protection against the most unfavourable conditions of exposition anticipated for highway bridges. Thus a satisfactory protection to steel depends upon the quality of concrete, depth of concrete cover over reinforcement and the degree to which the quality control is followed in the construction Operation. (ii) Maintenance of Steel Bridges. bridge renders it a long useful life comparable with any other form of construction. The steel must be Pp ainted at regular intervals, The following points must be kept in mind while designing the steel bridges: reinforcement: when assivated by the alkaline 2 act of Proper maintenance of a steel (a) Every part should be accessible for cleaning and painting. (b) There should be adequate clearance between steel work and masonry. (c) Box and nearly closed sections should be avoided unless large enough to be provided with man-holes, (4) Through sections and pock where dirt id rain can collect should be avoided or else drainage holes of ample size should be provided if unavoidable. (e) A few thicker sections should be used in preference to large number of thinner members. This prevents Tusting of the hidden parts. General problems with steel bridges are: L Cracking of the abutment under the girders. 2. Movements of the abutments.