Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5

SystemTap
Beginners Guide
Introduction to SystemTap (for Red
Hat Enterprise Linux 5.3 and later)

Don Domingo

Jacquelynn East

William Cohen
SystemTap Beginners Guide

Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 SystemTap Beginners Guide

Introduction to SystemTap (for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.3 and
later)
Edition 1.0

Author Don Domingo

Author Jacquelynn East [email protected]
Author William Cohen [email protected]
Copyright © 2011 Red Hat, Inc

This documentation is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the
GNU General Public License version 2 as published by the Free Software Foundation.

This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without
even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See
the GNU General Public License for more details.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program; if not,
write to the Free Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA

For more details see the file COPYING in the source distribution of Linux.

This guide provides basic instructions on how to use SystemTap to monitor different subsystems of
Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux 5 in finer detail. The SystemTap Beginners Guide is recommended for
1
users who have taken RHCT or have a similar level of expertise in Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux 5.

1
https://www.redhat.com/courses/rh133_red_hat_linux_system_administration_and_rhct_exam/
Preface v
1. Document Conventions ................................................................................................... v
1.1. Typographic Conventions ...................................................................................... v
1.2. Pull-quote Conventions ........................................................................................ vi
1.3. Notes and Warnings ............................................................................................ vii
2. Getting Help and Giving Feedback ................................................................................. vii
2.1. Do You Need Help? ............................................................................................ vii
2.2. We Need Feedback! ........................................................................................... viii
1. Introduction 1
1.1. Documentation Goals ................................................................................................... 1
1.2. SystemTap Capabilities ................................................................................................. 1
2. Using SystemTap 3
2.1. Installation and Setup ................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1. Installing SystemTap .......................................................................................... 3
2.1.2. Installing Required Kernel Information RPMs ....................................................... 3
2.1.3. Initial Testing ..................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Generating Instrumentation for Other Computers ........................................................... 5
2.3. Running SystemTap Scripts .......................................................................................... 7
3. Understanding How SystemTap Works 9
3.1. Architecture .................................................................................................................. 9
3.2. SystemTap Scripts ........................................................................................................ 9
3.2.1. Event .............................................................................................................. 11
3.2.2. Systemtap Handler/Body .................................................................................. 13
3.3. Basic SystemTap Handler Constructs .......................................................................... 16
3.3.1. Variables ......................................................................................................... 16
3.3.2. Conditional Statements .................................................................................... 17
3.3.3. Command-Line Arguments ............................................................................... 19
3.4. Associative Arrays ...................................................................................................... 19
3.5. Array Operations in SystemTap ................................................................................... 20
3.5.1. Assigning an Associated Value ......................................................................... 20
3.5.2. Reading Values From Arrays ............................................................................ 20
3.5.3. Incrementing Associated Values ....................................................................... 21
3.5.4. Processing Multiple Elements in an Array .......................................................... 21
3.5.5. Clearing/Deleting Arrays and Array Elements .................................................... 22
3.5.6. Using Arrays in Conditional Statements ............................................................ 23
3.5.7. Computing for Statistical Aggregates ................................................................ 24
3.6. Tapsets ...................................................................................................................... 26
4. Useful SystemTap Scripts 27
4.1. Network ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.1. Network Profiling ............................................................................................. 27
4.1.2. Tracing Functions Called in Network Socket Code ............................................. 29
4.1.3. Monitoring Incoming TCP Connections .............................................................. 30
4.2. Disk ........................................................................................................................... 30
4.2.1. Summarizing Disk Read/Write Traffic ................................................................ 30
4.2.2. Tracking I/O Time For Each File Read or Write .................................................. 32
4.2.3. Track Cumulative IO ........................................................................................ 34
4.2.4. I/O Monitoring (By Device) ............................................................................... 36
4.2.5. Monitoring Reads and Writes to a File .............................................................. 37
4.2.6. Monitoring Changes to File Attributes ................................................................ 38
4.3. Profiling ..................................................................................................................... 38
4.3.1. Counting Function Calls Made .......................................................................... 38
4.3.2. Call Graph Tracing .......................................................................................... 40

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SystemTap Beginners Guide

4.3.3. Determining Time Spent in Kernel and User Space ............................................ 41

4.3.4. Monitoring Polling Applications ......................................................................... 42
4.3.5. Tracking Most Frequently Used System Calls .................................................... 45
4.3.6. Tracking System Call Volume Per Process ........................................................ 46
4.4. Identifying Contended User-Space Locks ..................................................................... 48
5. Understanding SystemTap Errors 51
5.1. Parse and Semantic Errors ......................................................................................... 51
5.2. Run Time Errors and Warnings ................................................................................... 53
6. References 55
A. Revision History 57
Index 59

iv
Preface
1. Document Conventions
This manual uses several conventions to highlight certain words and phrases and draw attention to
specific pieces of information.
1
In PDF and paper editions, this manual uses typefaces drawn from the Liberation Fonts set. The
Liberation Fonts set is also used in HTML editions if the set is installed on your system. If not,
alternative but equivalent typefaces are displayed. Note: Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later includes
the Liberation Fonts set by default.

1.1. Typographic Conventions

Four typographic conventions are used to call attention to specific words and phrases. These
conventions, and the circumstances they apply to, are as follows.

Mono-spaced Bold

Used to highlight system input, including shell commands, file names and paths. Also used to highlight
keycaps and key combinations. For example:

To see the contents of the file my_next_bestselling_novel in your current

working directory, enter the cat my_next_bestselling_novel command at the
shell prompt and press Enter to execute the command.

The above includes a file name, a shell command and a keycap, all presented in mono-spaced bold
and all distinguishable thanks to context.

Key combinations can be distinguished from keycaps by the hyphen connecting each part of a key
combination. For example:

Press Enter to execute the command.

Press Ctrl+Alt+F2 to switch to the first virtual terminal. Press Ctrl+Alt+F1 to

return to your X-Windows session.

The first paragraph highlights the particular keycap to press. The second highlights two key
combinations (each a set of three keycaps with each set pressed simultaneously).

If source code is discussed, class names, methods, functions, variable names and returned values
mentioned within a paragraph will be presented as above, in mono-spaced bold. For example:

File-related classes include filesystem for file systems, file for files, and dir for
directories. Each class has its own associated set of permissions.

Proportional Bold

This denotes words or phrases encountered on a system, including application names; dialog box text;
labeled buttons; check-box and radio button labels; menu titles and sub-menu titles. For example:

Choose System → Preferences → Mouse from the main menu bar to launch Mouse
Preferences. In the Buttons tab, click the Left-handed mouse check box and click

1
https://fedorahosted.org/liberation-fonts/

v
Preface

Close to switch the primary mouse button from the left to the right (making the mouse
suitable for use in the left hand).

To insert a special character into a gedit file, choose Applications → Accessories

→ Character Map from the main menu bar. Next, choose Search → Find… from the
Character Map menu bar, type the name of the character in the Search field and click
Next. The character you sought will be highlighted in the Character Table. Double-
click this highlighted character to place it in the Text to copy field and then click the
Copy button. Now switch back to your document and choose Edit → Paste from the
gedit menu bar.

The above text includes application names; system-wide menu names and items; application-specific
menu names; and buttons and text found within a GUI interface, all presented in proportional bold and
all distinguishable by context.

Mono-spaced Bold Italic or Proportional Bold Italic

Whether mono-spaced bold or proportional bold, the addition of italics indicates replaceable or
variable text. Italics denotes text you do not input literally or displayed text that changes depending on
circumstance. For example:

To connect to a remote machine using ssh, type ssh [email protected] at

a shell prompt. If the remote machine is example.com and your username on that
machine is john, type ssh [email protected].

The mount -o remount file-system command remounts the named file

system. For example, to remount the /home file system, the command is mount -o
remount /home.

To see the version of a currently installed package, use the rpm -q package
command. It will return a result as follows: package-version-release.

Note the words in bold italics above — username, domain.name, file-system, package, version and
release. Each word is a placeholder, either for text you enter when issuing a command or for text
displayed by the system.

Aside from standard usage for presenting the title of a work, italics denotes the first use of a new and
important term. For example:

Publican is a DocBook publishing system.

1.2. Pull-quote Conventions

Terminal output and source code listings are set off visually from the surrounding text.

Output sent to a terminal is set in mono-spaced roman and presented thus:

books Desktop documentation drafts mss photos stuff svn

books_tests Desktop1 downloads images notes scripts svgs

Source-code listings are also set in mono-spaced roman but add syntax highlighting as follows:

package org.jboss.book.jca.ex1;

import javax.naming.InitialContext;

vi
 Notes and Warnings

public class ExClient

{
public static void main(String args[])
throws Exception
{
InitialContext iniCtx = new InitialContext();
Object ref = iniCtx.lookup("EchoBean");
EchoHome home = (EchoHome) ref;
Echo echo = home.create();

System.out.println("Created Echo");

System.out.println("Echo.echo('Hello') = " + echo.echo("Hello"));

}
}

1.3. Notes and Warnings

Finally, we use three visual styles to draw attention to information that might otherwise be overlooked.

Note

Notes are tips, shortcuts or alternative approaches to the task at hand. Ignoring a note should
have no negative consequences, but you might miss out on a trick that makes your life easier.

Important

Important boxes detail things that are easily missed: configuration changes that only apply to
the current session, or services that need restarting before an update will apply. Ignoring a box
labeled 'Important' will not cause data loss but may cause irritation and frustration.

Warning

Warnings should not be ignored. Ignoring warnings will most likely cause data loss.

2. Getting Help and Giving Feedback

2.1. Do You Need Help?

If you experience difficulty with a procedure described in this documentation, visit the Red Hat
Customer Portal at http://access.redhat.com. Through the customer portal, you can:

• search or browse through a knowledgebase of technical support articles about Red Hat products.

• submit a support case to Red Hat Global Support Services (GSS).

• access other product documentation.

Red Hat also hosts a large number of electronic mailing lists for discussion of Red Hat software and
technology. You can find a list of publicly available mailing lists at https://www.redhat.com/mailman/
listinfo. Click on the name of any mailing list to subscribe to that list or to access the list archives. vii
Preface

2.2. We Need Feedback!

If you find a typographical error in this manual, or if you have thought of a way to make this manual
better, we would love to hear from you! Please submit a report in Bugzilla: http://bugzilla.redhat.com/
against the product Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux 5.

When submitting a bug report, be sure to mention the manual's identifier:

SystemTap_Beginners_Guide

If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation, try to be as specific as possible when
describing it. If you have found an error, please include the section number and some of the
surrounding text so we can find it easily.

viii
 Chapter 1.

Introduction
SystemTap is a tracing and probing tool that allows users to study and monitor the activities of the
operating system (particularly, the kernel) in fine detail. It provides information similar to the output of
tools like netstat, ps, top, and iostat; however, SystemTap is designed to provide more filtering
and analysis options for collected information.

For system administrators, SystemTap can be used as a performance monitoring tool for Red Hat
Enterprise Linux 5. It is most useful when other similar tools cannot precisely pinpoint a bottleneck in
the system, requiring a deep analysis of system activity. In the same manner, application developers
can also use SystemTap to monitor, in finer detail, how their application behaves within the Linux
system.

1.1. Documentation Goals

SystemTap provides the infrastructure to monitor the running Linux kernel for detailed analysis. This
can assist administrators and developers in identifying the underlying cause of a bug or performance
problem.

Without SystemTap, monitoring the activity of a running kernel would require a tedious instrument,
recompile, install, and reboot sequence. SystemTap is designed to eliminate this, allowing users to
gather the same information by simply running user-written SystemTap scripts.

However, SystemTap was initially designed for users with intermediate to advanced knowledge of
the kernel. This makes SystemTap less useful to administrators or developers with limited knowledge
of and experience with the Linux kernel. Moreover, much of the existing SystemTap documentation
is similarly aimed at knowledgeable and experienced users. This makes learning the tool similarly
difficult.

To lower these barriers the SystemTap Beginners Guide was written with the following goals:

• To introduce users to SystemTap, familiarize them with its architecture, and provide setup
instructions for all kernel types.

• To provide pre-written SystemTap scripts for monitoring detailed activity in different components of
the system, along with instructions on how to run them and analyze their output.

1.2. SystemTap Capabilities

SystemTap was originally developed to provide functionality for Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 similar
to previous Linux probing tools such as dprobes and the Linux Trace Toolkit. SystemTap aims to
supplement the existing suite of Linux monitoring tools by providing users with the infrastructure to
track kernel activity. In addition, SystemTap combines this capability with two things:

• Flexibility: SystemTap's framework allows users to develop simple scripts for investigating and
monitoring a wide variety of kernel functions, system calls, and other events that occur in kernel-
space. With this, SystemTap is not so much a tool as it is a system that allows you to develop your
own kernel-specific forensic and monitoring tools.

• Ease-Of-Use: as mentioned earlier, SystemTap allows users to probe kernel-space events without
having to resort to instrument, recompile, install, and reboot the kernel.

Most of the SystemTap scripts enumerated in Chapter 4, Useful SystemTap Scripts demonstrate
system forensics and monitoring capabilities not natively available with other similar tools (such
as top, oprofile, or ps). These scripts are provided to give readers extensive examples of the

1
Chapter 1. Introduction

application of SystemTap, which in turn will educate them further on the capabilities they can employ
when writing their own SystemTap scripts.

Limitations
The current iteration of SystemTap allows for a multitude of options when probing kernel-space
events. However, SystemTap's ability to probe user-space events is quite limited. At present, the
developmental efforts of the SystemTap community are geared towards improving SystemTap's user-
space probing capabilities.

2
 Chapter 2.

Using SystemTap
This chapter instructs users how to install SystemTap, and provides an introduction on how to run
SystemTap scripts.

2.1. Installation and Setup

To deploy SystemTap, you need to install the SystemTap packages along with the corresponding set
of -devel, -debuginfo and -debuginfo-common packages for your kernel. If your system has
multiple kernels installed, and you wish to use SystemTap on more than one kernel kernel, you will
need to install the -devel and -debuginfo packages for each of those kernel versions.

These procedures will be discussed in detail in the following sections.

Important

Many users confuse -debuginfo with -debug. Remember that the deployment of SystemTap
requires the installation of the -debuginfo package of the kernel, not the -debug version of the
kernel.

2.1.1. Installing SystemTap

To deploy Systemtap, you will need to to install the following RPMs:

• systemtap

• systemtap-runtime

Assuming that yum is installed in the system, these two rpms can be installed with yum install
systemtap systemtap-runtime. Note that before you can use SystemTap, you will still need to
install the required kernel information RPMs.

2.1.2. Installing Required Kernel Information RPMs

SystemTap needs information about the kernel in order to place instrumentation in it (i.e. probe it).
This information also allows SystemTap to generate the code for the instrumentation. This information
is contained in the matching -devel, -debuginfo, and -debuginfo-common packages for your
kernel. The necessary -devel and -debuginfo packages for the ordinary "vanilla" kernel are as
follows:

• kernel-debuginfo

• kernel-debuginfo-common

• kernel-devel

Likewise, the necessary packages for the PAE kernel would be kernel-PAE-debuginfo, kernel-
PAE-debuginfo-common, and kernel-PAE-devel.

To determine what kernel your system is currently using, use:

uname -r

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Chapter 2. Using SystemTap

For example, if you wish to use SystemTap on kernel version 2.6.18-53.el5 on an i686 machine,
then you would need to download and install the following RPMs:

• kernel-debuginfo-2.6.18-53.1.13.el5.i686.rpm

• kernel-debuginfo-common-2.6.18-53.1.13.el5.i686.rpm

• kernel-devel-2.6.18-53.1.13.el5.i686.rpm

Important

The version, variant, and architecture of the -devel, -debuginfo and -debuginfo-common
packages must match the kernel you wish to probe with SystemTap exactly.

The easiest way to install the required kernel information packages is through yum install and
debuginfo-install. debuginfo-install is included with later versions of the yum-utils
package (for example, version 1.1.10), and also requires an appropriate yum repository from which to
download and install -debuginfo/-debuginfo-common packages.

Most required kernel packages can be found at ftp://ftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/enterprise/;

navigate there until you find the appropriate Debuginfo directory for your system. Configure yum
accordingly by adding a new "debug" yum repository file under /etc/yum.repos.d containing the
following lines:

[rhel-debuginfo]
name=Red Hat Enterprise Linux $releasever - $basearch - Debug
baseurl=ftp://ftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/enterprise/$releasever/en/os/$basearch/
Debuginfo/
enabled=1

After configuring yum with the appropriate repository, you can now install the required -devel, -
debuginfo, and -debuginfo-common packages for your kernel. To install the corresponding
packages for a specific kernel, run the following commands:

• yum install kernelname-devel-version

• debuginfo-install kernelname-version

Replace kernelname with the appropriate kernel variant name (for example, kernel-PAE), and
version with the target kernel's version. For example, to install the required kernel information
packages for the kernel-PAE--2.6.18-53.1.13.el5 kernel, run:

• yum install kernel-PAE-devel-2.6.18-53.1.13.el5

• debuginfo-install kernel-PAE-2.6.18-53.1.13.el5

If you do not have yum and yum-utils installed (and you are unable to install them), you will have
to manually download and install the required kernel information packages. To generate the URL from
which to download the required packages, use the following script:

rheldebugurl.sh

4
 Initial Testing

#! /bin/bash
pkg="redhat-release"
releasever=`rpm -q --qf "%{version}" $pkg`
base=`uname -m`
echo "ftp://ftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/\
enterprise/$releasever/en/os/$base/Debuginfo"

Once you have manually downloaded the required packages to the machine, install the RPMs by
running rpm --force -ivh package_names.

2.1.3. Initial Testing

If you are currently using the kernel you wish to probe with SystemTap, you can immediately test
whether the deployment was successful. If not, you will need to reboot and load the appropriate
kernel.

To start the test, run the command stap -v -e 'probe vfs.read {printf("read
performed\n"); exit()}'. This command simply instructs SystemTap to print read performed
then exit properly once a virtual file system read is detected. If the SystemTap deployment was
successful, you should get output similar to the following:

Pass 1: parsed user script and 45 library script(s) in 340usr/0sys/358real ms.

Pass 2: analyzed script: 1 probe(s), 1 function(s), 0 embed(s), 0 global(s) in
290usr/260sys/568real ms.
Pass 3: translated to C into "/tmp/stapiArgLX/stap_e5886fa50499994e6a87aacdc43cd392_399.c" in
490usr/430sys/938real ms.
Pass 4: compiled C into "stap_e5886fa50499994e6a87aacdc43cd392_399.ko" in
3310usr/430sys/3714real ms.
Pass 5: starting run.
read performed
Pass 5: run completed in 10usr/40sys/73real ms.

The last three lines of the output (i.e. beginning with Pass 5 indicate that SystemTap was able to
successfully create the instrumentation to probe the kernel, run the instrumentation, detect the event
being probed (in this case, a virtual file system read), and execute a valid handler (print text then close
it with no errors).

2.2. Generating Instrumentation for Other Computers

When users run a SystemTap script, SystemTap builds a kernel module out of that script. SystemTap
then loads the module into the kernel, allowing it to extract the specified data directly from the kernel
(refer to Procedure 3.1, “SystemTap Session” in Section 3.1, “Architecture” for more information).

Normally, however, SystemTap scripts can only be run on systems where SystemTap is deployed
(as in Section 2.1, “Installation and Setup”). This could mean that if you want to run SystemTap on
ten systems, you would need to deploy SystemTap on all those systems. In some cases, this may
be neither feasible nor desired. For instance, corporate policy may prohibit an administrator from
installing RPMs that provide compilers or debug information on specific machines, which will prevent
the deployment of SystemTap.

To work around this, you can resort to cross-instrumentation. Cross-instrumentation is the process of
generating SystemTap instrumentation module from a SystemTap script on one computer to be used
on another computer. This process offers the following benefits:

• The kernel information packages for various machines can be installed on a single host machine.

5
Chapter 2. Using SystemTap

• Each target machine only needs one RPM to installed to use the generated SystemTap
instrumentation module: systemtap-runtime.

Note

For the sake of simplicity, we will be using the following terms throughout this section:

• instrumentation module — the kernel module built from a SystemTap script; i.e. the SystemTap
module is built on the host system, and will be loaded on the target kernel of target system.

• host system — the system on which you compile the instrumentation modules (from
SystemTap scripts), to be loaded on target systems.

• target system — the system for which you are building the instrumentation module (from
SystemTap scripts).

• target kernel — the kernel of the target system. This is the kernel on which you wish to load/run
the instrumentation module.

Procedure 2.1. Configuring a Host System and Target Systems

1. Install the systemtap-runtime RPM on each target system.

2. Determine the kernel running on each target system by running uname -r on each target
system.

3. Install SystemTap on the host system. You will be building the instrumentation module for
the target systems on the host system. For instructions on how to install SystemTap, refer to
Section 2.1.1, “Installing SystemTap”.

4. Using the target kernel version determined earlier, install the target kernel and related RPMs on
the host system by the method described in Section 2.1.2, “Installing Required Kernel Information
RPMs”. If multiple target systems use different target kernels, you will need to repeat this step for
each different kernel used on the target systems.

After performing Procedure 2.1, “Configuring a Host System and Target Systems”, you can now build
the instrumentation module (for any target system) on the host system.

To build the instrumentation module, run the following command on the host system (be sure to
specify the appropriate values):

stap -r kernel_version script -m module_name

Here, kernel_version refers to the version of the target kernel (the output of uname -r on the
target machine), script refers to the script to be converted into an instrumentation module, and
module_name is the desired name of the instrumentation module.

Note

To determine the architecture notation of a running kernel, run uname -m.

Once the instrumentation module is compiled, copy it to the target system and then load it using:
6
 Running SystemTap Scripts

staprun module_name.ko

For example, to create the instrumentation module simple.ko from a SystemTap script named
simple.stp for the target kernel 2.6.18-92.1.10.el5 (on x86_64 architecture), use the following
command:

stap -r 2.6.18-92.1.10.el5 -e 'probe vfs.read {exit()}' -m simple

This will create a module named simple.ko. To use the instrumentation module simple.ko, copy it
to the target system and run the following command (on the target system):

staprun simple.ko

Important

The host system must be the same architecture and running the same distribution of Linux as the
target system in order for the built instrumentation module to work.

2.3. Running SystemTap Scripts

SystemTap scripts are run through the command stap. stap can run SystemTap scripts from
standard input or from file.

Running stap and staprun requires elevated privileges to the system. However, not all users can be
granted root access just to run SystemTap. In some cases, for instance, you may want to allow a non-
privileged user to run SystemTap instrumentation on his machine.

To allow ordinary users to run SystemTap without root access, add them to one of these user groups:

stapdev
Members of this group can use stap to run SystemTap scripts, or staprun to run SystemTap
instrumentation modules.

Running stap involves compiling SystemTap scripts into kernel modules and loading them
into the kernel. This requires elevated privileges to the system, which are granted to stapdev
members. Unfortunately, such privileges also grant effective root access to stapdev members.
As such, you should only grant stapdev group membership to users whom you can trust root
access.

stapusr
Members of this group can only run staprun to run SystemTap instrumentation modules.
In addition, they can only run those modules from /lib/modules/kernel_version/
systemtap/. Note that this directory must be owned only by the root user, and must only be
writable by the root user.

Below is a list of commonly used stap options:

-v
Makes the output of the SystemTap session more verbose. You can repeat this option (for
example, stap -vvv script.stp) to provide more details on the script's execution. This option
is particularly useful if you encounter any errors in running the script.

For more information about common SystemTap script errors, refer to Chapter 5, Understanding
SystemTap Errors.

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Chapter 2. Using SystemTap

-o filename
Sends the standard output to file (filename).

-x process ID
Sets the SystemTap handler function target() to the specified process ID. For more information
about target(), refer to SystemTap Functions.

-c command
Sets the SystemTap handler function target() to the specified command. Note that you must
use the full path to the specified command; for example, instead of specifying cp, use /bin/cp
(as in stap script -c /bin/cp). For more information about target(), refer to SystemTap
Functions.

-e 'script'
Use script string rather than a file as input for systemtap translator.

You can also instruct stap to run scripts from standard input using the switch -. To illustrate:

Example 2.1. Running Scripts From Standard Input

echo "probe timer.s(1) {exit()}" | stap -

Example 2.1, “Running Scripts From Standard Input” instructs stap to run the script passed by
echo to standard input. Any stap options you wish to use should be inserted before the - switch; for
instance, to make the example in Example 2.1, “Running Scripts From Standard Input” more verbose,
the command would be:

echo "probe timer.s(1) {exit()}" | stap -v -

For more information about stap, refer to man stap.

To run SystemTap instrumentation (i.e. the kernel module built from SystemTap scripts during a
cross-instrumentation), use staprun instead. For more information about staprun and cross-
instrumentation, refer to Section 2.2, “Generating Instrumentation for Other Computers”.

Note

The stap options -v and -o also work for staprun. For more information about staprun, refer
to man staprun.

8
 Chapter 3.

Understanding How SystemTap Works

SystemTap allows users to write and reuse simple scripts to deeply examine the activities of a running
Linux system. These scripts can be designed to extract data, filter it, and summarize it quickly (and
safely), enabling the diagnosis of complex performance (or even functional) problems.

The essential idea behind a SystemTap script is to name events, and to give them handlers. When
SystemTap runs the script, SystemTap monitors for the event; once the event occurs, the Linux kernel
then runs the handler as a quick sub-routine, then resumes.

There are several kind of events; entering/exiting a function, timer expiration, session termination, etc.
A handler is a series of script language statements that specify the work to be done whenever the
event occurs. This work normally includes extracting data from the event context, storing them into
internal variables, and printing results.

3.1. Architecture
A SystemTap session begins when you run a SystemTap script. This session occurs in the following
fashion:

Procedure 3.1. SystemTap Session

1. First, SystemTap checks the script against the existing tapset library (normally in /usr/share/
systemtap/tapset/ for any tapsets used. SystemTap will then substitute any located tapsets
with their corresponding definitions in the tapset library.

2. SystemTap then translates the script to C, running the system C compiler to create a kernel
module from it. The tools that perform this step are contained in the systemtap package (refer to
Section 2.1.1, “Installing SystemTap” for more information).

3. SystemTap loads the module, then enables all the probes (events and handlers) in the script. The
staprun in the systemtap-runtime package (refer to Section 2.1.1, “Installing SystemTap” for
more information) provides this functionality.

4. As the events occur, their corresponding handlers are executed.

5. Once the SystemTap session is terminated, the probes are disabled, and the kernel module is
unloaded.

This sequence is driven from a single command-line program: stap. This program is SystemTap's
main front-end tool. For more information about stap, refer to man stap (once SystemTap is properly
installed on your machine).

3.2. SystemTap Scripts

For the most part, SystemTap scripts are the foundation of each SystemTap session. SystemTap
scripts instruct SystemTap on what type of information to collect, and what to do once that information
is collected.

As stated in Chapter 3, Understanding How SystemTap Works, SystemTap scripts are made up of two
components: events and handlers. Once a SystemTap session is underway, SystemTap monitors the
operating system for the specified events and executes the handlers as they occur.

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Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

Note

An event and its corresponding handler is collectively called a probe. A SystemTap script can
have multiple probes.

A probe's handler is commonly referred to as a probe body.

In terms of application development, using events and handlers is similar to instrumenting the code by
inserting diagnostic print statements in a program's sequence of commands. These diagnostic print
statements allow you to view a history of commands executed once the program is run.

SystemTap scripts allow insertion of the instrumentation code without recompilation of the code
and allows more flexibility with regard to handlers. Events serve as the triggers for handlers to run;
handlers can be specified to record specified data and print it in a certain manner.

Format
SystemTap scripts use the file extension .stp, and contains probes written in the following format:

probe event {statements}

SystemTap supports multiple events per probe; multiple events are delimited by a comma (,). If
multiple events are specified in a single probe, SystemTap will execute the handler when any of the
specified events occur.

Each probe has a corresponding statement block. This statement block is enclosed in braces ({ })
and contains the statements to be executed per event. SystemTap executes these statements in
sequence; special separators or terminators are generally not necessary between multiple statements.

Note

Statement blocks in SystemTap scripts follow the same syntax and semantics as the C
programming language. A statement block can be nested within another statement block.

Systemtap allows you to write functions to factor out code to be used by a number of probes. Thus,
rather than repeatedly writing the same series of statements in multiple probes, you can just place the
instructions in a function, as in:

function function_name(arguments) {statements}

probe event {function_name(arguments)}

The statements in function_name are executed when the probe for event executes. The
arguments are optional values passed into the function.

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 Event

Important

Section 3.2, “SystemTap Scripts” is designed to introduce readers to the basics of SystemTap
scripts. To understand SystemTap scripts better, it is advisable that you refer to Chapter 4, Useful
SystemTap Scripts; each section therein provides a detailed explanation of the script, its events,
handlers, and expected output.

3.2.1. Event
SystemTap events can be broadly classified into two types: synchronous and asynchronous.

Synchronous Events
A synchronous event occurs when any process executes an instruction at a particular location in
kernel code. This gives other events a reference point from which more contextual data may be
available.

Examples of synchronous events include:

syscall.system_call
The entry to the system call system_call. If the exit from a syscall is desired, appending a
.return to the event monitor the exit of the system call instead. For example, to specify the
entry and exit of the system call close, use syscall.close and syscall.close.return
respectively.

vfs.file_operation
The entry to the file_operation event for Virtual File System (VFS). Similar to syscall event,
appending a .return to the event monitors the exit of the file_operation operation.

kernel.function("function")
The entry to the kernel function function. For example, kernel.function("sys_open")
refers to the "event" that occurs when the kernel function sys_open is called by any thread in the
system. To specify the return of the kernel function sys_open, append the return string to the
event statement; i.e. kernel.function("sys_open").return.

When defining probe events, you can use asterisk (*) for wildcards. You can also trace the entry
or exit of a function in a kernel source file. Consider the following example:

Example 3.1. wildcards.stp

probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c") { }
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return { }

In the previous example, the first probe's event specifies the entry of ALL functions in the kernel
source file net/socket.c. The second probe specifies the exit of all those functions. Note that in
this example, there are no statements in the handler; as such, no information will be collected or
displayed.

module("module").function("function")
Allows you to probe functions within modules. For example:

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Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

Example 3.2. moduleprobe.stp

probe module("ext3").function("*") { }
probe module("ext3").function("*").return { }

The first probe in Example 3.2, “moduleprobe.stp” points to the entry of all functions for the ext3
module. The second probe points to the exits of all functions for that same module; the use of
the .return suffix is similar to kernel.function(). Note that the probes in Example 3.2,
“moduleprobe.stp” do not contain statements in the probe handlers, and as such will not print any
useful data (as in Example 3.1, “wildcards.stp”).

A system's kernel modules are typically located in /lib/modules/kernel_version, where

kernel_version refers to the currently loaded kernel version. Modules use the filename
extension .ko.

Asynchronous Events
Asynchronous events are not tied to a particular instruction or location in code. This family of probe
points consists mainly of counters, timers, and similar constructs.

Examples of asynchronous events include:

begin
The startup of a SystemTap session; i.e. as soon as the SystemTap script is run.

end
The end of a SystemTap session.

timer events
An event that specifies a handler to be executed periodically. For example:

Example 3.3. timer-s.stp

probe timer.s(4)
{
printf("hello world\n")
}

Example 3.3, “timer-s.stp” is an example of a probe that prints hello world every 4 seconds.
Note that you can also use the following timer events:

• timer.ms(milliseconds)

• timer.us(microseconds)

• timer.ns(nanoseconds)

• timer.hz(hertz)

• timer.jiffies(jiffies)

When used in conjunction with other probes that collect information, timer events allows you to
print out get periodic updates and see how that information changes over time.

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 Systemtap Handler/Body

Important

SystemTap supports the use of a large collection of probe events. For more information about
supported events, refer to man stapprobes. The SEE ALSO section of man stapprobes also
contains links to other man pages that discuss supported events for specific subsystems and
components.

3.2.2. Systemtap Handler/Body

Consider the following sample script:

Example 3.4. helloworld.stp

probe begin
{
printf ("hello world\n")
exit ()
}

In Example 3.4, “helloworld.stp”, the event begin (i.e. the start of the session) triggers the handler
enclosed in { }, which simply prints hello world followed by a new-line, then exits.

Note

SystemTap scripts continue to run until the exit() function executes. If the users wants to stop
the execution of the script, it can interrupted manually with Ctrl+C.

printf ( ) Statements
The printf () statement is one of the simplest functions for printing data. printf () can also be
used to display data using a wide variety of SystemTap functions in the following format:

printf ("format string\n", arguments)

The format string specifies how arguments should be printed. The format string of Example 3.4,
“helloworld.stp” simply instructs SystemTap to print hello world, and contains no format specifiers.

You can use the format specifiers %s (for strings) and %d (for numbers) in format strings, depending
on your list of arguments. Format strings can have multiple format specifiers, each matching a
corresponding argument; multiple arguments are delimited by a comma (,).

Note

Semantically, the SystemTap printf function is very similar to its C language counterpart. The
aforementioned syntax and format for SystemTap's printf function is identical to that of the C-
style printf.

To illustrate this, consider the following probe example: 13

Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

Example 3.5. variables-in-printf-statements.stp

probe syscall.open
{
printf ("%s(%d) open\n", execname(), pid())
}

Example 3.5, “variables-in-printf-statements.stp” instructs SystemTap to probe all entries to the system
call open; for each event, it prints the current execname() (a string with the executable name) and
pid() (the current process ID number), followed by the word open. A snippet of this probe's output
would look like:

vmware-guestd(2206) open
hald(2360) open
hald(2360) open
hald(2360) open
df(3433) open
df(3433) open
df(3433) open
hald(2360) open

SystemTap Functions
SystemTap supports a wide variety of functions that can be used as printf () arguments.
Example 3.5, “variables-in-printf-statements.stp” uses the SystemTap functions execname() (name of
the process that called a kernel function/performed a system call) and pid() (current process ID).

The following is a list of commonly-used SystemTap functions:

tid()
The ID of the current thread.

uid()
The ID of the current user.

cpu()
The current CPU number.

gettimeofday_s()
The number of seconds since UNIX epoch (January 1, 1970).

ctime()
Convert number of seconds since UNIX epoch to date.

pp()
A string describing the probe point currently being handled.

thread_indent()
This particular function is quite useful, providing you with a way to better organize your print
results. The function takes one argument, an indentation delta, which indicates how many spaces
to add or remove from a thread's "indentation counter". It then returns a string with some generic
trace data along with an appropriate number of indentation spaces.

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 Systemtap Handler/Body

The generic data included in the returned string includes a timestamp (number of microseconds
since the first call to thread_indent() by the thread), a process name, and the thread ID.
This allows you to identify what functions were called, who called them, and the duration of each
function call.

If call entries and exits immediately precede each other, it is easy to match them. However,
in most cases, after a first function call entry is made several other call entries and exits may
be made before the first call exits. The indentation counter helps you match an entry with its
corresponding exit by indenting the next function call if it is not the exit of the previous one.

Consider the following example on the use of thread_indent():

Example 3.6. thread_indent.stp

probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c")
{
printf ("%s -> %s\n", thread_indent(1), probefunc())
}
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return
{
printf ("%s <- %s\n", thread_indent(-1), probefunc())
}

Example 3.6, “thread_indent.stp” prints out the thread_indent() and probe functions at each
event in the following format:

0 ftp(7223): -> sys_socketcall

1159 ftp(7223): -> sys_socket
2173 ftp(7223): -> __sock_create
2286 ftp(7223): -> sock_alloc_inode
2737 ftp(7223): <- sock_alloc_inode
3349 ftp(7223): -> sock_alloc
3389 ftp(7223): <- sock_alloc
3417 ftp(7223): <- __sock_create
4117 ftp(7223): -> sock_create
4160 ftp(7223): <- sock_create
4301 ftp(7223): -> sock_map_fd
4644 ftp(7223): -> sock_map_file
4699 ftp(7223): <- sock_map_file
4715 ftp(7223): <- sock_map_fd
4732 ftp(7223): <- sys_socket
4775 ftp(7223): <- sys_socketcall

This sample output contains the following information:

• The time (in microseconds) since the initial thread_ident() call for the thread (included in
the string from thread_ident()).

• The process name (and its corresponding ID) that made the function call (included in the string
from thread_ident()).

• An arrow signifying whether the call was an entry (<-) or an exit (->); the indentations help you
match specific function call entries with their corresponding exits.

• The name of the function called by the process.

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Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

name
Identifies the name of a specific system call. This variable can only be used in probes that use the
event syscall.system_call.

target()
Used in conjunction with stap script -x process ID or stap script -c command. If
you want to specify a script to take an argument of a process ID or command, use target() as
the variable in the script to refer to it. For example:

Example 3.7. targetexample.stp

probe syscall.* {
if (pid() == target())
printf("%s/n", name)
}

When Example 3.7, “targetexample.stp” is run with the argument -x process ID, it watches all
system calls (as specified by the event syscall.*) and prints out the name of all system calls
made by the specified process.

This has the same effect as specifying if (pid() == process ID) each time you wish to
target a specific process. However, using target() makes it easier for you to re-use the script,
giving you the ability to simply pass a process ID as an argument each time you wish to run the
script (e.g. stap targetexample.stp -x process ID).

For more information about supported SystemTap functions, refer to man stapfuncs.

3.3. Basic SystemTap Handler Constructs

SystemTap supports the use of several basic constructs in handlers. The syntax for most of these
handler constructs are mostly based on C and awk syntax. This section describes several of the most
useful SystemTap handler constructs, which should provide you with enough information to write
simple yet useful SystemTap scripts.

3.3.1. Variables
Variables can be used freely throughout a handler; simply choose a name, assign a value from
a function or expression to it, and use it in an expression. SystemTap automatically identifies
whether a variable should be typed as a string or integer, based on the type of the values
assigned to it. For instance, if you use set the variable foo to gettimeofday_s() (as in foo =
gettimeofday_s()), then foo is typed as an number and can be printed in a printf() with the
integer format specifier (%d).

Note, however, that by default variables are only local to the probe they are used in. This means that
variables are initialized, used and disposed at each probe handler invocation. To share a variable
between probes, declare the variable name using global outside of the probes. Consider the
following example:

Example 3.8. timer-jiffies.stp

global count_jiffies, count_ms

probe timer.jiffies(100) { count_jiffies ++ }

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 Conditional Statements

probe timer.ms(100) { count_ms ++ }

probe timer.ms(12345)
{
hz=(1000*count_jiffies) / count_ms
printf ("jiffies:ms ratio %d:%d => CONFIG_HZ=%d\n",
count_jiffies, count_ms, hz)
exit ()
}

Example 3.8, “timer-jiffies.stp” computes the CONFIG_HZ setting of the kernel using timers that count
jiffies and milliseconds, then computing accordingly. The global statement allows the script to use
the variables count_jiffies and count_ms (set in their own respective probes) to be shared with
probe timer.ms(12345).

Note

The ++ notation in Example 3.8, “timer-jiffies.stp” (i.e. count_jiffies ++ and count_ms +

+) is used to increment the value of a variable by 1. In the following probe, count_jiffies is
incremented by 1 every 100 jiffies:

probe timer.jiffies(100) { count_jiffies ++ }

In this instance, SystemTap understands that count_jiffies is an integer. Because no initial

value was assigned to count_jiffies, its initial value is zero by default.

3.3.2. Conditional Statements

In some cases, the output of a SystemTap script may be too big. To address this, you need to further
refine the script's logic in order to delimit the output into something more relevant or useful to your
probe.

You can do this by using conditionals in handlers. SystemTap accepts the following types of
conditional statements:

If/Else Statements
Format:

if (condition)
statement1
else
statement2

The statement1 is executed if the condition expression is non-zero. The statement2 is

executed if the condition expression is zero. The else clause (else statement2)is optional.
Both statement1 and statement2 can be statement blocks.

Example 3.9. ifelse.stp

global countread, countnonread

probe kernel.function("vfs_read"),kernel.function("vfs_write")
{

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Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

if (probefunc()=="vfs_read")
countread ++
else
countnonread ++
}
probe timer.s(5) { exit() }
probe end
{
printf("VFS reads total %d\n VFS writes total %d\n", countread, countnonread)
}

Example 3.9, “ifelse.stp” is a script that counts how many virtual file system reads (vfs_read)
and writes (vfs_write) the system performs within a 5-second span. When run, the script
increments the value of the variable countread by 1 if the name of the function it probed
matches vfs_read (as noted by the condition if (probefunc()=="vfs_read")); otherwise,
it increments countnonread (else {countnonread ++}).

While Loops
Format:

while (condition)
statement

So long as condition is non-zero the block of statements in statement are executed. The
statement is often a statement block and it must change a value so condition will eventually
be zero.

For Loops
Format:

for (initialization; conditional; increment) statement

The for loop is simply shorthand for a while loop. The following is the equivalent while loop:

initialization
while (conditional) {
statement
increment
}

Conditional Operators
Aside from == ("is equal to"), you can also use the following operators in your conditional statements:

>=
Greater than or equal to

<=
Less than or equal to

!=
Is not equal to

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 Command-Line Arguments

3.3.3. Command-Line Arguments

You can also allow a SystemTap script to accept simple command-line arguments using a $ or @
immediately followed by the number of the argument on the command line. Use $ if you are expecting
the user to enter an integer as a command-line argument, and @ if you are expecting a string.

Example 3.10. commandlineargs.stp

probe kernel.function(@1) { }
probe kernel.function(@1).return { }

Example 3.10, “commandlineargs.stp” is similar to Example 3.1, “wildcards.stp”, except that it

allows you to pass the kernel function to be probed as a command-line argument (as in stap
commandlineargs.stp kernel function). You can also specify the script to accept multiple
command-line arguments, noting them as @1, @2, and so on, in the order they are entered by the user.

3.4. Associative Arrays

SystemTap also supports the use of associative arrays. While an ordinary variable represents a single
value, associative arrays can represent a collection of values. Simply put, an associative array is a
collection of unique keys; each key in the array has a value associated with it.

Since associative arrays are normally processed in multiple probes (as we will demonstrate later), they
are declared as global variables in the SystemTap script. The syntax for accessing an element in an
associative array is similar to that of awk, and is as follows:

array_name[index_expression]

Here, the array_name is any arbitrary name the array uses. The index_expression is used to
refer to a specific unique key in the array. To illustrate, let us try to build an array named foo that
specifies the ages of three people (i.e. the unique keys): tom, dick, and harry. To assign them the
ages (i.e. associated values) of 23, 24, and 25 respectively, we'd use the following array statements:

Example 3.11. Basic Array Statements

foo["tom"] = 23
foo["dick"] = 24
foo["harry"] = 25

You can specify up to 5 index expressons in an array statement, each one delimited by a comma (,).
This is useful if you wish to have a key that contains multiple pieces of information. The following line
from disktop.stp uses 5 elements for the key: process ID, executable name, user ID, parent process
ID, and string "W". It associates the value of devname with that key.

device[pid(),execname(),uid(),ppid(),"W"] = devname

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Important

All associate arrays must be declared as global, regardless of whether the associate array is
used in one or multiple probes.

3.5. Array Operations in SystemTap

This section enumerates some of the most commonly used array operations in SystemTap.

3.5.1. Assigning an Associated Value

Use = to set an associated value to indexed unique pairs, as in:

array_name[index_expression] = value

Example 3.11, “Basic Array Statements” shows a very basic example of how to set an
explicit associated value to a unique key. You can also use a handler function as both your
index_expression and value. For example, you can use arrays to set a timestamp as the
associated value to a process name (which you wish to use as your unique key), as in:

Example 3.12. Associating Timestamps to Process Names

foo[tid()] = gettimeofday_s()

Whenever an event invokes the statement in Example 3.12, “Associating Timestamps to Process
Names”, SystemTap returns the appropriate tid() value (i.e. the ID of a thread, which is then used
as the unique key). At the same time, SystemTap also uses the function gettimeofday_s() to
set the corresponding timestamp as the associated value to the unique key defined by the function
tid(). This creates an array composed of key pairs containing thread IDs and timestamps.

In this same example, if tid() returns a value that is already defined in the array foo, the operator
will discard the original associated value to it, and replace it with the current timestamp from
gettimeofday_s().

3.5.2. Reading Values From Arrays

You can also read values from an array the same way you would read the value of a variable. To do
so, include the array_name[index_expression] statement as an element in a mathematical
expression. For example:

Example 3.13. Using Array Values in Simple Computations

delta = gettimeofday_s() - foo[tid()]

This example assumes that the array foo was built using the construct in Example 3.12, “Associating
Timestamps to Process Names” (from Section 3.5.1, “Assigning an Associated Value”). This sets a
timestamp that will serve as a reference point, to be used in computing for delta.

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 Incrementing Associated Values

The construct in Example 3.13, “Using Array Values in Simple Computations” computes a value
for the variable delta by subtracting the associated value of the key tid() from the current
gettimeofday_s(). The construct does this by reading the value of tid() from the array. This
particular construct is useful for determining the time between two events, such as the start and
completion of a read operation.

Note

If the index_expression cannot find the unique key, it returns a value of 0 (for numerical
operations, such as Example 3.13, “Using Array Values in Simple Computations”) or a null/empty
string value (for string operations) by default.

3.5.3. Incrementing Associated Values

Use ++ to increment the associated value of a unique key in an array, as in:

array_name[index_expression] ++

Again, you can also use a handler function for your index_expression. For example, if you wanted
to tally how many times a specific process performed a read to the virtual file system (using the event
vfs.read), you can use the following probe:

Example 3.14. vfsreads.stp

probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++
}

In Example 3.14, “vfsreads.stp”, the first time that the probe returns the process name gnome-
terminal (i.e. the first time gnome-terminal performs a VFS read), that process name is set
as the unique key gnome-terminal with an associated value of 1. The next time that the probe
returns the process name gnome-terminal, SystemTap increments the associated value of gnome-
terminal by 1. SystemTap performs this operation for all process names as the probe returns them.

3.5.4. Processing Multiple Elements in an Array

Once you've collected enough information in an array, you will need to retrieve and process all
elements in that array to make it useful. Consider Example 3.14, “vfsreads.stp”: the script collects
information about how many VFS reads each process performs, but does not specify what to do with
it. The obvious means for making Example 3.14, “vfsreads.stp” useful is to print the key pairs in the
array reads, but how?

The best way to process all key pairs in an array (as an iteration) is to use the foreach statement.
Consider the following example:

Example 3.15. cumulative-vfsreads.stp

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global reads
probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++
}
probe timer.s(3)
{
foreach (count in reads)
printf("%s : %d \n", count, reads[count])
}

In the second probe of Example 3.15, “cumulative-vfsreads.stp”, the foreach statement uses the
variable count to reference each iteration of a unique key in the array reads. The reads[count]
array statement in the same probe retrieves the associated value of each unique key.

Given what we know about the first probe in Example 3.15, “cumulative-vfsreads.stp”, the script prints
VFS-read statistics every 3 seconds, displaying names of processes that performed a VFS-read along
with a corresponding VFS-read count.

Now, remember that the foreach statement in Example 3.15, “cumulative-vfsreads.stp” prints all
iterations of process names in the array, and in no particular order. You can instruct the script to
process the iterations in a particular order by using + (ascending) or - (descending). In addition, you
can also limit the number of iterations the script needs to process with the limit value option.

For example, consider the following replacement probe:

probe timer.s(3)
{
foreach (count in reads- limit 10)
printf("%s : %d \n", count, reads[count])
}

This foreach statement instructs the script to process the elements in the array reads in descending
order (of associated value). The limit 10 option instructs the foreach to only process the first ten
iterations (i.e. print the first 10, starting with the highest value).

3.5.5. Clearing/Deleting Arrays and Array Elements

Sometimes, you may need to clear the associated values in array elements, or reset an entire array
for re-use in another probe. Example 3.15, “cumulative-vfsreads.stp” in Section 3.5.4, “Processing
Multiple Elements in an Array” allows you to track how the number of VFS reads per process grows
over time, but it does not show you the number of VFS reads each process makes per 3-second
period.

To do that, you will need to clear the values accumulated by the array. You can accomplish this
using the delete operator to delete elements in an array, or an entire array. Consider the following
example:

Example 3.16. noncumulative-vfsreads.stp

global reads
probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++

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 Using Arrays in Conditional Statements

}
probe timer.s(3)
{
foreach (count in reads)
printf("%s : %d \n", count, reads[count])
delete reads
}

In Example 3.16, “noncumulative-vfsreads.stp”, the second probe prints the number of VFS reads
each process made within the probed 3-second period only. The delete reads statement clears the
reads array within the probe.

Note

You can have multiple array operations within the same probe. Using the examples from
Section 3.5.4, “Processing Multiple Elements in an Array” and Section 3.5.5, “Clearing/Deleting
Arrays and Array Elements” , you can track the number of VFS reads each process makes per
3-second period and tally the cumulative VFS reads of those same processes. Consider the
following example:

global reads, totalreads

probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++
totalreads[execname()] ++
}

probe timer.s(3)
{
printf("=======\n")
foreach (count in reads-)
printf("%s : %d \n", count, reads[count])
delete reads
}

probe end
{
printf("TOTALS\n")
foreach (total in totalreads-)
printf("%s : %d \n", total, totalreads[total])
}

In this example, the arrays reads and totalreads track the same information, and are printed
out in a similar fashion. The only difference here is that reads is cleared every 3-second period,
whereas totalreads keeps growing.

3.5.6. Using Arrays in Conditional Statements

You can also use associative arrays in if statements. This is useful if you want to execute a
subroutine once a value in the array matches a certain condition. Consider the following example:

Example 3.17. vfsreads-print-if-1kb.stp

global reads

23
Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++
}

probe timer.s(3)
{
printf("=======\n")
foreach (count in reads-)
if (reads[count] >= 1024)
printf("%s : %dkB \n", count, reads[count]/1024)
else
printf("%s : %dB \n", count, reads[count])
}

Every three seconds, Example 3.17, “vfsreads-print-if-1kb.stp” prints out a list of all processes, along
with how many times each process performed a VFS read. If the associated value of a process name
is equal or greater than 1024, the if statement in the script converts and prints it out in kB.

Testing for Membership

You can also test whether a specific unique key is a member of an array. Further, membership in an
array can be used in if statements, as in:

if([index_expression] in array_name) statement

To illustrate this, consider the following example:

Example 3.18. vfsreads-stop-on-stapio2.stp

global reads

probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] ++
}

probe timer.s(3)
{
printf("=======\n")
foreach (count in reads+)
printf("%s : %d \n", count, reads[count])
if(["stapio"] in reads) {
printf("stapio read detected, exiting\n")
exit()
}
}

The if(["stapio"] in reads) statement instructs the script to print stapio read detected,
exiting once the unique key stapio is added to the array reads.

3.5.7. Computing for Statistical Aggregates

Statistical aggregates are used to collect statistics on numerical values where it is important to
accumulate new data quickly and in large volume (i.e. storing only aggregated stream statistics).
Statistical aggregates can be used in global variables or as elements in an array.

24
 Computing for Statistical Aggregates

To add value to a statistical aggregate, use the operator <<< value.

Example 3.19. stat-aggregates.stp

global reads
probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname()] <<< count
}

In Example 3.19, “stat-aggregates.stp”, the operator <<< count stores the amount returned by
count to to the associated value of the corresponding execname() in the reads array. Remember,
these values are stored; they are not added to the associated values of each unique key, nor are they
used to replace the current associated values. In a manner of speaking, think of it as having each
unique key (execname()) having multiple associated values, accumulating with each probe handler
run.

Note

In the context of Example 3.19, “stat-aggregates.stp”, count returns the amount of data written
by the returned execname() to the virtual file system.

To extract data collected by statistical aggregates, use the syntax format @extractor(variable/
array index expression). extractor can be any of the following integer extractors:

count
Returns the number of all values stored into the variable/array index expression. Given the sample
probe in Example 3.19, “stat-aggregates.stp”, the expression @count(writes[execname()])
will return how many values are stored in each unique key in array writes.

sum
Returns the sum of all values stored into the variable/array index expression. Again, given sample
probe in Example 3.19, “stat-aggregates.stp”, the expression @sum(writes[execname()]) will
return the total of all values stored in each unique key in array writes.

min
Returns the smallest among all the values stored in the variable/array index expression.

max
Returns the largest among all the values stored in the variable/array index expression.

avg
Returns the average of all values stored in the variable/array index expression.

When using statistical aggregates, you can also build array constructs that use multiple index
expressions (to a maximum of 5). This is helpful in capturing additional contextual information during a
probe. For example:

Example 3.20. Multiple Array Indexes

global reads

25
Chapter 3. Understanding How SystemTap Works

probe vfs.read
{
reads[execname(),pid()] <<< 1
}
probe timer.s(3)
{
foreach([var1,var2] in reads)
printf("%s (%d) : %d \n", var1, var2, @count(reads[var1,var2]))
}

In Example 3.20, “Multiple Array Indexes”, the first probe tracks how many times each process
performs a VFS read. What makes this different from earlier examples is that this array associates a
performed read to both a process name and its corresponding process ID.

The second probe in Example 3.20, “Multiple Array Indexes” demonstrates how to process and print
the information collected by the array reads. Note how the foreach statement uses the same
number of variables (i.e. var1 and var2) contained in the first instance of the array reads from the
first probe.

3.6. Tapsets
Tapsets are scripts that form a library of pre-written probes and functions to be used in SystemTap
scripts. When a user runs a SystemTap script, SystemTap checks the script's probe events and
handlers against the tapset library; SystemTap then loads the corresponding probes and functions
before translating the script to C (refer to Section 3.1, “Architecture” for information on what transpires
in a SystemTap session).

Like SystemTap scripts, tapsets use the filename extension .stp. The standard library of tapsets
is located in /usr/share/systemtap/tapset/ by default. However, unlike SystemTap scripts,
tapsets are not meant for direct execution; rather, they constitute the library from which other scripts
can pull definitions.

Simply put, the tapset library is an abstraction layer designed to make it easier for users to define
events and functions. In a manner of speaking, tapsets provide useful aliases for functions that users
may want to specify as an event; knowing the proper alias to use is, for the most part, easier than
remembering specific kernel functions that might vary between kernel versions.

Several handlers and functions in Section 3.2.1, “Event” and SystemTap Functions are defined in
tapsets. For example, thread_indent() is defined in indent.stp.

26
 Chapter 4.

Useful SystemTap Scripts

This chapter enumerates several SystemTap scripts you can use to monitor and investigate
different subsystems. All of these scripts are available at /usr/share/systemtap/testsuite/
systemtap.examples/ once you install the systemtap-testsuite RPM.

4.1. Network
The following sections showcase scripts that trace network-related functions and build a profile of
network activity.

4.1.1. Network Profiling

This section describes how to profile network activity. nettop.stp provides a glimpse into how much
network traffic each process is generating on a machine.

nettop.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

global ifxmit, ifrecv

global ifmerged

probe netdev.transmit
{
ifxmit[pid(), dev_name, execname(), uid()] <<< length
}

probe netdev.receive
{
ifrecv[pid(), dev_name, execname(), uid()] <<< length
}

function print_activity()
{
printf("%5s %5s %-7s %7s %7s %7s %7s %-15s\n",
"PID", "UID", "DEV", "XMIT_PK", "RECV_PK",
"XMIT_KB", "RECV_KB", "COMMAND")

foreach ([pid, dev, exec, uid] in ifrecv) {

ifmerged[pid, dev, exec, uid] += @count(ifrecv[pid,dev,exec,uid]);
}
foreach ([pid, dev, exec, uid] in ifxmit) {
ifmerged[pid, dev, exec, uid] += @count(ifxmit[pid,dev,exec,uid]);
}
foreach ([pid, dev, exec, uid] in ifmerged-) {
n_xmit = @count(ifxmit[pid, dev, exec, uid])
n_recv = @count(ifrecv[pid, dev, exec, uid])
printf("%5d %5d %-7s %7d %7d %7d %7d %-15s\n",
pid, uid, dev, n_xmit, n_recv,
n_xmit ? @sum(ifxmit[pid, dev, exec, uid])/1024 : 0,
n_recv ? @sum(ifrecv[pid, dev, exec, uid])/1024 : 0,
exec)
}

print("\n")

delete ifxmit
delete ifrecv
delete ifmerged

27
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

probe timer.ms(5000), end, error

{
print_activity()
}

Note that function print_activity() uses the following expressions:

n_xmit ? @sum(ifxmit[pid, dev, exec, uid])/1024 : 0

n_recv ? @sum(ifrecv[pid, dev, exec, uid])/1024 : 0

These expressions are if/else conditionals. The first statement is simply a more concise way of writing
the following psuedo code:

if n_recv != 0 then
@sum(ifrecv[pid, dev, exec, uid])/1024
else
0

nettop.stp tracks which processes are generating network traffic on the system, and provides the
following information about each process:

• PID — the ID of the listed process.

• UID — user ID. A user ID of 0 refers to the root user.

• DEV — which ethernet device the process used to send / receive data (e.g. eth0, eth1)

• XMIT_PK — number of packets transmitted by the process

• RECV_PK — number of packets received by the process

• XMIT_KB — amount of data sent by the process, in kilobytes

• RECV_KB — amount of data received by the service, in kilobytes

nettop.stp provides network profile sampling every 5 seconds. You can change this setting by editing
probe timer.ms(5000) accordingly. Example 4.1, “nettop.stp Sample Output” contains an excerpt
of the output from nettop.stp over a 20-second period:

Example 4.1. nettop.stp Sample Output

[...]
PID UID DEV XMIT_PK RECV_PK XMIT_KB RECV_KB COMMAND
0 0 eth0 0 5 0 0 swapper
11178 0 eth0 2 0 0 0 synergyc

PID UID DEV XMIT_PK RECV_PK XMIT_KB RECV_KB COMMAND

2886 4 eth0 79 0 5 0 cups-polld
11362 0 eth0 0 61 0 5 firefox
0 0 eth0 3 32 0 3 swapper
2886 4 lo 4 4 0 0 cups-polld
11178 0 eth0 3 0 0 0 synergyc

PID UID DEV XMIT_PK RECV_PK XMIT_KB RECV_KB COMMAND

0 0 eth0 0 6 0 0 swapper

28
 Tracing Functions Called in Network Socket Code

2886 4 lo 2 2 0 0 cups-polld
11178 0 eth0 3 0 0 0 synergyc
3611 0 eth0 0 1 0 0 Xorg

PID UID DEV XMIT_PK RECV_PK XMIT_KB RECV_KB COMMAND

0 0 eth0 3 42 0 2 swapper
11178 0 eth0 43 1 3 0 synergyc
11362 0 eth0 0 7 0 0 firefox
3897 0 eth0 0 1 0 0 multiload-apple
[...]

4.1.2. Tracing Functions Called in Network Socket Code

This section describes how to trace functions called from the kernel's net/socket.c file. This task
helps you identify, in finer detail, how each process interacts with the network at the kernel level.

socket-trace.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").call {
printf ("%s -> %s\n", thread_indent(1), probefunc())
}
probe kernel.function("*@net/socket.c").return {
printf ("%s <- %s\n", thread_indent(-1), probefunc())
}

socket-trace.stp is identical to Example 3.6, “thread_indent.stp”, which was earlier used in SystemTap
Functions to illustrate how thread_indent() works.

Example 4.2. socket-trace.stp Sample Output

[...]
0 Xorg(3611): -> sock_poll
3 Xorg(3611): <- sock_poll
0 Xorg(3611): -> sock_poll
3 Xorg(3611): <- sock_poll
0 gnome-terminal(11106): -> sock_poll
5 gnome-terminal(11106): <- sock_poll
0 scim-bridge(3883): -> sock_poll
3 scim-bridge(3883): <- sock_poll
0 scim-bridge(3883): -> sys_socketcall
4 scim-bridge(3883): -> sys_recv
8 scim-bridge(3883): -> sys_recvfrom
12 scim-bridge(3883):-> sock_from_file
16 scim-bridge(3883):<- sock_from_file
20 scim-bridge(3883):-> sock_recvmsg
24 scim-bridge(3883):<- sock_recvmsg
28 scim-bridge(3883): <- sys_recvfrom
31 scim-bridge(3883): <- sys_recv
35 scim-bridge(3883): <- sys_socketcall
[...]

Example 4.2, “socket-trace.stp Sample Output” contains a 3-second excerpt of the output for socket-
trace.stp. For more information about the output of this script as provided by thread_indent(),
refer to SystemTap Functions Example 3.6, “thread_indent.stp”.

29
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

4.1.3. Monitoring Incoming TCP Connections

This section illustrates how to monitor incoming TCP connections. This task is useful in identifying any
unauthorized, suspicious, or otherwise unwanted network access requests in real time.

tcp_connections.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

probe begin {
printf("%6s %16s %6s %6s %16s\n",
"UID", "CMD", "PID", "PORT", "IP_SOURCE")
}

probe kernel.function("tcp_accept").return?,
kernel.function("inet_csk_accept").return? {
sock = $return
if (sock != 0)
printf("%6d %16s %6d %6d %16s\n", uid(), execname(), pid(),
inet_get_local_port(sock), inet_get_ip_source(sock))
}

While tcp_connections.stp is running, it will print out the following information about any incoming TCP
connections accepted by the system in real time:

• Current UID

• CMD - the command accepting the connection

• PID of the command

• Port used by the connection

• IP address from which the TCP connection originated

Example 4.3. tcp_connections.stp Sample Output

UID CMD PID PORT IP_SOURCE

0 sshd 3165 22 10.64.0.227
0 sshd 3165 22 10.64.0.227

4.2. Disk
The following sections showcase scripts that monitor disk and I/O activity.

4.2.1. Summarizing Disk Read/Write Traffic

This section describes how to identify which processes are performing the heaviest disk reads/writes
to the system.

disktop.stp

#!/usr/bin/env stap
#

30
 Summarizing Disk Read/Write Traffic

# Copyright (C) 2007 Oracle Corp.

#
# Get the status of reading/writing disk every 5 seconds,
# output top ten entries
#
# This is free software,GNU General Public License (GPL);
# either version 2, or (at your option) any later version.
#
# Usage:
# ./disktop.stp
#

global io_stat,device
global read_bytes,write_bytes

probe vfs.read.return {
if ($return>0) {
if (devname!="N/A") {/*skip read from cache*/
io_stat[pid(),execname(),uid(),ppid(),"R"] += $return
device[pid(),execname(),uid(),ppid(),"R"] = devname
read_bytes += $return
}
}
}

probe vfs.write.return {
if ($return>0) {
if (devname!="N/A") { /*skip update cache*/
io_stat[pid(),execname(),uid(),ppid(),"W"] += $return
device[pid(),execname(),uid(),ppid(),"W"] = devname
write_bytes += $return
}
}
}

probe timer.ms(5000) {
/* skip non-read/write disk */
if (read_bytes+write_bytes) {

printf("\n%-25s, %-8s%4dKb/sec, %-7s%6dKb, %-7s%6dKb\n\n",

ctime(gettimeofday_s()),
"Average:", ((read_bytes+write_bytes)/1024)/5,
"Read:",read_bytes/1024,
"Write:",write_bytes/1024)

/* print header */
printf("%8s %8s %8s %25s %8s %4s %12s\n",
"UID","PID","PPID","CMD","DEVICE","T","BYTES")
}
/* print top ten I/O */
foreach ([process,cmd,userid,parent,action] in io_stat- limit 10)
printf("%8d %8d %8d %25s %8s %4s %12d\n",
userid,process,parent,cmd,
device[process,cmd,userid,parent,action],
action,io_stat[process,cmd,userid,parent,action])

/* clear data */
delete io_stat
delete device
read_bytes = 0
write_bytes = 0
}

probe end{
delete io_stat
delete device
delete read_bytes

31
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

delete write_bytes
}

disktop.stp outputs the top ten processes responsible for the heaviest reads/writes to disk.
Example 4.4, “disktop.stp Sample Output” displays a sample output for this script, and includes the
following data per listed process:

• UID — user ID. A user ID of 0 refers to the root user.

• PID — the ID of the listed process.

• PPID — the process ID of the listed process's parent process.

• CMD — the name of the listed process.

• DEVICE — which storage device the listed process is reading from or writing to.

• T — the type of action performed by the listed process; W refers to write, while R refers to read.

• BYTES — the amount of data read to or written from disk.

The time and date in the output of disktop.stp is returned by the functions ctime() and
gettimeofday_s(). ctime() derives calendar time in terms of seconds passed since the Unix
epoch (January 1, 1970). gettimeofday_s() counts the actual number of seconds since Unix
epoch, which gives a fairly accurate human-readable timestamp for the output.

In this script, the $return is a local variable that stores the actual number of bytes each process
reads or writes from the virtual file system. $return can only be used in return probes (e.g.
vfs.read.return and vfs.read.return).

Example 4.4. disktop.stp Sample Output

[...]
Mon Sep 29 03:38:28 2008 , Average: 19Kb/sec, Read: 7Kb, Write: 89Kb

UID PID PPID CMD DEVICE T BYTES

0 26319 26294 firefox sda5 W 90229
0 2758 2757 pam_timestamp_c sda5 R 8064
0 2885 1 cupsd sda5 W 1678

Mon Sep 29 03:38:38 2008 , Average: 1Kb/sec, Read: 7Kb, Write: 1Kb

UID PID PPID CMD DEVICE T BYTES

0 2758 2757 pam_timestamp_c sda5 R 8064
0 2885 1 cupsd sda5 W 1678

4.2.2. Tracking I/O Time For Each File Read or Write

This section describes how to monitor the amount of time it takes for each process to read from or
write to any file. This is useful if you wish to determine what files are slow to load on a given system.

iotime.stp

global start
global entry_io

32
 Tracking I/O Time For Each File Read or Write

global fd_io
global time_io

function timestamp:long() {
return gettimeofday_us() - start
}

function proc:string() {
return sprintf("%d (%s)", pid(), execname())
}

probe begin {
start = gettimeofday_us()
}

global filenames
global filehandles
global fileread
global filewrite

probe syscall.open {
filenames[pid()] = user_string($filename)
}

probe syscall.open.return {
if ($return != -1) {
filehandles[pid(), $return] = filenames[pid()]
fileread[pid(), $return] = 0
filewrite[pid(), $return] = 0
} else {
printf("%d %s access %s fail\n", timestamp(), proc(), filenames[pid()])
}
delete filenames[pid()]
}

probe syscall.read {
if ($count > 0) {
fileread[pid(), $fd] += $count
}
t = gettimeofday_us(); p = pid()
entry_io[p] = t
fd_io[p] = $fd
}

probe syscall.read.return {
t = gettimeofday_us(); p = pid()
fd = fd_io[p]
time_io[p,fd] <<< t - entry_io[p]
}

probe syscall.write {
if ($count > 0) {
filewrite[pid(), $fd] += $count
}
t = gettimeofday_us(); p = pid()
entry_io[p] = t
fd_io[p] = $fd
}

probe syscall.write.return {
t = gettimeofday_us(); p = pid()
fd = fd_io[p]
time_io[p,fd] <<< t - entry_io[p]
}

probe syscall.close {
if (filehandles[pid(), $fd] != "") {

33
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

printf("%d %s access %s read: %d write: %d\n", timestamp(), proc(),

filehandles[pid(), $fd], fileread[pid(), $fd], filewrite[pid(), $fd])
if (@count(time_io[pid(), $fd]))
printf("%d %s iotime %s time: %d\n", timestamp(), proc(),
filehandles[pid(), $fd], @sum(time_io[pid(), $fd]))
}
delete fileread[pid(), $fd]
delete filewrite[pid(), $fd]
delete filehandles[pid(), $fd]
delete fd_io[pid()]
delete entry_io[pid()]
delete time_io[pid(),$fd]
}

iotime.stp tracks each time a system call opens, closes, reads from, and writes to a file. For each file
any system call accesses, iotime.stp counts the number of microseconds it takes for any reads or
writes to finish and tracks the amount of data (in bytes) read from or written to the file.

iotime.stp also uses the local variable $count to track the amount of data (in bytes) that any
system call attempts to read or write. Note that $return (as used in disktop.stp from Section 4.2.1,
“Summarizing Disk Read/Write Traffic”) stores the actual amount of data read/written. $count can
only be used on probes that track data reads or writes (e.g. syscall.read and syscall.write).

Example 4.5. iotime.stp Sample Output

[...]
825946 3364 (NetworkManager) access /sys/class/net/eth0/carrier read: 8190 write: 0
825955 3364 (NetworkManager) iotime /sys/class/net/eth0/carrier time: 9
[...]
117061 2460 (pcscd) access /dev/bus/usb/003/001 read: 43 write: 0
117065 2460 (pcscd) iotime /dev/bus/usb/003/001 time: 7
[...]
3973737 2886 (sendmail) access /proc/loadavg read: 4096 write: 0
3973744 2886 (sendmail) iotime /proc/loadavg time: 11
[...]

Example 4.5, “iotime.stp Sample Output” prints out the following data:

• A timestamp, in microseconds

• Process ID and process name

• An access or iotime flag

• The file accessed

If a process was able to read or write any data, a pair of access and iotime lines should appear
together. The access line's timestamp refer to the time that a given process started accessing a file;
at the end of the line, it will show the amount of data read/written (in bytes). The iotime line will show
the amount of time (in microseconds) that the process took in order to perform the read or write.

If an access line is not followed by an iotime line, it simply means that the process did not read or
write any data.

4.2.3. Track Cumulative IO

This section describes how to track the cumulative amount of I/O to the system.

34
 Track Cumulative IO

traceio.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap
# traceio.stp
# Copyright (C) 2007 Red Hat, Inc., Eugene Teo <[email protected]>
# Copyright (C) 2009 Kai Meyer <[email protected]>
# Fixed a bug that allows this to run longer
# And added the humanreadable function
#
# This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 as
# published by the Free Software Foundation.
#

global reads, writes, total_io

probe vfs.read.return {
reads[pid(),execname()] += $return
total_io[pid(),execname()] += $return
}

probe vfs.write.return {
writes[pid(),execname()] += $return
total_io[pid(),execname()] += $return
}

function humanreadable(bytes) {
if (bytes > 1024*1024*1024) {
return sprintf("%d GiB", bytes/1024/1024/1024)
} else if (bytes > 1024*1024) {
return sprintf("%d MiB", bytes/1024/1024)
} else if (bytes > 1024) {
return sprintf("%d KiB", bytes/1024)
} else {
return sprintf("%d B", bytes)
}
}

probe timer.s(1) {
foreach([p,e] in total_io- limit 10)
printf("%8d %15s r: %12s w: %12s\n",
p, e, humanreadable(reads[p,e]),
humanreadable(writes[p,e]))
printf("\n")
# Note we don't zero out reads, writes and total_io,
# so the values are cumulative since the script started.
}

traceio.stp prints the top ten executables generating I/O traffic over time. In addition, it also tracks the
cumulative amount of I/O reads and writes done by those ten executables. This information is tracked
and printed out in 1-second intervals, and in descending order.

Note that traceio.stp also uses the local variable $return, which is also used by disktop.stp from
Section 4.2.1, “Summarizing Disk Read/Write Traffic”.

Example 4.6. traceio.stp Sample Output

[...]
Xorg r: 583401 KiB w: 0 KiB
floaters r: 96 KiB w: 7130 KiB
multiload-apple r: 538 KiB w: 537 KiB

35
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

sshd r: 71 KiB w: 72 KiB

pam_timestamp_c r: 138 KiB w: 0 KiB
staprun r: 51 KiB w: 51 KiB
snmpd r: 46 KiB w: 0 KiB
pcscd r: 28 KiB w: 0 KiB
irqbalance r: 27 KiB w: 4 KiB
cupsd r: 4 KiB w: 18 KiB

Xorg r: 588140 KiB w: 0 KiB

floaters r: 97 KiB w: 7143 KiB
multiload-apple r: 543 KiB w: 542 KiB
sshd r: 72 KiB w: 72 KiB
pam_timestamp_c r: 138 KiB w: 0 KiB
staprun r: 51 KiB w: 51 KiB
snmpd r: 46 KiB w: 0 KiB
pcscd r: 28 KiB w: 0 KiB
irqbalance r: 27 KiB w: 4 KiB
cupsd r: 4 KiB w: 18 KiB

4.2.4. I/O Monitoring (By Device)

This section describes how to monitor I/O activity on a specific device.

traceio2.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

global device_of_interest, dev

probe begin {
/* The following is not the most efficient way to do this.
One could directly put the result of usrdev2kerndev()
into device_of_interest. However, want to test out
the other device functions */
dev = usrdev2kerndev($1)
device_of_interest = MKDEV(MAJOR(dev), MINOR(dev))
}

probe vfs.write, vfs.read

{
if (dev == device_of_interest)
printf ("%s(%d) %s 0x%x\n",
execname(), pid(), probefunc(), dev)
}

traceio2.stp takes 1 argument: the whole device number. To get this number, use stat -c "0x%D"
directory, where directory is located in the device you wish to monitor.

The usrdev2kerndev() function converts the whole device number into the format understood by
the kernel. The output produced by usrdev2kerndev() is used in conjunction with the MKDEV(),
MINOR(), and MAJOR() functions to determine the major and minor numbers of a specific device.

The output of traceio2.stp includes the name and ID of any process performing a read/write, the
function it is performing (i.e. vfs_read or vfs_write), and the kernel device number.

The following example is an excerpt from the full output of stap traceio2.stp 0x805, where
0x805 is the whole device number of /home. /home resides in /dev/sda5, which is the device we
wish to monitor.

36
 Monitoring Reads and Writes to a File

Example 4.7. traceio2.stp Sample Output

[...]
synergyc(3722) vfs_read 0x800005
synergyc(3722) vfs_read 0x800005
cupsd(2889) vfs_write 0x800005
cupsd(2889) vfs_write 0x800005
cupsd(2889) vfs_write 0x800005
[...]

4.2.5. Monitoring Reads and Writes to a File

This section describes how to monitor reads from and writes to a file in real time.

inodewatch-simple.stp

probe vfs.write, vfs.read

{
dev_nr = $file->f_dentry->d_inode->i_sb->s_dev
inode_nr = $file->f_dentry->d_inode->i_ino
if (dev_nr == ($1 << 20 | $2) # major/minor device
&& inode_nr == $3)
printf ("%s(%d) %s 0x%x/%u\n",
execname(), pid(), probefunc(), dev_nr, inode_nr)
}

inodewatch-simple.stp takes the following information about the file as arguments on the command
line:

• The file's major device number.

• The file's minor device number.

• The file's inode number.

To get this information, use stat -c '%D %i' filename, where filename is an absolute path.

For instance: if you wish to monitor /etc/crontab, run stat -c '%D %i' /etc/crontab first.
This gives the following output:

805 1078319

805 is the base-16 (hexadecimal) device number. The lower two digits are the minor device number
and the upper digits are the major number. 1078319 is the inode number. To start monitoring /etc/
crontab, run stap inodewatch.stp 0x8 0x05 1078319 (The 0x prefixes indicate base-16
values.

The output of this command contains the name and ID of any process performing a read/write, the
function it is performing (i.e. vfs_read or vfs_write), the device number (in hex format), and the
inode number. Example 4.8, “inodewatch-simple.stp Sample Output” contains the output of stap
inodewatch.stp 0x8 0x05 1078319 (when cat /etc/crontab is executed while the script is
running) :

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Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

Example 4.8. inodewatch-simple.stp Sample Output

cat(16437) vfs_read 0x800005/1078319

cat(16437) vfs_read 0x800005/1078319

4.2.6. Monitoring Changes to File Attributes

This section describes how to monitor if any processes are changing the attributes of a targeted file, in
real time.

inodewatch2-simple.stp

global ATTR_MODE = 1

probe kernel.function("inode_setattr") {
dev_nr = $inode->i_sb->s_dev
inode_nr = $inode->i_ino

if (dev_nr == ($1 << 20 | $2) # major/minor device

&& inode_nr == $3
&& $attr->ia_valid & ATTR_MODE)
printf ("%s(%d) %s 0x%x/%u %o %d\n",
execname(), pid(), probefunc(), dev_nr, inode_nr, $attr->ia_mode, uid())
}

Like inodewatch-simple.stp from Section 4.2.5, “Monitoring Reads and Writes to a File”, inodewatch2-
simple.stp takes the targeted file's device number (in integer format) and inode number as
arguments. For more information on how to retrieve this information, refer to Section 4.2.5, “Monitoring
Reads and Writes to a File”.

The output for inodewatch2-simple.stp is similar to that of inodewatch-simple.stp, except that

inodewatch2-simple.stp also contains the attribute changes to the monitored file, as well as the ID
of the user responsible (uid()). Example 4.9, “inodewatch2-simple.stp Sample Output” contains
shows the output of inodewatch2-simple.stp while monitoring /home/joe/bigfile when user joe
executes chmod 777 /home/joe/bigfile and chmod 666 /home/joe/bigfile.

Example 4.9. inodewatch2-simple.stp Sample Output

chmod(17448) inode_setattr 0x800005/6011835 100777 500

chmod(17449) inode_setattr 0x800005/6011835 100666 500

4.3. Profiling
The following sections showcase scripts that profile kernel activity by monitoring function calls.

4.3.1. Counting Function Calls Made

This section describes how to identify how many times the system called a specific kernel function in a
30-second sample. Depending on your use of wildcards, you can also use this script to target multiple
kernel functions.

38
 Counting Function Calls Made

functioncallcount.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap
# The following line command will probe all the functions
# in kernel's memory management code:
#
# stap functioncallcount.stp "*@mm/*.c"

probe kernel.function(@1).call { # probe functions listed on commandline

called[probefunc()] <<< 1 # add a count efficiently
}

global called

probe end {
foreach (fn in called-) # Sort by call count (in decreasing order)
# (fn+ in called) # Sort by function name
printf("%s %d\n", fn, @count(called[fn]))
exit()
}

functioncallcount.stp takes the targeted kernel function as an argument. The argument supports
wildcards, which enables you to target multiple kernel functions up to a certain extent.

You can increase the sample time by editing the timer in the second probe (timer.ms()). The output
of functioncallcount.stp contains the name of the function called and how many times it was called
during the sample time (in alphabetical order). Example 4.10, “functioncallcount.stp Sample Output”
contains an excerpt from the output of stap countcalls.stp "*@mm/*.c":

Example 4.10. functioncallcount.stp Sample Output

[...]
__vma_link 97
__vma_link_file 66
__vma_link_list 97
__vma_link_rb 97
__xchg 103
add_page_to_active_list 102
add_page_to_inactive_list 19
add_to_page_cache 19
add_to_page_cache_lru 7
all_vm_events 6
alloc_pages_node 4630
alloc_slabmgmt 67
anon_vma_alloc 62
anon_vma_free 62
anon_vma_lock 66
anon_vma_prepare 98
anon_vma_unlink 97
anon_vma_unlock 66
arch_get_unmapped_area_topdown 94
arch_get_unmapped_exec_area 3
arch_unmap_area_topdown 97
atomic_add 2
atomic_add_negative 97
atomic_dec_and_test 5153
atomic_inc 470
atomic_inc_and_test 1
[...]

39
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

4.3.2. Call Graph Tracing

This section describes how to trace incoming and outgoing function calls.

para-callgraph-simple.stp

function trace(entry_p) {
if(tid() in trace)
printf("%s%s%s\n",thread_indent(entry_p),
(entry_p>0?"->":"<-"),
probefunc())
}

global trace
probe kernel.function(@1).call {
if (execname() == "stapio") next # skip our own helper process
trace[tid()] = 1
trace(1)
}
probe kernel.function(@1).return {
trace(-1)
delete trace[tid()]
}

probe kernel.function(@2).call { trace(1) }

probe kernel.function(@2).return { trace(-1) }
function trace(entry_p) {
if(tid() in trace)
printf("%s%s%s\n",thread_indent(entry_p),
(entry_p>0?"->":"<-"),
probefunc())
}

global trace
probe kernel.function(@1).call {
if (execname() == "stapio") next # skip our own helper process
trace[tid()] = 1
trace(1)
}
probe kernel.function(@1).return {
trace(-1)
delete trace[tid()]
}

probe kernel.function(@2).call { trace(1) }

probe kernel.function(@2).return { trace(-1) }

para-callgraph-simple.stp takes two command-line arguments:

• A trigger function (@1), which enables or disables tracing on a per-thread basis. Tracing in each
thread will continue as long as the trigger function has not exited yet.

• The kernel function/s whose entry/exit call you'd like to trace (@2).

para-callgraph-simple.stp uses thread_indent(); as such, its output contains the timestamp,

process name, and thread ID of @2 (i.e. the probe function you are tracing). For more information
about thread_indent(), refer to its entry in SystemTap Functions.

The following example contains an excerpt from the output for stap para-callgraph.stp
sys_read '*@fs/*.c':

40
 Determining Time Spent in Kernel and User Space

Example 4.11. para-callgraph-simple.stp Sample Output

[...]
0 klogd(1391):->sys_read
14 klogd(1391): ->fget_light
22 klogd(1391): <-fget_light
27 klogd(1391): ->vfs_read
35 klogd(1391): ->rw_verify_area
43 klogd(1391): <-rw_verify_area
49 klogd(1391): ->kmsg_read
0 sendmail(1696):->sys_read
17 sendmail(1696): ->fget_light
26 sendmail(1696): <-fget_light
34 sendmail(1696): ->vfs_read
44 sendmail(1696): ->rw_verify_area
52 sendmail(1696): <-rw_verify_area
58 sendmail(1696): ->proc_file_read
70 sendmail(1696): ->loadavg_read_proc
84 sendmail(1696): ->proc_calc_metrics
92 sendmail(1696): <-proc_calc_metrics
95 sendmail(1696): <-loadavg_read_proc
101 sendmail(1696): <-proc_file_read
106 sendmail(1696): ->dnotify_parent
115 sendmail(1696): <-dnotify_parent
119 sendmail(1696): ->inotify_dentry_parent_queue_event
127 sendmail(1696): <-inotify_dentry_parent_queue_event
133 sendmail(1696): ->inotify_inode_queue_event
141 sendmail(1696): <-inotify_inode_queue_event
146 sendmail(1696): <-vfs_read
151 sendmail(1696):<-sys_read

4.3.3. Determining Time Spent in Kernel and User Space

This section illustrates how to determine the amount of time any given thread is spending in either
kernel or user-space.

thread-times.stp

#! /usr/bin/stap

probe timer.profile {
tid=tid()
if (!user_mode())
kticks[tid] <<< 1
else
uticks[tid] <<< 1
ticks <<< 1
tids[tid] <<< 1
}

global uticks, kticks, ticks

global tids

probe timer.s(5), end {

allticks = @count(ticks)
printf ("%5s %7s %7s (of %d ticks)\n",
"tid", "%user", "%kernel", allticks)
foreach (tid in tids- limit 20) {
uscaled = @count(uticks[tid])*10000/allticks

41
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

kscaled = @count(kticks[tid])*10000/allticks
printf ("%5d %3d.%02d%% %3d.%02d%%\n",
tid, uscaled/100, uscaled%100, kscaled/100, kscaled%100)
}
printf("\n")

delete uticks
delete kticks
delete ticks
delete tids
}

thread-times.stp lists the top 20 processes currently taking up CPU time within a 5-second sample,
along with the total number of CPU ticks made during the sample. The output of this script also notes
the percentage of CPU time each process used, as well as whether that time was spent in kernel
space or user space.

Example 4.12, “thread-times.stp Sample Output” contains a 5-second sample of the output for thread-
times.stp:

Example 4.12. thread-times.stp Sample Output

tid %user %kernel (of 20002 ticks)

0 0.00% 87.88%
32169 5.24% 0.03%
9815 3.33% 0.36%
9859 0.95% 0.00%
3611 0.56% 0.12%
9861 0.62% 0.01%
11106 0.37% 0.02%
32167 0.08% 0.08%
3897 0.01% 0.08%
3800 0.03% 0.00%
2886 0.02% 0.00%
3243 0.00% 0.01%
3862 0.01% 0.00%
3782 0.00% 0.00%
21767 0.00% 0.00%
2522 0.00% 0.00%
3883 0.00% 0.00%
3775 0.00% 0.00%
3943 0.00% 0.00%
3873 0.00% 0.00%

4.3.4. Monitoring Polling Applications

This section how to identify and monitor which applications are polling. Doing so allows you to track
unnecessary or excessive polling, which can help you pinpoint areas for improvement in terms of CPU
usage and power savings.

timeout.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap
# Copyright (C) 2009 Red Hat, Inc.
# Written by Ulrich Drepper <[email protected]>
# Modified by William Cohen <[email protected]>

42
 Monitoring Polling Applications

global process, timeout_count, to

global poll_timeout, epoll_timeout, select_timeout, itimer_timeout
global nanosleep_timeout, futex_timeout, signal_timeout

probe syscall.poll, syscall.epoll_wait {

if (timeout) to[pid()]=timeout
}

probe syscall.poll.return {
p = pid()
if ($return == 0 && to[p] > 0 ) {
poll_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
delete to[p]
}
}

probe syscall.epoll_wait.return {
p = pid()
if ($return == 0 && to[p] > 0 ) {
epoll_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
delete to[p]
}
}

probe syscall.select.return {
if ($return == 0) {
p = pid()
select_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
}
}

probe syscall.futex.return {
if (errno_str($return) == "ETIMEDOUT") {
p = pid()
futex_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
}
}

probe syscall.nanosleep.return {
if ($return == 0) {
p = pid()
nanosleep_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
}
}

probe kernel.function("it_real_fn") {
p = pid()
itimer_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++
process[p] = execname()
}

probe syscall.rt_sigtimedwait.return {
if (errno_str($return) == "EAGAIN") {
p = pid()
signal_timeout[p]++
timeout_count[p]++

43
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

process[p] = execname()
}
}

probe syscall.exit {
p = pid()
if (p in process) {
delete process[p]
delete timeout_count[p]
delete poll_timeout[p]
delete epoll_timeout[p]
delete select_timeout[p]
delete itimer_timeout[p]
delete futex_timeout[p]
delete nanosleep_timeout[p]
delete signal_timeout[p]
}
}

probe timer.s(1) {
ansi_clear_screen()
printf (" pid | poll select epoll itimer futex nanosle signal| process\n")
foreach (p in timeout_count- limit 20) {
printf ("%5d |%7d %7d %7d %7d %7d %7d %7d| %-.38s\n", p,
poll_timeout[p], select_timeout[p],
epoll_timeout[p], itimer_timeout[p],
futex_timeout[p], nanosleep_timeout[p],
signal_timeout[p], process[p])
}
}

timeout.stp tracks how many times each application used the following system calls over time:

• poll

• select

• epoll

• itimer

• futex

• nanosleep

• signal

In some applications, these system calls are used excessively. As such, they are normally identified
as "likely culprits" for polling applications. Note, however, that an application may be using a different
system call to poll excessively; sometimes, it is useful to find out the top system calls used by the
system (refer to Section 4.3.5, “Tracking Most Frequently Used System Calls” for instructions). Doing
so can help you identify any additional suspects, which you can add to timeout.stp for tracking.

Example 4.13. timeout.stp Sample Output

uid | poll select epoll itimer futex nanosle signal| process

28937 | 148793 0 0 4727 37288 0 0| firefox
22945 | 0 56949 0 1 0 0 0| scim-bridge
0 | 0 0 0 36414 0 0 0| swapper
4275 | 23140 0 0 1 0 0 0| mixer_applet2

44
 Tracking Most Frequently Used System Calls

4191 | 0 14405 0 0 0 0 0| scim-launcher

22941 | 7908 1 0 62 0 0 0| gnome-terminal
4261 | 0 0 0 2 0 7622 0| escd
3695 | 0 0 0 0 0 7622 0| gdm-binary
3483 | 0 7206 0 0 0 0 0| dhcdbd
4189 | 6916 0 0 2 0 0 0| scim-panel-gtk
1863 | 5767 0 0 0 0 0 0| iscsid
2562 | 0 2881 0 1 0 1438 0| pcscd
4257 | 4255 0 0 1 0 0 0| gnome-power-man
4278 | 3876 0 0 60 0 0 0| multiload-apple
4083 | 0 1331 0 1728 0 0 0| Xorg
3921 | 1603 0 0 0 0 0 0| gam_server
4248 | 1591 0 0 0 0 0 0| nm-applet
3165 | 0 1441 0 0 0 0 0| xterm
29548 | 0 1440 0 0 0 0 0| httpd
1862 | 0 0 0 0 0 1438 0| iscsid

You can increase the sample time by editing the timer in the second probe (timer.s()). The output
of functioncallcount.stp contains the name and UID of the top 20 polling applications, along with
how many times each application performed each polling system call (over time). Example 4.13,
“timeout.stp Sample Output” contains an excerpt of the script:

4.3.5. Tracking Most Frequently Used System Calls

timeout.stp from Section 4.3.4, “Monitoring Polling Applications” helps you identify which applications
are polling by pointing out which ones used the following system calls most frequently:

• poll

• select

• epoll

• itimer

• futex

• nanosleep

• signal

However, in some systems, a different system call might be responsible for excessive polling. If you
suspect that a polling application might is using a different system call to poll, you need to identify first
the top system calls used by the system. To do this, use topsys.stp.

topsys.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap
#
# This script continuously lists the top 20 systemcalls in the interval
# 5 seconds
#

global syscalls_count

probe syscall.* {
syscalls_count[name]++
}

45
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

function print_systop () {
printf ("%25s %10s\n", "SYSCALL", "COUNT")
foreach (syscall in syscalls_count- limit 20) {
printf("%25s %10d\n", syscall, syscalls_count[syscall])
}
delete syscalls_count
}

probe timer.s(5) {
print_systop ()
printf("--------------------------------------------------------------\n")
}

topsys.stp lists the top 20 system calls used by the system per 5-second interval. It also lists how
many times each system call was used during that period. Refer to Example 4.14, “topsys.stp Sample
Output” for a sample output.

Example 4.14. topsys.stp Sample Output

--------------------------------------------------------------
SYSCALL COUNT
gettimeofday 1857
read 1821
ioctl 1568
poll 1033
close 638
open 503
select 455
write 391
writev 335
futex 303
recvmsg 251
socket 137
clock_gettime 124
rt_sigprocmask 121
sendto 120
setitimer 106
stat 90
time 81
sigreturn 72
fstat 66
--------------------------------------------------------------

4.3.6. Tracking System Call Volume Per Process

This section illustrates how to determine which processes are performing the highest volume of
system calls. In previous sections, we've described how to monitor the top system calls used by
the system over time (Section 4.3.5, “Tracking Most Frequently Used System Calls”). We've also
described how to identify which applications use a specific set of "polling suspect" system calls the
most (Section 4.3.4, “Monitoring Polling Applications”). Monitoring the volume of system calls made
by each process provides more data in investigating your system for polling processes and other
resource hogs.

syscalls_by_proc.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

46
 Tracking System Call Volume Per Process

# Copyright (C) 2006 IBM Corp.

#
# This file is part of systemtap, and is free software. You can
# redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General
# Public License (GPL); either version 2, or (at your option) any
# later version.

#
# Print the system call count by process name in descending order.
#

global syscalls

probe begin {
print ("Collecting data... Type Ctrl-C to exit and display results\n")
}

probe syscall.* {
syscalls[execname()]++
}

probe end {
printf ("%-10s %-s\n", "#SysCalls", "Process Name")
foreach (proc in syscalls-)
printf("%-10d %-s\n", syscalls[proc], proc)
}

syscalls_by_proc.stp lists the top 20 processes performing the highest number of system calls. It also
lists how many system calls each process performed during the time period. Refer to Example 4.15,
“topsys.stp Sample Output” for a sample output.

Example 4.15. topsys.stp Sample Output

Collecting data... Type Ctrl-C to exit and display results

#SysCalls Process Name
1577 multiload-apple
692 synergyc
408 pcscd
376 mixer_applet2
299 gnome-terminal
293 Xorg
206 scim-panel-gtk
95 gnome-power-man
90 artsd
85 dhcdbd
84 scim-bridge
78 gnome-screensav
66 scim-launcher
[...]

If you prefer the output to display the process IDs instead of the process names, use the following
script instead.

syscalls_by_pid.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

47
Chapter 4. Useful SystemTap Scripts

# Copyright (C) 2006 IBM Corp.

#
# This file is part of systemtap, and is free software. You can
# redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General
# Public License (GPL); either version 2, or (at your option) any
# later version.

#
# Print the system call count by process ID in descending order.
#

global syscalls

probe begin {
print ("Collecting data... Type Ctrl-C to exit and display results\n")
}

probe syscall.* {
syscalls[pid()]++
}

probe end {
printf ("%-10s %-s\n", "#SysCalls", "PID")
foreach (pid in syscalls-)
printf("%-10d %-d\n", syscalls[pid], pid)
}

As indicated in the output, you need to manually exit the script in order to display the results. You can
add a timed expiration to either script by simply adding a timer.s() probe; for example, to instruct
the script to expire after 5 seconds, add the following probe to the script:

probe timer.s(5)
{
exit()
}

4.4. Identifying Contended User-Space Locks

This section describes how to identify contended user-space locks throughout the system within a
specific time period. The ability to identify contended user-space locks can help you investigate hangs
that you suspect may be caused by futex contentions.

Simply put, a futex contention occurs when multiple processes are trying to access the same region
of memory. In some cases, this can result in a deadlock between the processes in contention, thereby
appearing as an application hang.

To do this, futexes.stp probes the futex system call.

futexes.stp

#! /usr/bin/env stap

# This script tries to identify contended user-space locks by hooking

# into the futex system call.

global thread_thislock # short

global thread_blocktime #

48
 Identifying Contended User-Space Locks

global FUTEX_WAIT = 0 /*, FUTEX_WAKE = 1 */

global lock_waits # long-lived stats on (tid,lock) blockage elapsed time

global process_names # long-lived pid-to-execname mapping

probe syscall.futex {
if (op != FUTEX_WAIT) next # don't care about WAKE event originator
t = tid ()
process_names[pid()] = execname()
thread_thislock[t] = $uaddr
thread_blocktime[t] = gettimeofday_us()
}

probe syscall.futex.return {
t = tid()
ts = thread_blocktime[t]
if (ts) {
elapsed = gettimeofday_us() - ts
lock_waits[pid(), thread_thislock[t]] <<< elapsed
delete thread_blocktime[t]
delete thread_thislock[t]
}
}

probe end {
foreach ([pid+, lock] in lock_waits)
printf ("%s[%d] lock %p contended %d times, %d avg us\n",
process_names[pid], pid, lock, @count(lock_waits[pid,lock]),
@avg(lock_waits[pid,lock]))
}

futexes.stp needs to be manually stopped; upon exit, it prints the following information:

• Name and ID of the process responsible for a contention

• The region of memory it contested

• How many times the region of memory was contended

• Average time of contention throughout the probe

Example 4.16, “futexes.stp Sample Output” contains an excerpt from the output of futexes.stp upon
exiting the script (after approximately 20 seconds).

Example 4.16. futexes.stp Sample Output

[...]
automount[2825] lock 0x00bc7784 contended 18 times, 999931 avg us
synergyc[3686] lock 0x0861e96c contended 192 times, 101991 avg us
synergyc[3758] lock 0x08d98744 contended 192 times, 101990 avg us
synergyc[3938] lock 0x0982a8b4 contended 192 times, 101997 avg us
[...]

49
50
 Chapter 5.

Understanding SystemTap Errors

This chapter explains the most common errors you may encounter while using SystemTap.

5.1. Parse and Semantic Errors

These types of errors occur while SystemTap attempts to parse and translate the script into C, prior
to being converted into a kernel module. For example type errors result from operations that assign
invalid values to variables or arrays.

parse error: expected foo, saw bar

The script contains a grammatical/typographical error. SystemTap detected type of construct that is
incorrect, given the context of the probe.

The following invalid SystemTap script is missing its probe handlers:

probe vfs.read
probe vfs.write

It results in the following error message showing that the parser was expecting something other than
the probe keyword in column 1 of line 2:

parse error: expected one of '. , ( ? ! { = +='

saw: keyword at perror.stp:2:1
1 parse error(s).

parse error: embedded code in unprivileged script

The script contains unsafe embedded C code (blocks of code surrounded by %{ %}. SystemTap
allows you to embed C code in a script, which is useful if there are no tapsets to suit your purposes.
However, embedded C constructs are not be safe; as such, SystemTap warns you with this error if
such constructs appear in the script.

If you are sure of the safety of any similar constructs in the script and are member of stapdev group
(or have root privileges), run the script in "guru" mode by using the option -g (i.e. stap -g script).

semantic error: type mismatch for identifier 'foo' ... string vs. long
The function foo in the script used the wrong type (i.e. %s or %d). This error will present itself in
Example 5.1, “error-variable.stp”, because the function execname() returns a string the format
specifier should be a %s, not %d.

Example 5.1. error-variable.stp

probe syscall.open
{
printf ("%d(%d) open\n", execname(), pid())
}

51
Chapter 5. Understanding SystemTap Errors

semantic error: unresolved type for identifier 'foo'

The identifier (e.g. a variable) was used, but no type (integer or string) could be determined. This
occurs, for instance, if you use a variable in a printf statement while the script never assigns a
value to the variable.

semantic error: Expecting symbol or array index expression

SystemTap could not assign a value to a variable or to a location in an array. The destination for the
assignment is not a valid destination. The following example code would generate this error:

probe begin { printf("x") = 1 }

while searching for arity N function, semantic error: unresolved function call
A function call or array index expression in the script used an invalid number of arguments/
parameters. In SystemTap arity can either refer to the number of indices for an array, or the number of
parameters to a function.

semantic error: array locals not supported, missing global declaration?

The script used an array operation without declaring the array as a global variable (global variables
can be declared after their use in Systemtap scripts). Similar messages appear if an array is used, but
with inconsistent arities.

semantic error: variable ’foo’ modified during ’foreach’ iteration

The array foo is being modifed (being assigned to or deleted from) within an active foreach loop.
This error also displays if an operation within the script performs a function call within the foreach
loop.

semantic error: probe point mismatch at position N, while resolving probe point foo
SystemTap did not understand what the event or SystemTap function foo refers to. This usually
means that SystemTap could not find a match for foo in the tapset library. The N refers to the line and
column of the error.

semantic error: no match for probe point, while resolving probe point foo
The events / handler function foo could not be resolved altogether, for a variety of reasons. This error
occurs when the script contains the event kernel.function("blah"), and blah does not exist.
In some cases, the error could also mean the script contains an invalid kernel file name or source line
number.

semantic error: unresolved target-symbol expression

A handler in the script references a target variable, but the value of the variable could not be resolved.
This error could also mean that a handler is referencing a target variable that is not valid in the context
when it was referenced. This may be a result of compiler optimization of the generated code.

52
 Run Time Errors and Warnings

semantic error: libdwfl failure

There was a problem processing the debugging information. In most cases, this error results from the
installation of a kernel-debuginfo RPM whose version does not match the probed kernel exactly.
The installed kernel-debuginfo RPM itself may have some consistency / correctness problems.

semantic error: cannot find foo debuginfo

SystemTap could not find a suitable kernel-debuginfo at all.

5.2. Run Time Errors and Warnings

Runtime errors and warnings occur when the SystemTap instrumentation has been installed and is
collecting data on the system.

WARNING: Number of errors: N, skipped probes: M

Errors and/or skipped probes occurred during this run. Both N and M are the counts of the number of
probes that were not executed due to conditions such as too much time required to execute event
handlers over an interval of time.

division by 0
The script code performed an invalid division.

aggregate element not found

An statistics extractor function other than @count was invoked on an aggregate that has not had any
values accumulated yet. This is similar to a division by zero.

aggregation overflow
An array containing aggregate values contains too many distinct key pairs at this time.

MAXNESTING exceeded
Too many levels of function call nesting were attempted. The default nesting of function calls allowed
is 10.

MAXACTION exceeded
The probe handler attempted to execute too many statements in the probe handler. The default
number of actions allow in a probe handler is 1000.

kernel/user string copy fault at ADDR

The probe handler attempted to copy a string from kernel or user space at an invalid address (ADDR).

pointer dereference fault

There was a fault encountered during a pointer dereference operation such as a target variable
evaluation.

53
54
 Chapter 6.

References
This chapter enumerates other references for more information about SystemTap. It is advisable that
you refer to these sources in the course of writing advanced probes and tapsets.

SystemTap Wiki
The SystemTap Wiki is a collection of links and articles related to the deployment, usage, and
development of SystemTap. You can find it in http://sourceware.org/systemtap/wiki/HomePage.

SystemTap Tutorial
Much of the content in this book comes from the SystemTap Tutorial. The SystemTap Tutorial is a
more appropriate reference for users with intermediate to advanced knowledge of C++ and kernel
development, and can be found at http://sourceware.org/systemtap/tutorial/.

man stapprobes
The stapprobes man page enumerates a variety of probe points supported by SystemTap,
along with additional aliases defined by the SystemTap tapset library. The bottom of the man
page includes a list of other man pages enumerating similar probe points for specific system
components, such as stapprobes.scsi, stapprobes.kprocess, stapprobes.signal,
etc.

man stapfuncs
The stapfuncs man page enumerates numerous functions supported by the SystemTap tapset
library, along with the prescribed syntax for each one. Note, however, that this is not a complete
list of all supported functions; there are more undocumented functions available.

SystemTap Language Reference

This document is a comprehensive reference of SystemTap's language constructs and syntax. It
is recommended for users with a rudimentary to intermediate knowledge of C++ and other similar
programming languages. The SystemTap Language Reference is available to all users at http://
sourceware.org/systemtap/langref/

Tapset Developers Guide

Once you have sufficient proficiency in writing SystemTap scripts, you can then try your hand out
on writing your own tapsets. The Tapset Developers Guide describes how to add functions to your
tapset library.

Test Suite
The systemtap-testsuite package allows you to test the entire SystemTap toolchain without
having to build from source. In addition, it also contains numerous examples of SystemTap
scripts you can study and test; some of these scripts are also documented in Chapter 4, Useful
SystemTap Scripts.

By default, the example scripts included in systemtap-testsuite are located in /usr/share/

systemtap/testsuite/systemtap.examples.

55
56
Appendix A. Revision History
Revision 1.0 Wed Jun 17 2009 Don Domingo [email protected]
Building+pushing to RHEL

57
58
Index multiple array operations within the same
probe, 23
virtual file system reads (non-cumulative),
Symbols tallying, 22
$count computing for statistical aggregates, 24
sample usage @avg (integer extractor), 25
local variables, 34 @count (integer extractor), 25
$return @max (integer extractor), 25
sample usage @min (integer extractor), 25
local variables, 32, 35 @sum (integer extractor), 25
@avg (integer extractor) adding values to statistical aggregates, 25
computing for statistical aggregates count (operator), 25
array operations, 25 extracting data collected by statistical
@count (integer extractor) aggregates, 25
computing for statistical aggregates conditional statements, using arrays in, 23
array operations, 25 testing for array membership, 24
@max (integer extractor) deleting arrays and array elements, 22
computing for statistical aggregates incrementing associated values, 21
array operations, 25 tallying virtual file system reads (VFS
@min (integer extractor) reads), 21
computing for statistical aggregates multiple elements in an array, 21
array operations, 25 processing multiple elements in an array, 21
@sum (integer extractor) cumulative virtual file system reads, tallying,
computing for statistical aggregates 21
array operations, 25 foreach, 21
iterations, processing elements in an array
A as, 21
adding values to statistical aggregates limiting the output of foreach, 22
computing for statistical aggregates ordering the output of foreach, 22
array operations, 25 reading values from arrays, 20
advantages of cross-instrumentation, 5 computing for timestamp deltas, 20
aggregate element not found empty unique keys, 21
runtime errors/warnings using arrays in simple computations, 20
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 arrays, 19
aggregates (statistical) (see also associative arrays)
array operations, 24 assigning associated values
aggregation overflow array operations, 20
runtime errors/warnings associating timestamps to process names,
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 20
algebraic formulas using arrays associating timestamps to process names
reading values from arrays array operations, 20
array operations, 20 associated values
architecture notation, determining, 6 introduction
architecture of SystemTap, 9 arrays, 19
array locals not supported associating timestamps to process names
parse/semantics error assigning associated values
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 array operations, 20
array operations associative arrays
assigning associated values, 20 introduction, 19
associating timestamps to process names, associated values, 19
20 example, 19
associative arrays, 20 index expression, 19
clearing arrays/array elements, 22 key pairs, 19
delete operator, 22 syntax, 19

59
Index

unique keys, 19 testing for array membership, 24

asynchronous events CONFIG_HZ, computing for, 17
Events, 12 contended user-space locks (futex contentions),
identifying
B examples of SystemTap scripts, 48
begin copy fault
Events, 12 runtime errors/warnings
building instrumentation modules from understanding SystemTap errors, 53
SystemTap scripts, 5 count operator
building kernel modules from SystemTap scripts, computing for statistical aggregates
5 array (operator), 25
counting function calls
examples of SystemTap scripts, 38
C CPU ticks
call graph tracing examples of SystemTap scripts, 42
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 cpu()
capabilities of SystemTap functions, 14
Introduction, 1 cross-compiling, 5
changes to file attributes, monitoring cross-instrumentation
examples of SystemTap scripts, 38 advantages of, 5
clearing arrays/array elements building kernel modules from SystemTap
array operations, 22 scripts, 5
delete operator, 22 configuration
multiple array operations within the same host system and target system, 6
probe, 23 generating instrumentation from SystemTap
virtual file system reads (non-cumulative), scripts, 5
tallying, 22 host system, 6
command-line arguments instrumentation module, 6
SystemTap handler constructs target kernel, 6
handlers, 19 target system, 6
compiling instrumentation/kernel modules from ctime()
SystemTap scripts, 5 functions, 14
components ctime(), example of usage
SystemTap scripts script examples, 32
introduction, 9 cumulative I/O, tracking
computing for statistical aggregates examples of SystemTap scripts, 34
array operations, 24 cumulative virtual file system reads, tallying
@avg (integer extractor), 25 processing multiple elements in an array
@count (integer extractor), 25 array operations, 21
@max (integer extractor), 25
@min (integer extractor), 25 D
@sum (integer extractor), 25 delete operator
adding values to statistical aggregates, 25 clearing arrays/array elements
count (operator), 25 array operations, 22
extracting data collected by statistical determining architecture notation, 6
aggregates, 25 determining the kernel version, 3
computing for timestamp deltas determining time spent in kernel and user space
reading values from arrays examples of SystemTap scripts, 41
array operations, 20 device I/O, monitoring
conditional operators examples of SystemTap scripts, 36
conditional statements device number of a file (integer format)
handlers, 18 examples of SystemTap scripts, 37
conditional statements, using arrays in disk I/O traffic, summarizing
array operations, 23 script examples, 30

60
division by 0 vfs.file_operation, 11
runtime errors/warnings wildcards, 11
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 events and handlers, 9
documentation goals events wildcards, 11
Introduction, 1 example
introduction
E arrays, 19
embedded code in unprivileged script example of multiple command-line arguments
parse/semantics error examples of SystemTap scripts, 40
understanding SystemTap errors, 51 examples of synchronous and asynchronous
empty unique keys events
reading values from arrays Events, 11
array operations, 21 examples of SystemTap scripts, 27
end call graph tracing, 40
Events, 12 CPU ticks, 42
errors ctime(), example of usage, 32
parse/semantics error, 51 determining time spent in kernel and user
embedded code in unprivileged script, 51 space, 41
expected symbol/array index expression, 52 file device number (integer format), 37
grammatical/typographical script error, 51 futex system call, 48
guru mode, 51 identifying contended user-space locks (i.e.
invalid values to variables/arrays, 51 futex contentions), 48
libdwfl failure, 53 if/else conditionals, alternative syntax, 28
no match for probe point, 52 inode number, 37
non-global arrays, 52 monitoring changes to file attributes, 38
probe mismatch, 52 monitoring device I/O, 36
type mismatch for identifier, 51 monitoring I/O time, 32
unresolved function call, 52 monitoring incoming TCP connections, 30
unresolved target-symbol expression, 52 monitoring polling applications, 42
unresolved type for identifier, 52 monitoring reads and writes to a file, 37
variable modified during 'foreach', 52 monitoring system calls, 45
runtime errors/warnings, 53 monitoring system calls (volume per process),
aggregate element not found, 53 46
aggregation overflow, 53 multiple command-line arguments, example of,
copy fault, 53 40
division by 0, 53 net/socket.c, tracing functions from, 29
MAXACTION exceeded, 53 network profiling, 27
MAXNESTING exceeded, 53 process deadlocks (arising from futex
number of errors: N, skipped probes: M, 53 contentions), 48
pointer dereference fault, 53 stat -c, determining file device number (integer
event types format), 37
Understanding How SystemTap Works, 9 stat -c, determining whole device number, 36
Events summarizing disk I/O traffic, 30
asynchronous events, 12 tallying function calls, 38
begin, 12 thread_indent(), sample usage, 40
end, 12 timer.ms(), sample usage, 39
examples of synchronous and asynchronous timer.s(), sample usage, 44, 46
events, 11 tracing functions called in network socket
introduction, 11 code, 29
kernel.function("function"), 11 tracking cumulative I/O, 34
module("module"), 11 trigger function, 40
synchronous events, 11 usrdev2kerndev(), 36
syscall.system_call, 11 whole device number (usage as a command-
timer events, 12 line argument), 36

61
Index

exceeded MAXACTION pp(), 14

runtime errors/warnings SystemTap scripts
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 introduction, 10
exceeded MAXNESTING target(), 16
runtime errors/warnings thread_indent(), 14
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 tid(), 14, 14
exit() uid(), 14
functions, 13 functions (used in handlers)
expected symbol/array index expression exit(), 13
parse/semantics error functions called in network socket code, tracing
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 examples of SystemTap scripts, 29
extracting data collected by statistical aggregates futex contention, definition
computing for statistical aggregates examples of SystemTap scripts, 48
array operations, 25 futex contentions, identifying
examples of SystemTap scripts, 48
F futex system call
feedback examples of SystemTap scripts, 48
contact information for this manual, viii
file attributes, monitoring changes to G
examples of SystemTap scripts, 38 gettimeofday_s()
file device number (integer format) functions, 14
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37 global
file reads/writes, monitoring SystemTap handler constructs
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37 handlers, 16
for loops goals, documentation
conditional statements Introduction, 1
handlers, 18 grammatical/typographical script error
foreach parse/semantics error
processing multiple elements in an array understanding SystemTap errors, 51
array operations, 21 guru mode
format parse/semantics error
introduction understanding SystemTap errors, 51
arrays, 19
format and syntax
printf(), 13
H
SystemTap handler constructs handler functions, 14
handlers, 16 handlers
SystemTap scripts conditional statements, 17
introduction, 10 conditional operators, 18
format specifiers for loops, 18
printf(), 13 if/else, 17
format strings while loops, 18
printf(), 13 introduction, 13
function call (unresolved) SystemTap handler constructs, 16
parse/semantics error command-line arguments, 19
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 global, 16
function calls (incoming/outgoing), tracing syntax and format, 16
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 variable notations, 19
function calls, tallying variables, 16
examples of SystemTap scripts, 38 handlers and events, 9
functions, 14 SystemTap scripts
cpu(), 14 introduction, 9
ctime(), 14 heaviest disk reads/writes, identifying
gettimeofday_s(), 14 script examples, 30

62
help cross-instrumentation, 6
getting help, vii instrumentation modules from SystemTap scripts,
host system building, 5
cross-instrumentation, 6 integer extractors
host system and target system computing for statistical aggregates
cross-instrumentation array operations, 25
configuration, 6 Introduction
capabilities of SystemTap, 1
I documentation goals, 1
I/O monitoring (by device) goals, documentation, 1
examples of SystemTap scripts, 36 limitations of SystemTap, 2
I/O time, monitoring performance monitoring, 1
examples of SystemTap scripts, 32 invalid division
I/O traffic, summarizing runtime errors/warnings
script examples, 30 understanding SystemTap errors, 53
identifier type mismatch invalid values to variables/arrays
parse/semantics error parse/semantics error
understanding SystemTap errors, 51 understanding SystemTap errors, 51
identifying contended user-space locks (i.e. futex iterations, processing elements in an array as
contentions) processing multiple elements in an array
examples of SystemTap scripts, 48 array operations, 21
identifying heaviest disk reads/writes
script examples, 30 K
if/else kernel and user space, determining time spent in
conditional statements examples of SystemTap scripts, 41
handlers, 17 kernel information packages, 3
if/else conditionals, alternative syntax kernel modules from SystemTap scripts, building,
examples of SystemTap scripts, 28 5
if/else statements, using arrays in kernel version, determining the, 3
array operations, 23 kernel.function("function")
incoming TCP connections, monitoring Events, 11
examples of SystemTap scripts, 30 key pairs
incoming/outgoing function calls, tracing introduction
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 arrays, 19
incrementing associated values
array operations, 21
tallying virtual file system reads (VFS
L
reads), 21 libdwfl failure
index expression parse/semantics error
introduction understanding SystemTap errors, 53
arrays, 19 limitations of SystemTap
initial testing, 5 Introduction, 2
inode number limiting the output of foreach
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37 processing multiple elements in an array
Installation array operations, 22
initial testing, 5 local variables
kernel information packages, 3 name, 16
kernel version, determining the, 3 sample usage
required packages, 3 $count, 34
rheldebugurl.sh, 4 $return, 32, 35
Setup and Installation, 3
systemtap package, 3 M
systemtap-runtime package, 3 MAXACTION exceeded
instrumentation module runtime errors/warnings

63
Index

understanding SystemTap errors, 53 understanding SystemTap errors, 53

MAXNESTING exceeded
runtime errors/warnings O
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 operations
membership (in array), testing for assigning associated values
conditional statements, using arrays in associating timestamps to process names,
array operations, 24 20
module("module") associative arrays, 20
Events, 11 clearing arrays/array elements, 22
monitoring changes to file attributes delete operator, 22
examples of SystemTap scripts, 38 multiple array operations within the same
monitoring cumulative I/O probe, 23
examples of SystemTap scripts, 34 virtual file system reads (non-cumulative),
monitoring device I/O tallying, 22
examples of SystemTap scripts, 36 computing for statistical aggregates, 24
monitoring I/O time @avg (integer extractor), 25
examples of SystemTap scripts, 32 @count (integer extractor), 25
monitoring incoming TCP connections @max (integer extractor), 25
examples of SystemTap scripts, 30 @min (integer extractor), 25
monitoring polling applications @sum (integer extractor), 25
examples of SystemTap scripts, 42 adding values to statistical aggregates, 25
monitoring reads and writes to a file count (operator), 25
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37 extracting data collected by statistical
monitoring system calls aggregates, 25
examples of SystemTap scripts, 45 conditional statements, using arrays in, 23
monitoring system calls (volume per process) testing for array membership, 24
examples of SystemTap scripts, 46 deleting arrays and array elements, 22
multiple array operations within the same probe incrementing associated values, 21
clearing arrays/array elements tallying virtual file system reads (VFS
array operations, 23 reads), 21
multiple command-line arguments, example of multiple elements in an array, 21
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 processing multiple elements in an array, 21
multiple elements in an array cumulative virtual file system reads, tallying,
array operations, 21 21
foreach, 21
N iterations, processing elements in an array
name as, 21
local variables, 16 limiting the output of foreach, 22
net/socket.c, tracing functions from ordering the output of foreach, 22
examples of SystemTap scripts, 29 reading values from arrays, 20
network profiling computing for timestamp deltas, 20
examples of SystemTap scripts, 27 empty unique keys, 21
network socket code, tracing functions called in using arrays in simple computations, 20
examples of SystemTap scripts, 29 options, stap
network traffic, monitoring Usage, 7
examples of SystemTap scripts, 27 ordering the output of foreach
no match for probe point processing multiple elements in an array
parse/semantics error array operations, 22
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 overflow of aggregation
non-global arrays runtime errors/warnings
parse/semantics error understanding SystemTap errors, 53
understanding SystemTap errors, 52
number of errors: N, skipped probes: M
runtime errors/warnings

64
P ordering the output of foreach
array operations, 22
packages required to run SystemTap, 3
profiling the network
parse/semantics error
examples of SystemTap scripts, 27
understanding SystemTap errors, 51
embedded code in unprivileged script, 51
expected symbol/array index expression, 52 R
grammatical/typographical script error, 51 reading values from arrays
guru mode, 51 array operations, 20
invalid values to variables/arrays, 51 empty unique keys, 21
libdwfl failure, 53 using arrays in simple computations, 20
no match for probe point, 52 computing for timestamp deltas
non-global arrays, 52 array operations, 20
probe mismatch, 52 reads/writes to a file, monitoring
type mismatch for identifier, 51 examples of SystemTap scripts, 37
unresolved function call, 52 required packages, 3
unresolved target-symbol expression, 52 rheldebugurl.sh, 4
unresolved type for identifier, 52 RPMs required to run SystemTap, 3
variable modified during 'foreach', 52 running scripts from standard input, 8
performance monitoring running SystemTap scripts
Introduction, 1 Usage, 7
pointer dereference fault runtime errors/warnings
runtime errors/warnings understanding SystemTap errors, 53
understanding SystemTap errors, 53 aggregate element not found, 53
polling applications, monitoring aggregation overflow, 53
examples of SystemTap scripts, 42 copy fault, 53
pp() division by 0, 53
functions, 14 MAXACTION exceeded, 53
printf() MAXNESTING exceeded, 53
format specifiers, 13 number of errors: N, skipped probes: M, 53
format strings, 13, 13 pointer dereference fault, 53
syntax and format, 13
printing I/O activity (cumulative) S
examples of SystemTap scripts, 34 script examples
probe mismatch call graph tracing, 40
parse/semantics error CPU ticks, 42
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 ctime(), example of usage, 32
probe point (no match for) determining time spent in kernel and user
parse/semantics error space, 41
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 file device number (integer format), 37
probes futex system call, 48
SystemTap scripts identifying contended user-space locks (i.e.
introduction, 10 futex contentions), 48
process deadlocks (arising from futex if/else conditionals, alternative syntax, 28
contentions) inode number, 37
examples of SystemTap scripts, 48 monitoring changes to file attributes, 38
processing multiple elements in an array monitoring device I/O, 36
array operations, 21 monitoring I/O time, 32
cumulative virtual file system reads, tallying monitoring incoming TCP connections, 30
array operations, 21 monitoring polling applications, 42
foreach monitoring reads and writes to a file, 37
array operations, 21 monitoring system calls, 45
limiting the output of foreach monitoring system calls (volume per process),
array operations, 22 46

65
Index

multiple command-line arguments, example of, synchronous events

40 Events, 11
net/socket.c, tracing functions from, 29 syntax
network profiling, 27 introduction
process deadlocks (arising from futex arrays, 19
contentions), 48 syntax and format
stat -c, determining file device number (integer printf(), 13
format), 37 SystemTap handler constructs
stat -c, determining whole device number, 36 handlers, 16
summarizing disk I/O traffic, 30 SystemTap scripts
tallying function calls, 38 introduction, 10
thread_indent(), sample usage, 40 syscall.system_call
timer.ms(), sample usage, 39 Events, 11
timer.s(), sample usage, 44, 46 system calls volume (per process), monitoring
tracing functions called in network socket examples of SystemTap scripts, 46
code, 29 system calls, monitoring
tracking cumulative I/O, 34 examples of SystemTap scripts, 45
trigger function, 40 SystemTap architecture, 9
usrdev2kerndev(), 36 SystemTap handlers
whole device number (usage as a command- SystemTap handler constructs, 16
line argument), 36 syntax and format, 16
scripts systemtap package, 3
introduction, 9 SystemTap script functions, 14
components, 9 SystemTap scripts
events and handlers, 9 introduction, 9
format and syntax, 10 components, 9
functions, 10 events and handlers, 9
probes, 10 format and syntax, 10
statement blocks, 10 functions, 10
sessions, SystemTap, 9 probes, 10
Setup and Installation, 3 statement blocks, 10
standard input, running scripts from useful examples, 27
Usage, 8 SystemTap scripts, how to run, 7
stap SystemTap sessions, 9
Usage, 7 SystemTap statements
stap options, 7 conditional statements, 17
stapdev conditional operators, 18
Usage, 7 for loops, 18
staprun if/else, 17
Usage, 7 while loops, 18
stapusr SystemTap handler constructs
Usage, 7 command-line arguments, 19
stat -c, determining file device number (integer global, 16
format) variable notations, 19
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37 variables, 16
stat -c, determining whole device number systemtap-runtime package, 3
examples of SystemTap scripts, 36 systemtap-testsuite package
statement blocks sample scripts, 27
SystemTap scripts
introduction, 10 T
statistical aggregates tallying function calls
array operations, 24 examples of SystemTap scripts, 38
summarizing disk I/O traffic tallying virtual file system reads (VFS reads)
script examples, 30, 30 incrementing associated values

66
 array operations, 21 parse/semantics error
Tapsets understanding SystemTap errors, 51
definition of, 26 typographical script error
target kernel parse/semantics error
cross-instrumentation, 6 understanding SystemTap errors, 51
target system
cross-instrumentation, 6 U
target system and host system uid()
configuration, 6 functions, 14
target() uname -m, 6
functions, 16 uname -r, 3
target-symbol expression, unresolved Understanding How SystemTap Works, 9
parse/semantics error architecture, 9
understanding SystemTap errors, 52 event types, 9
TCP connections (incoming), monitoring events and handlers, 9
examples of SystemTap scripts, 30 SystemTap sessions, 9
testing for array membership understanding SystemTap errors
conditional statements, using arrays in parse/semantics error, 51
array operations, 24 embedded code in unprivileged script, 51
testing, initial, 5 expected symbol/array index expression, 52
thread_indent() grammatical/typographical script error, 51
functions, 14 guru mode, 51
thread_indent(), sample usage invalid values to variables/arrays, 51
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 libdwfl failure, 53
tid() no match for probe point, 52
functions, 14 non-global arrays, 52
time of I/O probe mismatch, 52
examples of SystemTap scripts, 32 type mismatch for identifier, 51
time spent in kernel/user space, determining unresolved function call, 52
examples of SystemTap scripts, 41 unresolved target-symbol expression, 52
timer events unresolved type for identifier, 52
Events, 12 variable modified during 'foreach', 52
timer.ms(), sample usage runtime errors/warnings, 53
examples of SystemTap scripts, 39 aggregate element not found, 53
timer.s(), sample usage aggregation overflow, 53
examples of SystemTap scripts, 44, 46 copy fault, 53
timestamp deltas, computing for division by 0, 53
reading values from arrays MAXACTION exceeded, 53
array operations, 20 MAXNESTING exceeded, 53
timestamps, association thereof to process number of errors: N, skipped probes: M, 53
names pointer dereference fault, 53
assigning associated values unique keys
array operations, 20 introduction
tracing call graph arrays, 19
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 unprivileged script, embedded code in
tracing functions called in network socket code parse/semantics error
examples of SystemTap scripts, 29 understanding SystemTap errors, 51
tracing incoming/outgoing function calls unresolved function call
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 parse/semantics error
tracking cumulative I/O understanding SystemTap errors, 52
examples of SystemTap scripts, 34 unresolved target-symbol expression
trigger function parse/semantics error
examples of SystemTap scripts, 40 understanding SystemTap errors, 52
type mismatch for identifier unresolved type for identifier

67
Index

parse/semantics error W
understanding SystemTap errors, 52
while loops
unsafe embedded code in unprivileged script
conditional statements
parse/semantics error
handlers, 18
understanding SystemTap errors, 51
whole device number (usage as a command-line
Usage
argument)
options, stap, 7
examples of SystemTap scripts, 36
running SystemTap scripts, 7
wildcards in events, 11
standard input, running scripts from, 8
writes/reads to a file, monitoring
stap, 7
examples of SystemTap scripts, 37
stapdev, 7
staprun, 7
stapusr, 7
useful examples of SystemTap scripts, 27
user and kernel space, determining time spent in
examples of SystemTap scripts, 41
using arrays in simple computations
reading values from arrays
array operations, 20
Using SystemTap, 3
usrdev2kerndev()
examples of SystemTap scripts, 36

V
values, assignment of
array operations, 20
variable modified during 'foreach'
parse/semantics error
understanding SystemTap errors, 52
variable notations
SystemTap handler constructs
handlers, 19
variables
SystemTap handler constructs
handlers, 16
variables (local)
name, 16
sample usage
$count, 34
$return, 32, 35
VFS reads, tallying of
incrementing associated values
array operations, 21
vfs.file_operation
Events, 11
virtual file system reads (cumulative), tallying
processing multiple elements in an array
array operations, 21
virtual file system reads (non-cumulative), tallying
clearing arrays/array elements
array operations, 22

68