IRRIGATION STRUCTURES HANDOUT

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Importance of hydraulics structures

A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water,
which disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop
the flow. An example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate
of river in order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body
of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.
Hydraulic structures play an important role in drainage, irrigation, and hydraulic projects. If
hydraulic structures fail, it may cause serious damages of wealth, properties, and environment as
well as losses of life and injury to economy. The water related infrastructures are constructed at
the aims to facilitate human needs/desires and enhance the quality of life such as drainage
channel, river/channel, irrigation canal, bank/foot protection work, embankment, dam, spur
dike/groyne, bridge/culvert, regulator, barrage/large regulator, aqueduct, pump station, siphon,
and sluice. The details of some of the hydraulic structures are presented below.

Types of hydraulic structures

Hydraulic structures are structures that are fully or partially submerged in water. The essence of
building hydraulic structures is to either divert, disrupt, store, or completely stop the natural flow
of water bodies. Based on the work they are designed to perform on streamflow, hydraulic
structures are categorized as water-retaining structures (dams and barrages), water-conveying
structures (artificial channels), and special-purpose structures (structures for hydropower
generation or inland waterways)

I. Water-retaining structures

The dam is an essential hydraulic structure that all other structures directly or indirectly relied
upon. Dams and barrages are typical water-retaining structures that are built purposely to
impound water. The retained water behind dams and barrages could be used for other purposes
such as irrigation, recreational activities, navigation, and a lot more. Regardless of their size and
type, dams demonstrate high complexity in their load response and interactive relationship with
site hydrology and geology. Dams are of different sizes and shapes and made of various

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materials such as soil or rockfill embankment, mass concrete, reinforced concrete, masonry, and
wood. However, based on the construction materials used, dams are broadly classified into
concrete dams and embankment dams.

Concrete dams comprised of gravity, arch, buttress, barrage, and multiple-arch dams as shown
in Figure a–e. All these dams are constructed of mass concrete and sometimes of masonry with
appropriate structural quality. Recent statistics show that concrete dams occupied only 20–22%,
while embankment dams accounted for 78–80%.

Embankment dams are of two types, earthfall and rockfill, both of which are constructed by
mass filling of naturally existing ground materials (soil and rocks). The construction materials
are graded and well compacted to resist seepage and sliding. Embankment dams are
characterized by having similar moderate face slopes at both upstream and downstream. This
feature gives rise to a broad trapezoidal cross section and a high construction volume, which is
relative to the dams’ height that can cover >300 m.

Figure 1.1 Water retaining structures

II. Water-conveying structures

Any artificial facility cut in the ground with the sole purpose of transporting water diverted
from main sources (river and dams) is termed as the water-conveying structure. These types
of structures are comprised of canals (Figure a) and tunnels (Figure b) (usually made from

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soil and rocks) or siphons, aqueducts (Figure c), flumes (Figure d), and pipelines (usually
made from concrete and metals). Before the construction of any water-conveying structure, a
detailed geotechnical soil test and analysis is recommended to avail the surface and
subsurface properties of the soil on which the structure is upon rest. The same soil test and
analysis also applies to other types and classes of hydraulic structures to ensure safety and to
save resources.

(a) Canals, (b) tunnels, (c) aqueducts, and (d) flumes

Figure 1.2 Water conveyance structures

III. Special-purpose hydraulic structures

As the name implies, special-purpose hydraulic structures are built as an integral part of
hydraulic project to meet a special purpose such as hydropower generation (e.g., surge towers
and shafts, forebays, and head ponds), navigation (e.g., landings, berths, substations for ship
repair, etc.), fishing (e.g., fish nursery ponds, fish lifts and locks, fishways, etc.), water supply for
domestic and industrial uses (e.g., water intakes to treatment plant, pumping stations, etc.), waste
disposal/sewerage (e.g., sewage headers, pumping stations, channels after treatment plant to
water bodies, etc.), and land reclamation (e.g., irrigation canals, drainage systems, silt tanks, etc.)

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Purposes of hydraulic structures

Hydraulic structures are purposely for managing and controlling the flow of water in natural and
built environment systems. Moreover, the primary purposes may include the following flood
control, water conveyance, irrigation, navigation, power generation, domestic and industrial
purposes, environment protection, and recreation, among others.

1. Flood control

Flooding is a geophysical hazard that nonuniformly dispersed in both space and time. Over a
decade, several watershed areas are frequently suffering from flood disaster, which causes
massive destruction and loss of lives, farmlands, crops, access roads, and houses. The effective
way of flood control and reducing its negative impacts is by the construction of dams, water
conveyance structures, culverts, canals, and reservoirs. Many control structures are not solely
constructed mainly for dealing with flood control only. However, sometimes, hydraulic structures
are purposely built for flood control only. In the designing and building of flood control
structures, some vital point of views must be taken into consideration in such that the cost of
construction of such a project structure should be of benefit, concerning the damage reduction
and the public interest when comparing to similar benefits to be derived by the alternative means.
Also, the flood control structures should be reliable and effective as predicted. Even in some
instance, the methods of controlling floods should rather be automatic, not manual.

2. Power generation

Hydropower generation is the production of electrical energy from running water through
turbines without reducing its quantity. The flexibility; long-lasting, storing capability; less
environmental pollution; and the cost-effectiveness of hydropower plants make it attract more
investment as a renewable energy source and role as a way of drought mitigation. The
hydropower system is the leading global source of an estimated 71% of total renewable energy.
Furthermore, hydropower plant reservoirs can also be used as a tool in minimizing the adverse
impacts of climate change and in achieving sustainable development goals.

3. Navigation

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Inland water transportation plays a significant role in the national and global markets. Building
dams and draining of river streams will considerably raise the capacity of inland water
transportation, thereby allowing the smooth movement of a shipping vessel. An important point
to note is that a chain of storage reservoirs would advance navigation depth, straightening out
navigation channels, and support the passage of both small, medium, and even large ships.
However, it is recommended to provide pathways or locks for vessels when dam structures are
built on a large river stream for easy navigation from upstream to the downstream. Also, the
topography of the surrounding environment should be taken into consideration. Hence, the
pathways might be an integral part of the dam or a completely different structure.

4. Irrigation schemes

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a
conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system.

The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply,
such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.

The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main
pumping station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the
fields.

5. Municipal and industrial water supply

A large quantity of freshwater is being consumed daily by food processing; mineral mining and
processing; textile, paper, and pulps; nuclear and thermal power plants; and drugs and
pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and metallurgical industries, among others. However, some of
the major industries that use a large volume of water are nuclear and thermal power plants. To
meet both domestic and industrial needs, due to the higher demand for water by many industries,
especially in industrially developed nations, large capacity storage structures are always built to
store local rainfall runoff and water diverted from other river basins. Multipurpose hydraulic

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structures are the primary storage and sources of most water supply for domestic and industrial
purposes.

6. Environment protection

Another vital reason for hydraulic projects is for environmental protection and water
management, which may include farmland improvement by controlling soil erosion;
environmentally friendly hydropower supply; improved quality water supply for human, animal,
and industrial consumption; aquatic food supply; and recreational development. Nevertheless,
the negative impacts posed by the massive hydraulic structures on the environment and public
safety should always be considered in the course of design and construction processes. The
essential environmental issues are for the well-being of people living around the hydraulic
projects and to the other plants and animals for the social needs of humankind.

7. Recreation and other purposes

Many hydraulic projects also serve as a place for tourism, recreational, and sports activities. In
fact, in some countries, sometimes hydraulic projects are specially constructed for recreation
purposes. Some recreational activities carried out at the hydraulic project sites might include
swimming, fishing, boating, canoeing, scuba diving, and lakeside walking. Recreational
activities provide job opportunities to the teeming population and generate incomes to the
government and, at the same time, conserve the natural environment.

1.2 Classification of hydraulics structures according to use

Flow control structures

They are used to regulate the flow and pass excess flow. They might be gates, spillways, valves,
or outlets.

Flow measurement structures

They are used to measure discharge. They are weirs, orifices, flumes etc.

Division structures

They are used to divert the main course of water flow. They are coffer dams, weirs, canal
headwork’s, intake works.

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Conveyance structures

They are used to guide the flow from one place to another. They are open channels, pressure
conduit, pipes, canals and sewers

Collection structures

They are used to collect water for disposal. They are Drain inlets, infiltration galleries, wells.

Energy dissipation structures

They are used to prevent erosion and structural damage. They are stilling basins, surge dams,
check dams.

River retaining and water stabilizing structures

They are used to maintain river channel and water transportation. Levees, cutoffs, locks, piers,
culverts.

Sediment and quality control structures

They are used to control or remove sediments and other pollutants. They are racks, screens, traps,
sedimentation tanks, filters, sluiceways.
Hydraulic machine
They are used to convert energy from one form to another. They are turbines, pumps, and ramps.
Storage Structures
They are used for the purpose of storage of water. These may be dams or tanks etc.
Shore protection Structures
They are used to protect banks. Dikes, groins, jetties, revetments.

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2 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNEL

2.1 Alignment - canal capacity- losses- FSL of canal

2.1.1 Introduction
A canal is defined as an artificial channel constructed on the ground to carry water from a river
or another canal or a reservoir to the fields. Usually, canals have a trapezoidal cross-section.
Canals can be classified in many ways. Based on the nature of source of supply, a canal can be
either a permanent or an inundation canal. A permanent canal has a continuous source of water
supply. Such canals are also called perennial canals. An inundation canal draws its supplies from
a river only during the high stages of the river. Such canals do not have any head-works for
diversion of river water to the canal, but are provided with a canal head regulator. Depending on
their function, canals can also be classified as: (i) irrigation, (ii) navigation, (iii) power, and (iv)
feeder canals. An irrigation canal carries water from its source to agricultural fields. Canals used
for transport of goods are known as navigation canals. Power canals are used to carry water for
generation of hydroelectricity. A feeder canal feeds two or more canals. A canal can serve more
than one function. The slope of an irrigation canal is generally less than the ground slope in the
head reaches of the canal and, hence, vertical falls have often to be constructed. Power houses
may be constructed at these falls to generate power and, thus, irrigation canals can be used for
power generation also. Similarly, irrigation canals can also be utilized for the transportation of
goods and serve as navigation canals. Inland navigation forms a cheap means of transportation of
goods and, hence, must be developed.

2.1.2 canal capacity

An irrigation canal system consists of canals of different sizes and capacities. Accordingly, the
canals are also classified as: (i) main canal, (ii) branch canal, (iii) major distributary, (iv) minor
distributary, and (v) watercourse.

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Figure 2. 1Layout of an irrigation canal network

The main canal takes its supplies directly from the river through the head regulator and acts as a
feeder canal supplying water to branch canals and major distributaries. Usually, direct irrigation
is not carried out from the main canal. Branch canals (also called ‘branches’) take their supplies
from the main canal. Branch canals generally carry a discharge higher than 5 m 3/s and act as
feeder canals for major and minor distributaries. Large branches are rarely used for direct
irrigation. However, outlets are provided on smaller branches for direct irrigation. Major

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distributaries (also called ‘distributaries or raj Baha) carry 0.25 to 5 m 3/s of discharge. These
distributaries take their supplies generally from the branch canal and sometimes from the main
canal. The distributaries feed either water courses through outlets or minor distributaries. Minor
distributaries (also called ‘minors’) are small canals which carry a discharge less than 0.25 m 3/s
and feed the watercourses for irrigation. They generally take their supplies from major
distributaries or branch canals and rarely from the main canals. A watercourse is a small channel
which takes its supplies from an irrigation channel (generally distributaries) through an outlet
and carries water to the various parts of the area to be irrigated through the outlet.

2.1.3 Preliminary layout of irrigation canals

The layout on irrigation systems should take into consideration:

• The physical (technical) feasibility and

• The economic feasibility

The technical aspect of the layout of irrigation is meant for the physical possibility of putting the
proposed infrastructure on the ground. For instance, without the presence of rock-cutting
equipment’s, it is not possible to align a canal on a hard rock formation. Thus, one has to look an
alignment through which canals can easily be excavated.

The economic feasibility of an alignment will be determined after making a comparison between
various technically possible alternatives on an economic basis. For specific irrigation system
alignment there can be different alternatives; still, one has to assess all and choose the one with
the lowest costs.

Based on the alignment, irrigation canals can be classified into three:

Contour canal: is a canal aligned nearly parallel to the contour lines. However, the canal
should have sufficient slope along the flow in order to produce the required velocity of
flow. Such a canal irrigates only on one side of the canal (lower side). Such canals would
cross maximum number on natural drainages.

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150m

125n
-------

ALIGNMENT
F O LLOW S
R ID G IN E

R IG H T
BA K
C ANAL
(RBC)

ALlG N\1E
FOL.LO\VS
R IDGE L IN

Figure 2. 2 Contour Canal

Watershed canal (ridge canal): is a canal aligned along the watershed of the area to be
irrigated. Watershed in this case is the line dividing the total area into two small sub-
catchments within the area. Irrigation from a watershed canal is possible by gravity on
both sides. Cross drainage works will be avoided by this alignment as no natural drainage
can cross the natural watershed.

Figure 2. 3Ridge canal

Side slope canal: is a canal running roughly at right angles to the contour lines. Such
canals are aligned parallel to natural drainages and will not cross them.

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Figure 2. 4 Side slope canal

Factors to be considered during canal alignment:
 It should serve the entire area proposed to be irrigated.
 Cost of construction including cross drainage works should be minimized.
 Where canal crosses valleys, different types of cross drainage works are required.
 There should be Consideration of economy in alignment of contour canals.
 All possible alignments should be studied and the best suited alignment should be
selected.
 Number of rinks and acute curves should be minimized.
 They should be aligned as far as possible in partial cutting partial filling.
 Deep cutting should be avoided by comparing the overall cost of alternative
alignments.
 Reduce the maximum length and slope.
 Canal has to be lined to avoid seepage

2.1.4 Cana losses

When water flows continuously through a canal, losses take place due to seepage, deep
percolation and evaporation. These losses are sometimes known as transmission losses. These
should be properly accounted for; otherwise, lesser quantity of water will be available for
cultivation at the tail end. Water losses in canals can be broadly classified under three heads:

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Evaporation losses: The loss due to evaporation is generally a small percentage of the total loss
in unlined canal. It hardly exceeds 1 to 2 percent of the total water entering into the canal. The
evaporation losses depend upon: (i) Climatic factors such as temperature, humidity and wind
velocity and (ii) Canal factors such as water surface area, water depth and velocity of flow.
Maximum loss is there in summer months when temperature are high and wind velocities are
also high. Similarly, losses are maximum in unlined canals due to wider water surface area,
shallow water depth and low velocity. The average evaporation loss per day may vary between
4mm to 10mm.

Transpiration losses: The transpiration loss takes place through lot of vegetation and weeds
growth along the bank of canal. However, this forms an extremely small part of loss.

Seepage losses: Seepage losses constitute major portion of loss in an unlined canal. The seepage
losses are due to: (i) absorption of water in the upper layer of soil below the canal bed and due to
(ii) percolation of water into the water table, thus raising the water table. If, however water table
is much lower, seepage losses are only due to absorption. Percolation losses are always much
more than the absorption losses.

Percolation (or seepage) losses: When the water table is close to the canal bed, Percolation (or
seepage) occurs from the canal to the water table. There is a direct flow from the canal to the
ground water reservoir. Almost all the water which seeps from the channel joins the ground water
reservoir. The seepage losses mainly depend upon the total seepage head (difference between
canal water level and water table level) and the type of soil and are independent of the depth of
water in the channel.

Preventive measures of Canal losses

a. Canal lining: Canal lining is the process of making the bed and side of the canal
impervious to reduce canal losses.
b. Increasing the height of the canal despite width: This reduces evaporation and
percolation losses
c. Provision of proper slope gradient to the canal to increase the velocity of the water.
d. Removal of vegetation from the canal and its sides

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2.1.5 FSL of canal

The maximum level to which water is normally stored, not including any temporary surcharge
due to flooding effects

Figure 2. 5 full supply level of canal

2.2 Design of canal in alluvial and non-alluvial soils

The design discharge of an irrigation channel is fixed and depends upon the irrigated areas of
crops in different seasons and the water requirements of crops. The design of the canal is
mainly governed by the quantity of silt in the water and the type of boundary surface of the
channel. Depending upon these factors, the irrigation channels can be broadly classified into
following types:

1. Non alluvial channels: These are excavated in non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay,
moorum, boulder, etc. There is no silt problem in these channels and they are relatively
stable.

2. Rigid boundary channels: In the Rigid boundary channels, the surface of the channel is
lined. In such channels, relatively high velocity can be permitted which does not allow the
silt to get deposited; hence, the problem of silt does not exist.

3. Alluvial channels: These are excavated in alluvial soils, such as silt. In such channels, the
quantity of silt may vary from section to section along the reach. The silt content may
increase due to scouring of bed and sides of the channel and it may decrease due to silting at
some sections. If velocity is high, scouring occurs and if velocity is low, silting may occur.
Such channels should be designed for a no scouring and a non-silting velocity called the
critical velocity.

2.2.1 Design of canal in alluvial soils

ln the case of alluvial channels, the channel surface consists of alluvial soil which can be easily

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scoured. Moreover, the velocity is low which encourages silting. Therefore, in an alluvial
channel,

scouring and silting may occur if the channel is not properly designed. The quantity of silt
transported by water in an alluvial channel varies from section to section due to scouring of bed
and sides as well as due to Silting (or deposition). If the velocity is too high, scouring may occur.
On the other hand, if the velocity is too low, silting may occur.

The command of an irrigation channel decreases if the scouring occurs because the full supply
level falls. The discharge capacity is decreased if the silting occurs because the cross-section is
reduced. Therefore, the alluvial channel should be designed such that neither scouring nor silting
occurs. The velocity at which this condition occurs is called the critical velocity. Such an alluvial
channel is called a stable channel. Therefore, a stable channel is one in which banks and bed are
not scoured and also in which no silting occurs. Even if there is some minor scouring and silting,
the bed and banks of a stable channel remain more or less unaltered over a long period of time.
Several investigators have studied the problem and suggested various theories. These are known
as Silt theories. The most commonly used theories are:

1. Kennedy’s silt theory

R.G Kennedy, an executive engineer of Punjab PWD, carried out extensive investigations on
some of the canal reaches in the Upper Bari Doab canal system. He selected some straight
reaches of the canal section which had not posed any silting and scouring problems during the
previous 30 years. He considered the canal in those reaches as stable. Kennedy gave his theory,
in 1895, based on the investigations carried out on those reaches of the canal. From the
observations he concluded that the silt supporting power in a channel cross-section was mainly
dependent upon the generation of the eddies rising to the surface. These eddies are generated due
to the friction of the flowing water with the channel surface. The vertical component of these
eddies tries to move the sediment up while weight of the sediment tries to bring it down. So, if
the velocity is sufficient to generate eddies so as to keep the sediment just in suspension, silting
will be avoided based on the concept critical velocity. Eddies generated at the sides were
neglected by Kennedy because such eddies are horizontal for the greater part and therefore have
very little silt supporting power. Therefore, the eddies generated only at the bed of the channel

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are effective for transportation of the silt. Thus, the silt supporting power is proportional to the
bed width (and not the wetted perimeter). Kennedy therefore, selected the relevant parameter as
the depth of flow D (and not the hydraulic radius R) for the critical velocity.

Figure 2. 6 Generation of eddies (according to Kennedy)

According to Kennedy, the critical velocity Vc in a channel may be defined as the mean velocity

of flow which will just keep the channel free from silting or scouring.
0.64
V O =0.55 D

Later he recognized that the grade (or size) of silt played an important role in the silt-carrying

capacity of the channel and introduced another factor, called the critical velocity ratio (m). the

equation was thus modified as:

0.64
V =0.55 mD

m = critical velocity ratio = 1.1 to 1.2 for coarse sand= 0.8 to 0.9 for fine sand

Kennedy’s method of design: Kennedy used 3 basic equations, namely:

1. Continuity equation Q= A∗V

2. Flow equation (kutter’s equation) V =[

1
N (
+ 23+
0.00155
S ) ] √ RS
(
1+ 23+
0.00155 N
S √R )
3. Kennedy’s critical velocity equation: V =0.55 m D0.64

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Generally, discharge Q, Manning’s coefficient N and the C.V.R (m) are given or assumed. Still
there are 4 unknowns, namely A, V, R and S. Since there are only 3 equations and 4 unknowns,
the complete solution is not possible. To obtain the complete solution, either bed slope or B/D
ratio is assumed.

Design Procedure:

1. When the bed slope is given:

Given: Q, m, N and S.

Steps:

Assume a trial value of the depth D.

Calculate the velocity V using V =0.55 m D0.64
Determine the cross-sectional area, A = Q/V
Assuming a side slope of 0.5: 1, compute the bed width.
2
2 A−0.5 D
A=BD +0.5 D or B=
D

Compute the wetted perimeter for the assumed depth and computed bed width.

P=B+2 D √ 1+ m2

Compute the hydraulic radius from the relation

2
A BD+ 0.5 D
R= =
P B+2 D √ 1+m2

Calculate the actual mean velocity V from Kutter’s equation

V =[
1
N
+ 23+ (
0.00155
S ) ] √ RS
(
1+ 23+
S )
0.00155 N
√R
If the velocity computed now is same as found by Kennedy’s method, the design depth is correct.
Otherwise, repeat the above steps by assuming different depth of flow. If the Velocity from

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Kennedy’s equation is less than that from Kutter’s equation, a greater value of D is assumed for
the next trial and vice versa.

2. Design procedure when B/D is given:

Given: Q, m, N and B/D.
Steps:
Calculate the area in terms of D.
2 2 B
A=BD +0.5 D =D ( +0.5)
D
2
Or A=D (X +0.5)
Write the continuity equation and substitute Kennedy’s equation for the velocity.
Q = AV = D 2 ( X + 0.5)0.55 m D 0.64
Calculate the value of D from above equation.
Determine the bed width. B = x D
Compute the hydraulic radius.
2
BD +0.5 D
R=
B+2 D √ 1+m2
Determine the velocity V from the relation
V = 0.55 m D 0.64
Compute the slope from Kutter’s equation. (For the first trial, the term 0.00155/S may be
neglected).
Drawbacks of Kennedy’s theory:
i) In the absence of B/D relation the Kennedy theory does not provide easy basis for
fixing channel dimensions uniquely.
ii) Perfect definitions of silt grade and silt charge are not given.
iii) Complex phenomenon of silt transportation is not fully accounted and only
critical velocity ratio (m) concept is considered sufficient.
iv) There is no provision to decide longitudinal slope under the scope of the theory.
v) By use of Kutter's formula inherent limitations there in remain applicable in
Kennedy's channel design procedure.

Lacey’s Regime theory

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Lacey, an eminent engineer of U.P irrigation department carried out extensive investigations

on the design of stable channel in alluviums. On the basis of his research work he found many

drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory and he put forward his new theory .He differentiated between
three

regime conditions:

1. True regime 2.initial regime 3.final regime

Three regimes – true, initial and final:

True regime: A channel will be in true regime if these conditions are satisfied:

1. Discharge is constant
2. Flow is uniform
3. Silt charge is constant
4. Silt grade is constant

Initial regime: It is the first stage of regime attained by an artificial channel. The channel when
excavated has somewhat a smaller width and a flatter slope. As the channel comes in operation
and flow takes place, the bed slope of the channel is increased due to deposition of silt on the bed
of the channel when the channel throws down its incoherent silt on the bed. It increases the
velocity of flow in the channel which allows the given discharge to flow through the channel of
the smaller width. With an increase of bed slope, the depth of channel may also change.
However, the width of the channel does not change because the sides of the channel are usually
cohesive and they resist erosion. If the soil in banks is clay, the sides may resist erosion almost
indefinitely.

The channel in an alluvial soil achieves equilibrium, called the initial regime after running for
some time. This is achieved by change in bed slope and depth when discharge, silt grade, silt
charge and width remain constant. However, this stability is only temporary because the width of
the channel has so far not been adjusted to suit the requirement of a regime channel.

Final regime: It is the ultimate regime attained by an alluvial channel when in addition to bed
slope and depth, the width of the channel has also been adjusted. After a long time, because of

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continuous action of water, the resistance of the sides of the channel is overcome and finally gets
adjusted according to discharge and silt grade, then the channel is said to have permanent
stability called final regime.

Lacey’s Basic regime equations:

Lacey found that the silt is kept in suspension by the vertical component of eddies, but he also
considered the eddies generated at the sides of the channel which have vertical components and
hence support the silt. Lacey, therefore, considered the hydraulic radius R as the characteristic
parameter rather than the depth of flow D considered by Kennedy.

Figure 2. 7 Generation of eddies (according to Lacey)

Lacey’s fundamental equations:

Lacey gave four basic equations:

1. Silt factor: This is similar to C.V.R (m) as introduced by Kennedy. The silt factor was
related to the average particle size of the silt. The silt factor depends upon the average size
of the channel boundary material and its density. Since the specific gravity of all the
transported material is same (about 2.65), the difference in density is ignored, hence the silt
factor is related only to the particle size. Lacey gave the following equation for silt factor:
f =1.76 √ m
m is the average particle size in mm.
2. Relation between mean velocity (V) and hydraulic radius (R):

V=
√ 2
5
fR

3. Relation between cross-sectional area (A) and mean velocity (V)

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2 5
A f =140 V
2/ 3 1 /3
4. Flow equation: V =10.8 R S
Lacey’s derived equations:
Following equations are derived from the Lacey’s basic or fundamental equations as:
2 5
1. Velocity equation: A f =140 V
Multiplying both sides by V: ( AV ¿ f 2=140 V 6
2 6
Q f =140V
1 /6
Or V =(Qf ¿¿ 2/ 140) ¿
2. Wetted perimeter equation:

V=
√ 2
5
fR or V =
4 4 2 2
25
5
f R

2 5 2 140 V
Also A f =140 V or f =
A
5
4 V
Eliminating f2 from above equations: V 4 = (140 ) R
2
25 A
25
Or ¿
4

Writing R=A/P, we have

25
4
¿) = 140 V 2 or P2 Q=
140∗4 2 2
25
V A ∨P2 Q=
25
Q(
140∗4 2
) ( )
Solving P = 4.75√ Q

√
2
2 5V
3. Hydraulic radius equation: V = fR or R=
5 2 f
2 1/ 3
2 Qf
Also V =( )
140
2 1/ 32
Qf
( )
Solving these 5 140
R=
2 f
1/ 3
Q
Or R=0.481( )
f
1 /3
Q
Generally, this constant is taken as 0.47. Therefore, R=0.47( )
f
2/ 3 1 /3
4. Slope equation: V =10.8 R S or V 3=1260 R2 S

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3
Also V =¿
3/ 2
2 f
Therefore, 1260 R S=¿ or S= 3/ 2 ------------(a)
4980 R
3/ 2
0.0002 f
Or S= 3/2
R

Alternative equation: V=
√ 2
5
fR

1 /6
Also V =(Qf ¿¿ 2/ 140) ¿

√ 2
5
1 /2
1 /6
fR = (Qf ¿¿ 2/140) ¿

2 1/ 6 1 /6
1 /2 5 Qf Q
Or R =( ) ( ) =( )
2f 140 8.96 f
Substituting the value of R1 /2 from equation (a):
3 /2 1 /6
f Q
=( )
4980 S 8.96 f
5/ 3
0.0002 f
S= 1/ 6
Q
Design of channels by Lacey’s equation:
Procedure:
Given: Discharge Q and silt factor .
Steps:
1 /6
Determine the velocity. V =(Qf ¿¿ 2/ 140) ¿
Calculate the area of flow. A = Q/V
Compute the wetted perimeter. P = 4.75√ Q
Knowing the area of flow and wetted perimeter, determine the depth D and width B
from the geometrical relations given below, using a side slope of 0.5:1.
A = BD + 0.5 D2 and P = B+D√ 5
5/ 3
0.0002 f
Determine the bed slope: S= 1/ 6
Q
2.2.2 Design of canal in non-alluvial soils
Non-alluvial channels are considered stable as there is no silt problem in such channels.
These channels are usually designed on the basis of the maximum permissible velocity which the
channel boundary surface can resist without scouring.

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The side slopes of the channel excavated in clay are generally kept 1:1 in cutting and 1.5:1 in
filling. For the channels in grit, soft rock and hard rock, the safe side slopes are usually taken as
0.5:1, 0.25:1 and 0.125:1 respectively. In hard rock, the sides may even be kept vertical.
The design of non- alluvial channels is done by Chezy’s equation or Manning’s formula:
i. Chezy’s equation
V =C √ RS
where C is Chezy’s coefficient, given by
87
C=
K
1+
√R
where K is Bazin’s coefficient, which depends upon the surface of the channel.
R is hydraulic radius
S is longitudinal slope.
ii. Manning’s formula
1 2/ 3 1 /2
V= R S
N
where N is Manning’s coefficient and depends upon the type of surface.
Procedure for design: The following procedure is used for the design of a non- alluvial channel
by Manning’s formula. Similar procedure can be used for the design by Chezy’s equation.
Given: Discharge (Q), maximum permissible velocity (V), Manning’s N, Bed slope (S) and the
side slope (r: 1) are given.
Steps:
1. Determine the area of cross-section from the continuity equation
Q = AV or A = Q/V
2. Determine the hydraulic radius R from the manning’s formula.
3/ 2
1 2/ 3 1 /2 VN
V= R S or R=( 1
)
N 2
S
3. Determine the wetted perimeter from the relation, P = A/R
4. Determine the depth D and bed width B from the values of A and P by solving the equations
given below
(B +r D) D = A
B + (2√ 1+r 2)D =P

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2.3 Lining of irrigation channels

Canal Lining is an impermeable layer provided for the bed and sides of canal to improve the life
and discharge capacity of canal. Canal Linings are provided in canals to resist the flow of water
through its bed and sides. 60 to 80% of water lost through seepage in an unlined canal can be
saved by construction canal lining. These can be constructed using different materials such as
compacted earth, cement, concrete, plastics, boulders, bricks etc. The main advantage of canal
lining is to protect the water from seepage loss.
Types of Canal Linings:
Canal linings are classified into three major types based on the nature of surface and they are:
1. Earthen type lining 2. Hard surface lining 3. Buried membrane lining
1. Earthen Type lining
Earthen Type linings are again classified into two types and they are as follows:
Compacted Earth Lining
Soil Cement Lining
Compacted Earth Lining:

Compacted earth linings are preferred for the canals when the earth is available near the site of
construction or In-situ. If the earth is not available near the site then it becomes costlier to
construct compacted earth lining.

Figure 2. 8 Compacted Earth Lining

Compaction reduces soil pore sizes by displacing air and water. Reduction in void size increases
the density, compressive strength and shear strength of the soil and reduces permeability. This is

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accompanied by a reduction in volume and settlement of the surface. Proper compaction is

essential to increase the stability and frost resistance (where required) and to decrease erosion
and seepage losses.

Soil Cement Lining:

Soil-cement linings are constructed with mixtures of sandy soil, cement and water, which harden
to a concrete-like material. The cement content should be minimum 2- 8% of the soil by volume.
However, larger cement contents are also used. In general, for the construction of soil- cement
linings following

two methods are used.

 Dry-mix method
 Plastic mix method

Figure 2. 9 Soil Cement lining

For erosion protection and additional strength in large channels, the layer of soil-cement is
sometimes covered with coarse soil. It is recommended that the soil-cement lining should be
protected from the weather for seven days by spreading approximately 50 mm of soil, straw or
hessian bags over it and keeping the cover moistened to allow proper curing. Water sprinkling
should continue for 28 days following installation.
Hard Surface Canal Linings:
It is sub divided into 3 types and they are:
Cement Concrete Lining
Brick Lining
Boulder Lining

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Cement Concrete Lining:

Cement Concrete linings are widely used, with benefits justifying their relatively high cost. They
are tough, durable, relatively impermeable and hydraulically efficient. Concrete linings are
suitable for both small and large channels and both high and low flow velocities. They fulfill
every purpose of lining. There are several procedures of lining using cement concrete.
 Cast in situ lining
 Shotcrete lining
 Precast concrete lining
 Cement mortar lining

Figure 2. 10 Cement concrete lining

Brick Lining:
In case of brick lining, bricks are laid using cement mortar on the sides and bed of the canal.
After laying bricks, smooth finish is provided on the surface using cement mortar.

Figure 2. 11 Brick lining

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Boulder Lining
This type of lining is constructed with dressed stone blocks laid in mortar. Properly dressed
stones are not available in nature. Irregular stone blocks are dressed and chipped off as per
requirement. When roughly dressed stones are used for lining, the surface is rendered rough
which may put lot of resistance to flow. Technically the coefficient of rugosity will be higher.
Thus, the stone lining is limited to the situation where loss of head is not an important
consideration and where stones are available at moderate cost.

Figure 2. 12 Boulder lining

Plastic Lining:
Plastic lining of canal is newly developed technique and holds good promise. There are three
types of plastic membranes which are used for canal lining, namely:
 Low density poly ethylene
 High molecular high-density polythene
 Polyvinyl chloride
The advantages of providing plastic lining to the canal are many as plastic is negligible in
weight, easy for handling, spreading and transport, immune to chemical action and speedy
construction.
The plastic film is spread on the prepared sub-grade of the canal. To anchor the membrane on the
banks ‘V’ trenches are provided. The film is then covered with protective soil cover.

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Figure 2. 13 Plastic Lining

2.4 Water logging

Waterlogging occurs when the soil is saturated with water. The agricultural land becomes
waterlogged when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops get saturated and the normal
conditions circulation of air is cutoff. The waterlogging affects the productivity of the land and
leads to a reduction in the crop yield. Waterlogging generally occurs because of over-irrigation,
high water table and the poor water management.

Due to the presence of water at or near the land surface, evaporation takes place continuously.
Because of evaporation, there is a continuous upward flow of water from the water table if it is
high because of the capillary action. Water brings salts with it and when the water evaporates,
these salts get accumulated on the surface. These salts affect the fertility of the soil, and the soil
may become alkaline. Waterlogging can be prevented to a large extent by providing an effective
drainage system.

2.4.1 Causes of waterlogging

Waterlogging of the land occurs when the water table rises and the soil in the root zone of the
plants gets saturated and the air circulation is stopped. Waterlogging generally occurs because of
intensive irrigation and inadequate drainage of the irrigated land. Waterlogging affects the
productivity and the fertility of the land and causes a reduction in the crop yield. The causes of
waterlogging are:

1. Over-Irrigation: The main cause of waterlogging is over-irrigation of the land. The excess

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water applied to the land percolates deep into the ground and joins the water table. As the ground

water storage is augmented, the water table rises. As soon as the water table comes close to the

land surface, waterlogging occurs.

2. Inadequate surface drainage: Waterlogging usually occurs when there is inadequate surface

drainage of the irrigated land. Heavy precipitation along with inadequate surface drainage causes

flooding of the land. The prolonged flooding (or inundation) results in heavy percolation of

water into the ground, which causes a rise of the water table and hence waterlogging.

3. Obstruction of natural surface drainage: If a natural drainage (stream) near the irrigated

area is obstructed by constructing an embankment for a road, canal, etc., the flooding of the area

may occur leading to waterlogging.

4. Obliteration of a natural drainage: If an existing natural drainage is destroyed, it results in

stoppage of natural flow and hence waterlogging.

5. Obstruction of natural subsurface drainage: If there is an impermeable stratum below the

land surface at a relatively low depth, it prevents natural downward movement of water into the

subsoil which may result in the formation of perched water table that can cause waterlogging.

6. Impervious top layer: If the top layer of the land is impervious, it obstructs the flow in the

downward direction. Such land is prone to waterlogging due to irrigation.

7. Seepage from canals: Water Seeps from the bed and sides of an unlined canal. It adds to the

ground water reservoir and there is a general rise in the water table, which may lead to

waterlogging.

8. Construction of a reservoir: If a large reservoir is constructed in the region, there is an

increase in the water level on the upstream of the dam. Consequently, there is an increase in the

inflow to the groundwater storage and a decrease in the outflow from the groundwater as base

flow of the river. The adjoining area may get waterlogged.

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9. Defective methods of cultivation: If the defective methods of cultivation are used, there may

be ponding up of water on the land surface which may cause waterlogging. The defective

methods of cultivation include construction of high levees (bunds) which obstruct the natural

drainage, inadequate preparation of land, failure to smoothen the field after tillage, improper

disposal of spoil earth, improper selection or crops and growing crop which require excessive

watering.

10. Defective irrigation practice: Waterlogging may also occur due to detective irrigation

practice, such as adopting high intensity of irrigation, applying high depth of water and using

detective method of application of water like wild flooding.

2.4.2 Ill effects of waterlogging

1. Reduction in growth of plants: Because of waterlogging, there is absence of aeration in the

roots of plants due to which the plant growth is reduced.

2. Difficulty in cultivation: For optimum results in crop production, the land has to be prepared.

The preparation of land in wet condition is difficult and expensive. As a result, cultivation may

be delayed and the crop yield adversely affected.

3. Accumulation of salts: As a result of high-water table in waterlogged areas, there is an

upward capillary flow of water to the land surface where water gets evaporated. The upward

moving water brings with it soluble salts from the salty soil layers well below the surface. These

soluble salts carried by the upward moving water are left behind in the root zone when this water

evaporates. The accumulation of these salts in the root zone of the soil may affect the crop yield

considerably.

4. Weed growth: There are certain types of plants and grasses which grow rapidly in marshy
lands. In waterlogged lands, these plants compete with the desired useful crop. Thus, the yield of
the desired useful crop is adversely affected.

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5. Increase in plant diseases: Because of waterlogging, various diseases occur in the plants,
which decrease their growth.

6. Lowering of soil temperature: The presence of excessive moisture content lowers the
temperature of the soil. In low temperature the bacteriological activities are retarded which
affects the crop growth badly.

7. Increase in incidence of malaria: The waterlogged land becomes a breeding place for
mosquitoes which may cause malaria. Moreover, the climate becomes damp which may affect

the health of community.

2.4.3 Measures for prevention of waterlogging

The main cause of waterlogging in an area is the introduction of canal irrigation in the area. It is;
therefore, better to plan an irrigation scheme in such a way that the land is prevented from
getting waterlogged. The following measures are usually adopted for prevention of waterlogging
or relieving the area, which are waterlogged.

1. Limiting the intensity of irrigation: In regions where there is a possibility of waterlogging,

the annual intensity of irrigation should be kept low, not more than 40 to 60%.

2. Providing a drainage system: Waterlogging can be prevented by providing a properly

designed drainage system.

3. Lining the canal section: When the canal section is made fairly watertight by providing

lining, the seepage loss is reduced to quite a good extent.

4. By lowering the FSL of the canal: Loss may be due to percolation or absorption but when

FSL is lowered the loss is reduced to sufficient extent. The canal should be designed such that its

FSL is as low as possible, consistent with the requirements of flow irrigation for the commanded

area.

5. Improving the natural drainage of the area: Improving the natural drainage involves

removing obstruction to the flow such as weeds, bushes and other vegetations from the stream

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section. Straightening of the streams and canalizing them into shallow wide reaches improves the
natural drainage. Increasing the bed slopes of the streams also improves the drainage. The
chances of waterlogging are considerably reduced if the natural drainage of the area is good.

6. Provision of intercepting drains: These are generally constructed parallel to the canal. The
water seeping from the unlined canal can be intercepted by providing intercepting. They give
exceptionally good results for the reach where the canal runs in high embankments.

7. Increasing outflow from the groundwater reservoir: If the well irrigation is adopted in the
area, the water table goes down and the chances of waterlogging are considerably less. In fact, a
judicious combination of the canal irrigation and the well irrigation in the same area is an ideal
solution for the waterlogging problems.

8. Changing the crop pattern: In regions susceptible to waterlogging, the crop pattern should
be changed so that the crop requiring heavy irrigation should be avoided and those requiring
light irrigation is encouraged.

9. Prevention of seepage from reservoir: The seepage from small reservoirs can be reduced by
lining the surface of the reservoirs. Also suitably designed filters should be provided so that
seepage from the reservoirs is discharged into streams.

10. Changing the assessment method: If the water supplied to the cultivators is assessed on
area basis; the cultivators have a tendency to use excess water which causes waterlogging. By
adopting the volumetric assessment of water, the excess use of water is controlled and the
chances of waterlogging are reduced.

11. Adopting better methods of application of water: By adopting efficient methods of

application of water, such as Sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation, waterlogging can be
prevented.

12. Educating the cultivators to use water economically: The cultivators should be apprised of
ill effects of waterlogging. They should be trained to use water economically and avoid wasteful
use of water.

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3 DAMS

3.1 Introduction
Dam, structure built across a stream, a river, or an estuary to retain water. Dams are built to
provide water for human consumption, for irrigating arid and semiarid lands, or for use in
industrial processes. They are used to increase the amount of water available for generating
hydroelectric power, to reduce peak discharge of floodwater created by large storms or heavy
snowmelt, or to increase the depth of water in a river in order to improve navigation and allow
barges and ships to travel more easily. Dams can also provide a lake for recreational activities
such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Many dams are built for more than one purpose; for
example, water in a single reservoir can be used for fishing, to generate hydroelectric power, and
to support an irrigation system. Water-control structures of this type are often designated
multipurpose dams.

Auxiliary works that can help a dam function properly include spillways, movable gates, and
valves that control the release of surplus water downstream from the dam. Dams can also include
intake structures that deliver water to a power station or to canals, tunnels, or pipelines designed
to convey the water stored by the dam to far-distant places. Other auxiliary works are systems for
evacuating or flushing out silt that accumulates in the reservoir, locks for permitting the passage
of ships through or around the dam site, and fish ladders (graduated steps) and other devices to
assist fish seeking to swim past or around a dam.

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A dam can be a central structure in a multipurpose scheme designed to conserve water resources
on a regional basis. Multipurpose dams can hold special importance in developing countries,
where a single dam may bring significant benefits related to hydroelectric power

production, agricultural development, and industrial growth. However, dams have become a
focus of environmental concern because of their impact on migrating fish and riparian
ecosystems. In addition, large reservoirs can inundate vast tracts of land that are home to many
people, and this has fostered opposition to dam projects by groups who question whether the
benefits of proposed projects are worth the costs.

In terms of engineering, dams fall into several distinct classes defined by structural type and by
building material. The decision as to which type of dam to build largely depends on the
foundation conditions in the valley, the construction materials available, the accessibility of the
site to transportation networks, and the experiences of the engineers, financiers, and promoters
responsible for the project. In modern dam engineering, the choice of materials is usually
between concrete, earth fill, and rockfill. Although in the past a number of dams were built of
jointed masonry, this practice is now largely obsolete and has been supplanted by concrete.
Concrete is used to build massive gravity dams, thin arch dams, and buttress dams. The
development of roller-compacted concrete allowed high-quality concrete to be placed with the
type of equipment originally developed to move, distribute, and consolidate earth fill. Earth fill
and rockfill dams are usually grouped together as embankment dams because they constitute
huge mounds of earth and rock that are assembled into imposing man-made embankments.

3.2 History of dams

The oldest known dam in the world is a masonry and earthen embankment at Jawa in the Black
Desert of modern Jordan. The Jawa Dam was built in the 4th millennium BCE to hold back the
waters of a small stream and allow increased irrigation production on arable land downstream.
Evidence exists of another masonry-faced earthen dam built about 2700 BCE at Sadd el-Kafara,
about 30 km (19 miles) south of Cairo, Egypt. The Sadd el-Kafara failed shortly after completion
when, in the absence of a spillway that could resist erosion, it was overtopped by a flood and
washed away. The oldest dam still in use is a rockfill embankment about 6 meters (20 feet) high
on the Orontes River in Syria, built about 1300 BCE for local irrigation use.

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The Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians built dams between 700 and 250 BCE for water supply
and irrigation. Contemporary with these was the earthen Marib Dam in the southern Arabian
Peninsula, which was more than 15 meters (50 feet) high and nearly 600 meters (1,970 feet)
long. Flanked by spillways, this dam delivered water to a system of irrigation canals for more
than 1,000 years. Remains of the Maʾrib Dam are still evident in present-day Maʾrib, Yemen.
Other dams were built in this period in Sri Lanka, India, and China.

The Romans

Despite their skill as civil engineers, the Romans’ role in the evolution of dams is not particularly
remarkable in terms of number of structures built or advances in height. Their skill lay in the
comprehensive collection and storage of water and in its transport and distribution by aqueducts.
At least two Roman dams in southwestern Spain, Proserpina and Cornalbo, are still in use, while
the reservoirs of others have filled with silt. The Proserpina Dam, 12 metres (40 feet) high,
features a masonry-faced core wall of concrete backed by earth that is strengthened by buttresses
supporting the downstream face. The Cornalbo Dam features masonry walls that form cells;
these cells are filled with stones or clay and faced with mortar. The merit of curving a dam
upstream was appreciated by at least some Roman engineers, and the forerunner of the modern
curved gravity dam was built by Byzantine engineers in 550 CE at a site near the present
Turkish-Syrian border.

Early dams of East Asia

In East Asia, dam construction evolved quite independently from practices in the Mediterranean
world. In 240 BCE a stone crib was built across the Jing River in the Gukou valley in China; this
structure was about 30 meters (100 feet) high and about 300 meters (1,000 feet) long. Many
earthen dams of moderate height (in some cases of great length) were built by the Sinhalese in
Sri Lanka after the 5th century BCE to form reservoirs or tanks for extensive irrigation works.
The Kalabalala Tank, which was formed by an earthen dam 24 meters (79 feet) high and nearly 6
km (3.75 miles) in length, had a perimeter of 60 km (37 miles) and helped store monsoon rainfall
for irrigating the country around the ancient capital of Anuradhapura. Many of these tanks in Sri
Lanka are still in use today.

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In Japan the Diamonike Dam reached a height of 32 metres (105 feet) in 1128 CE. Numerous
dams were also constructed in India and Pakistan. In India a design employing hewn stone to
face the steeply sloping sides of earthen dams evolved, reaching a climax in the 16-km- (10-
mile-) long Veeranam Dam in Tamil Nadu, built from 1011 to 1037 CE.

In Persia (modern-day Iran) the Kebar Dam and the Kurit Dam represented the world’s first
large-scale thin-arch dams. The Kebar and Kurit dams were built early in the 14th century by Il-
Khanid Mongols; the Kebar Dam reached a height of 26 meters (85 feet), and the Kurit Dam,
after successive heightenings over the centuries, extended 64 meters (210 feet) above its
foundation. Remarkably, the Kurit Dam stood as the world’s tallest dam until the beginning of
the 20th century. By the end of the 20th century, its reservoir had almost completely silted in,
causing floodwaters to regularly overtop the dam and cause serious erosion. A new, larger dam
was built just above the old one in order to create a new reservoir and redirect floodwaters away
from the ancient structure.

Forerunners of the modern dam the 15th to the 18th century

In the 15th and 16th centuries, dam construction resumed in Italy and, on a larger scale, in Spain,
where Roman and Moorish influence was still felt. In particular, the Tibi Dam across the
Monnegre River in Spain, a curved gravity structure 42 metres (138 feet) high, was not surpassed
in height in western Europe until the building of the Gouffre d’Enfer Dam in France almost three
centuries later. Also in Spain, the 23-metre- (75-foot-) high Elche Dam, which was built in the
early 17th century for irrigation use, was an innovative thin-arch masonry structure. In the
British Isles and northern Europe, where rainfall is ample and well distributed throughout the
year, dam construction before the Industrial Revolution proceeded on only a modest scale in
terms of height. Dams were generally limited to forming water reservoirs for towns, powering
water mills, and supplying water for navigation canals. Probably the most remarkable of these
structures was the 35-metre- (115-foot-) high earthen dam built in 1675 at Saint-Ferréol, near
Toulouse, France. This dam provided water for the Midi Canal, and for more than 150 years it
was the highest earthen dam in the world.

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3.3 Type & Selection of dams

3.3.1 Classification of Dams:
Dams can be classified as per their functions, material of construction, and structural design:

(i) Classification based on function:

(a) Storage (or impounding) dam is constructed across a river to create a reservoir for storing
water during the period when the flow in the river is in excess. This stored water is then used for
irrigation, power generation and water supply when the demand exceeds the flow in the river.

(b) Detention dam is primarily constructed to detain all or part of the flood waters of a river and
released later in such a way that the region downstream of the dam is safe against flood damages.
A dam can also serve both the functions of detention as well as storage.

(c) Diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water into a canal. Such a dam is
usually called diversion weir.

(d) Coffer dam is a temporary dam constructed to keep water away from a specific area to keep
it dry for some specific purpose, such as construction of the main dam. The coffer dam too acts
like diversion dam.

(e) Debris dam is constructed across a river to trap sediments of the river.

(ii) Classification based on material of construction:

(a) Earth and rock fill dams are constructed of loose earth (ranging from fine material to big
rock pieces) without any binding material. An earth dam having its major portion built of rocks
is called rock fill dam. Such dams are also known as non-rigid dams.

(b) Masonry dams are rigid dams constructed of either stone or brick masonry.

(c) Concrete dams too are rigid dams constructed of concrete.

(iii) Classification based on structural design:

(a) Earth and rock fill dams are non-rigid dams constructed of loose earth material. Shear
strength of the soil used in the construction of these dams opposes the forces exerted on the dam
by water.

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The difference between an earth and rock fill dam is that in case of rock fill dam major portion of
the dam is primarily made of rock pieces, whereas in case of the earth dam it is the soil which is
used for the construction of embankment.
Conditions favoring selection of earth and rock fill dams are as follows:
(i) Significant thickness of soil deposits overlying bedrock.
(ii) Weak or soft bedrock which would not be able to resist high stresses from a concrete dam.
(iii) Abutments of either deep soil deposits or weak rock.
(iv) Availability of a suitable location for a spillway.
(v) Availability of sufficient and suitable soils from required excavation or nearby borrow areas.
Earth dams are further divided into the following types:
(i) Homogeneous earth dam
(ii) Zoned earth dam
(iii) Diaphragm
Homogeneous earth dams are constructed entirely or almost entirely of one type of earth
material. A zoned earth dam, however, contains materials of different kinds in different parts of
the embankment. Homogeneous earth dam is usually built when only one type of material is
economically available, and/or the height of the dam is not very large.
A homogeneous earth dam of height exceeding about 6 to 8 m should always have some type of
drain [Fig. 3.1] constructed of material more pervious than the embankment soil. Such drains
reduce pore pressures in the downstream portion of the dam and, thus, increase the stability of
the downstream slope.
Besides, the drains control the outgoing seepage water in such a manner that it does not carry
away embankment soil i.e., piping does not develop. Such a dam is also categorized as
homogeneous (sometimes ‘modified homogeneous’) dam [Fig. 3.1).

Figure 3. 1 Homogeneous earth dam

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The most common type of an earth dam usually adopted is the zoned earth dam as it leads to an
economic and more stable design of the dam. In a zoned earth dam [Fig. 3.2], there is a central
impervious core which is flanked by zones of more pervious material. The pervious zones, also
known as shells, enclose, support and protect the impervious core.

Figure 3. 2 Zoned earth dam

The upstream shell provides stability against rapid drawdowns of reservoir, while the
downstream shell acts as a drain to control the line of seepage and provides stability to the dam
during construction and operation of the dam. The central core provides imperviousness to the
embankment and reduces the seepage.
The impervious core can be placed either as vertical core or upstream sloping core each of which
has some advantages over the other. A vertical core results in higher pressure on the contact
between the core and the foundation which, in turn, reduces the possibility of leakage along the
contact. Besides, for a given quantity of impervious material, vertical core will have greater
thickness.
The main advantage of an upstream sloping core is that the main downstream shell can be
constructed first, and the core placed later an advantageous feature in areas having short spell of
dry weather suitable for building a core of fine-grained soil. Also, foundation grouting can be
carried out while the downstream embankment is being constructed.
A rock-fill dam (Fig. 3.3) is made of large-sized rock pieces to provide stability and an
impervious membrane to provide water-tightness. Materials used for the membrane are: earth,
concrete, steel, asphalt and wood. The impervious membrane can be placed either on the
upstream face of the dam or as a core inside the embankment.

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Figure 3. 3 Rock-fill Dam

The major causes of failure of an earth dam are overtopping, piping, and earth slides in a portion
of the embankment and its foundation (due to insufficient shear strength). Out of these three,
overtopping is the most common cause of complete and catastrophic failure of an embankment
dam.
Diaphragm type embankments have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by earth or rock
fill. The impervious core, called diaphragm, is mad of impervious soils, concrete, steel, timber
any other material. It acts as a water barrier to prevent seepage through the dam. The diaphragm,
may be placed either at the center as a central vertical core or at the upstream face as a blanket.
The diaphragm must also be tied to the bed rock or to a very impervious foundation material, if
excessive under-seepage through the existing previous foundations has to be avoided (Fig. 3.4).
The diaphragm type of embankments is differentiated from zoned embankments, depending
upon the thickness of the core. If the thickness of the diaphragm at any elevation is less than 10
meters or less than .the height of the embankment above the corresponding elevation, the dam
embankment is considered to be of 'Diaphragm Type'. But if the thickness equals or exceeds
these limits, it is considered to be of zoned embankment type.

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Figure 3. 4 Diaphragm type embankments

The design of an embankment dam must meet the following safety requirements:
(i) There is no danger of overtopping. For this purpose, spillway of adequate capacity and
sufficient freeboard must be provided.
(ii) The seepage line is well within the downstream face so that horizontal piping may not occur.
(iii) The upstream and the downstream slopes are flat enough to be stable with the materials used
for the construction of embankment for all conditions during construction, operation and sudden
drawdown.
(iv) The shear stress induced in the foundation is less than the shear strength of the foundation
material. For this purpose, the embankment slopes should be sufficiently flat.
(v) The upstream and the downstream faces are properly protected against wave action and the
action of rain water, respectively.
(vi) There should not be any possibility of free passage of water through the embankment.
(vii) Foundation seepage should not result in piping at the downstream toe of the dam.
(viii) The top of the dam must be high enough to allow for the settlement of the dam and its
foundation.
(ix) The foundations, abutments and the embankment must be stable for all conditions of
operation (steady seepage and sudden drawdown) and construction.
(b) Gravity dam (Fig. 3.5) is a masonry or concrete dam which resists the forces exerted upon it
due to all applied loads, and its own weight. A gravity dam has been defined as a structure which
is designed in' such a way that its own weight resists the external forces. This type of a structure
is most durable and solid, and requires very little maintenance. Such a dam may be constructed

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of masonry or concrete. However, concrete gravity dams are preferred these days and mostly
constructed. They can be constructed with ease on any dam site, where there exists a natural
foundation strong enough to bear the enormous weight of the dam. Such a dam is generally
straight in plan, although sometimes, it may be slightly curve. The line of the upstream face of
the dam, or the line of the crown of the dam if the upstream face in sloping, is taken as the
reference line for layout purposes, etc. and is known as the Base line of the dam or the 'Axis. of
the Dam'. When suitable conditions are available, such dam’s can be constructed up to great
heights. The highest gravity .dam in the world is Grand Dixence Dan:i in Switzerland (284m),
followed by ·Bhakra dam in India (226 m); both are of concrete gravity type. The ratio of base
width to height of all these structures is less than 1 : 1.

Figure 3. 5 Gravity dam

Typical Cross-section
A typical cross-sectional concrete gravity dam is shown in Fig.3.5. The upstream face may by
kept throughout vertical or partly slanting for some of its length, as shown. A drainage gallery is
provided in order to relieve the uplift pressure exerted by the seeping water.
Forces Acting on Gravity Dam

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The various external forces acting on a gravity dam may be :

(1) Water Pressure
(2) Uplift-Pressure
(3) Pressure due to earthquake forces
(4) Silt Pressure
(5) Wave Pressure
(6) Ice Pressure
(7)The stabilizing force is the weight of the dam itself.
(c) Arch dam (Fig. 3.6) is a curved masonry or concrete dam having its convex face upstream.
Such a dam resists forces, exerted upon it due to water pressure, by arch action.

Figure 3. 6 Arch dam

(d) Buttress dam (Fig. 3.7) has a sloping deck which retains water and is supported by a series of
buttresses which are usually in the form of triangular reinforced concrete or masonry walls.

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Figure 3. 7 Buttress dam

1.1.1. Selection of the Type of Dam:

The following are the important factors which affect the choice of the type of dam:

(i) Topography

(ii) Geology and foundation conditions

(iii) Material available

(iv) Size and location of spillway

The topography of the site dictates the first choice of the type of dam. A Concreter dam
would be the obvious choice for a narrow stream flowing between high and rocky abutments
(i.e., deep gorges). Broad valleys in plains would suggest an embankment dam with a
separate spillway.

Geological and hydro-geological characteristics of the strata, which are to carry the weight of
the dam, determine the foundation conditions. Any type of dam can be constructed on solid
rock foundations. Well-compacted gravel foundations are suitable for concrete gravity dams
of small height, earth-fill and rock-fill dams.

However, effective water cutoffs are required to check the foundation seepage. Silt or fine
sand foundations can be used to support concrete dams of small height and earth-fill dams.
Problems of settlement, piping and the foundation seepage are associated with this type of

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foundation. Non-uniform foundations containing different types of strata will usually require
special treatment before any type of dam is constructed on such foundation.

If the construction materials which are to be used in large quantity for the construction of
dam are available in sufficient quantity within a reasonable distance from the site, the cost of
the dam will be considerably reduced due to saving on transportation of the construction
materials.

If suitable soils for the construction of an earth-fill dam are locally available in nearby
borrow pits, choice of an earth-fill dam would be the most economical. The availability of
sand and gravel (for concrete) near the dam site would reduce the cost of a concrete dam.

Spillway is a major part of any dam and its size and type and the natural restrictions in its
location will affect the selection of the type of dam. Spillway requirements are decided by the
runoff and stream-flow characteristics.

As such, spillway on dams across streams of large flood potential can become the dominant
part of the dam and put the selection of the type of dam to a seconder position. For large
spillways, it may be desirable to combine the spillway and dam into one structure.

This is possible only in concrete dams. Earth and rockfill dams are based on more
conservative design assumptions and, hence, spillway is generally not constructed as part of
the embankment. On the other hand, excavated material from separate spillway can be
advantageously used for the construction of an embankment dam.

3.3.2 Selection of Site for a Dam:

Site conditions and choice of type of dam are closely interrelated. Further, in case of
embankment dams, site conditions considerably influence the design of the dam.

Nevertheless, there are some guidelines which must be followed while selecting a suitable
site for any type of dam:

(i) Availability of suitable foundation: While an earth dam can be designed for and
constructed on any type of foundation, concrete dams require relatively stronger foundation.
Foundations can be improved to some extent by taking suitable steps for foundation
treatment.

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(ii) Considerable economy will be achieved if the dam is sited at the narrowest section in
the river valley subject to fulfillment of other requirements.

(iii) Spillway is an important component of a dam. In case of a concrete dam, it may be

accommodated in the main dam section. But, in case of earth dams, it has to be away from
the main dam and, hence, suitable site should be available for the spillway too.

(iv) From economic considerations, it would be advantageous if the bulk of the

construction material is available close to the dam site. In case of earth dams, the design is so
made as to use locally available material as much as possible.

(v) The area upstream of the dam must be suitable for the requirements of a reservoir.

(vi) The environmental considerations, including displacement of local people, require that
there is minimum damage to the local environment, and minimum hardship to the local
people. At times, these become governing factors in selecting the site of a dam.

(vii) The selected site should be such that it results in overall economy in construction,
maintenance and operation of the water resource project.

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4 DIVERSION HEAD WORKS:

4.1 Introduction
Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off-taking canal is called a headwork, or the
works which are constructed at the head of the canal, in order to divert the river water towards
the canal, so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain minimum
head into the canal, are known as diversion head works.

Purposes of diversion headwork

(i) It raises the water level in the river so t It raises the water level in the river so that the
hat the commanded area is increased commanded area is increased
(ii) It regulates the supply of water into the canal
(iii) It provides storage of water for a It provides storage of water for a short period short
period
(iv) It controls the entry of silt into the canal
(v) It reduces the fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.

4.2 Selection of the suitable site for the diversion headwork

 At the site, the river should be straight and narrow.
 The river banks should be well defined.
 The valuable land should not be submerged when the weir or barrage is constructed.
 The elevation of the site should be much higher than the area to be irrigated.
 The site should be easily accessible by roads or railways.
 The materials of construction should be available in vicinity of the site.
 The site should be not be far away from the command area of the project, to avoid
transmission loss.

4.3 Components of diversion headwork

The components of diversion head works consist of:

(1) Weir or barrage

(2) Divide wall

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(3) Fish ladder

(4) Pocket or approach channel

(5) Undersluices or scouring sluices

(6) Silt excluder

(7) Canal head regulator

(8) River training works, such as marginal bunds, guide banks

Figure 4. 1 Components of diversion headwork

4.3.1.1 Weirs and Barrages
Weirs and barrages are permanent river diversion works and are relatively low dams
constructed across a river to raise the river level sufficiently to divert the flow in full, or in
part, into a supply canal or conduit for the purpose of irrigation, power generation, domestic
and industrial uses, etc.

Weirs are with or without gates, whereas barrages are always gate controlled.

4.3.1.2 Weirs

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Weirs may be classified according to the material of construction and certain design features
as

1) Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop weirs

2) Rockfill Weir With Sloping Aprons

3) Concrete weirs with a downstream glacis

1) Masonry Weir (Vertical Drop Weir): Consists of:

- An impervious horizontal floor or apron

- A masonry weir wall (with both upstream and downstream faces vertical; or both faces

inclined; or upstream face vertical and downstream face inclined)

- Block protection at upstream end of floor, and a graded inverted filter at the downstream

end of floor

- Launching aprons or pervious aprons (or floors) after block protection and inverted filters.

This type of weir is suitable for any type of foundation.

Figure 4. 2 Masonry weir

2) Rockfill Weir With Sloping Aprons: It is the simplest type of construction and Consists

of:

- Masonry weir wall

- Dry packed boulders laid in the form of glacis or sloping aprons in the upstream and

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downstream sides of the weir wall

The downstream slope is generally made very flat. It requires a very large quantity of stone.
It also has few intervening core walls.

Figure 4. 3 Rockfill weir

3) Concrete weir with downstream glacis: It is of recent origin and its design is based on
sub-surface flow concept. Hydraulic jump is developed on the glacis due to which
considerable energy is dissipated. Protection works such as inverted filter; block protection
and launching apron are provided. May be constructed on pervious foundation. Sheet piles of
sufficient depths are provided both at upstream and downstream ends of the floor.

Figure 4. 4 Concrete weir

Barrages

The crest level is kept at a low level and the raising up of water level (or ponding) is

accomplished mainly by means of gates. During floods these gates can be raised clear off the

high flood level and thus enable the high flood to pass with minimum of afflux (or heading
up

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of water on the upstream side). A barrage provides better control on the water level in the
river

but it is comparatively more costly. The design of a barrage involves the same procedure as a

concrete weir.

Figure 4. 5 Barrage
4.3.1.3 Divide wall
It is masonry or concrete wall with top width of 1.5 to 3m constructed at right angles to the
axis of the weir and separates the ‘weir proper’ from under sluices. The divide wall extends
on the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator and on the
downstream side, it extends up to the end of downstream protection of the under sluices.

The main functions of a divide wall are:

a) To separate the floor of the under sluices which is at lower level from the weir proper

b) To help in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head

regulator resulting in deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus, to help entry of silt free water
into the canal

c) To isolate the pocket upstream of the canal head regulator and facilitate scouring

operation;

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d) To prevent formations of cross-currents to avoid their damaging effects on the weir.

4.3.1.4 Fish Ladder

This structure enables the fish to pass upstream. It is device by which the flow energy can be

dissipated in such a manner as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity, not

exceeding 3 to 3.5m/s. This object is generally accomplished by providing a narrow opening

adjacent to the divide wall and provide suitable baffles or staggering devices in it, so as to
control the flow velocity.

The various types of fish ladder are (i) pool type, (ii) steep channel type, (iii) fish lock type
and (iv) fish lift or elevator type. Types (iii) and (iv) are suitable for high dams only. Types (i)
and (ii) are generally provided for barrages.

Figure 4. 6 Fish Ladder

4.3.1.5 Undersluices or Scouring Sluices
They are the openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at low level. The openings
are fully controlled by gates. They are located on the same side of the off-taking canal.

Functions of Undersluices:

(i) They preserve a clear and well-defined river channel towards the canal head regulator;

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(ii) They scour the silt deposited on the river bed in the pocket upstream of the canal head

regulator;

(iii)They pass low floods without the necessity of dropping the weir crest shutters;

(iv)They help to lower the high flood level by supplementing the discharge over the weir

during high floods.

Capacity of Undersluices:

The discharging capacity is fixed from the following considerations:

(i) To ensure proper scouring, its capacity should be at least two times the maximum

discharge of the off-taking canal;

(ii) It should have sufficient capacity to discharge maximum winter flood – without the

necessity of dropping the weir shutter;

(iii) 10 to 20% of the maximum flood discharge – to supplement the discharge over the

weir during high floods.

4.3.1.6 Canal head regulator

The structure controlling diversion into a supply canal is called regulator. It is provided at the
head of the off taking canal and serves the following functions:

(a) It regulates the supply of water entering in the canal;

(b) It controls the entry of silt in the canal;

(c) It prevents the river floods from entering the canal.

The head regulator is generally aligned at right angle to the weir, but slightly larger angles
(between 900 and 1100) are now considered preferable for providing smooth entry of water
into the regulator. The regulation is done by means of gates.

The design principles are the same as those used in the design of barrages, except that the
regulators are a smaller version of barrages. An important consideration in designing the
regulator is silt exclusion from canals. Silt-excluder tunnels are often provided in the barrage

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bays adjacent to the regulator, so that the heavier silt-laden bottom layers of water bypass
through the tunnels (Figure 4.7).

Figure 4. 7 Canal head regulator

The maximum height of gated opening is determined by the differences in crest level of

regulator (sill level) and the pond level. During high floods, the water level in the river will
be

much higher than the pond level. To avoid spilling of this water over the gates, a R.C. wall,

called Breast wall, is provided from pond level up-to river HFL. This wall rests over the piers
of the regulator bays.

The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by
about

1 to 1.5m higher than the crest of the under sluices.

4.3.1.7 Guide banks (river training works)

Guide banks direct the main river flow as centrally as possible to the diversion structure. They
also safeguard the barrage from erosion and may be designed so that a desirable curvature is
induced to the flow for silt exclusion from the canals. The side slopes of the guide banks must be
protected by stone pitching, with a sufficient 'self-launching' stone apron at the lowest feasible
level. The top levels of the guide banks will depend on the increase in the maximum flood level
upstream of the barrage.

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4.3.1.8 Protection Works

The concrete floor of a weir or barrage is protected on the upstream as well as downstream
by

loose apron. In the immediate vicinity of the floor, a certain portion of the loose apron is
made

non-launching. The non-launching apron prevents the scour hole travel close to the floor or

sheet pile line; whereas launching apron is designed to launch along the slope of the scour
hole

to prevent further scooping out of the underlying river bed material.

4.4 Designs of Weirs and Barrages

4.4.1 Causes of Failures of Weirs on Permeable Foundation
Causes of failures of weirs on permeable foundations may be classified into two broad
categories.

(1) Due to seepage or subsurface flow

(2) Due to surface flow

4.4.1.1 Failures due to seepage or subsurface flow

The seepage may cause the failure of a weir in two ways.

i) By piping or undermining: If the water percolating through the foundation has sufficient
force when it emerges at the downstream end of the impervious floor it may lift up the soil
particles at the end of the floor. With the removal of the surface soil there is further
concentration of flow into the resulting depression and more soil is removed which
progressively result in subsidence of the floor in the hollows so formed.

To prevent these kinds of failures:

(a) Provide sufficient length of the impervious floor (so that the path of percolation is

increased) and reduce exit gradient.

(b) Provide piles at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor

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(ii) By uplift pressure: If the uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of the floor,
it may fail by rupture.

To prevent failure by uplift:

(a) Provide sufficient thickness of the impervious floor

(b) Provide pile at the upstream end of the impervious floor so that uplift pressure is

reduced on the downstream side.

4.4.1.2 Failures due to surface flow

The surface flow may cause the failure of a weir in the following two ways:

(i) By suction due to standing wave or hydraulic jump: The standing wave or hydraulic

jump developed on the downstream side of the weir causes suction or negative pressure which

also acts in the direction of uplift pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient it may fail by

rupture in suction.

The following measures may be taken to prevent such kind of failure:

(a) Providing additional thickness of the impervious floor to counterbalance the suction

pressure due to standing wave.

(b) Constructing floor as monolithic concrete mass instead of in different layers of

masonry.

(ii) By scour on the upstream and downstream of the weir: Upstream and downstream

ends of the impervious floor and bed of the river may be scoured during floods. If not

prevented, lead to damage to the floor and an ultimately failure.

Preventive measures which should be taken against failure due to scour are:

(a) Providing deep piles both at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor.

The piles should be driven much below the calculated scour depth.

(b) Providing launching aprons of suitable length and thickness at upstream and

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downstream ends of the impervious floor.

4.4.2 Criteria for the Design of Weirs and Barrages

Design of weirs and barrages consists of;

i) Hydraulic design
ii) Structural design

The hydraulic design deals with the evaluation of the hydraulic forces acting on the structure and
the determination of the configurations of the structure which will be most economical and will
have the best functional efficiency.

The structural design consists of dimensioning the various parts of the structure to enable it to
resist safely all the forces acting on it.

The hydraulic design is treated in respect of both subsurface and surface flows. The various
aspects of design in respect of subsurface flow involves determination of;

-Uplift pressure,

-Exit gradient,

-Length of impervious floor,

-Depth of sheet piles or cutoffs at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious

floor;

-Protection works.

On the other hand, the design in respect of surface flow involves determination of;

-Pond level;

-Afflux;

-Levels of upstream floor and crest of weir or barrage;

-Shape of weir crest;

-Waterway;

-Effect of retrogression.

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Pond level: Pond level, in the under-sluice pocket, u/s of the canal head regulator may be
obtained by adding the working head to the designed full supply level in the canal. The working
head should include the head required for passing the design discharge into the canal and the
head loss in the regulator.

Afflux: It is the rise in water level on the u/s of a weir or barrage as a result of its construction.

The value of afflux corresponding to the design flood is important for the design of the length

of the weir, crest levels, river training works, etc.

Levels of u/s floor and crest of weir or barrage

The u/s floor level of a weir or a barrage bays (other than under sluice bays) is fixed at the

general river bed level, at or below the level of the crest of the weir or barrage. Usually the

floor level is kept at 0.5 to 1.0 m higher than the u/s floor level of the under-sluice bays.

The crest levels of weirs or barrages are fixed as follows:

(i)For weirs without shutters, the crest level should be at the required pond level;

(ii) For weirs with shutters, the crest level should not be lower than 2 m below the pond

level as the maximum height of the falling shutters is limited to 2 m.

(iii) For barrages, the crest level is determined by the depth required to pass the design flood at
the desired afflux. The level of crest in this case should be fixed by adjustment of the waterway.
It should in any case be under sluice crest level. adjustment of the waterway.

Shape of the weir crest

A vertical drop weir is usually trapezoidal in cross section and its dimensions may be obtained on
the basis of stability considerations;

-A glacis type weir is provided with a top width of about 2.0 m, and u/s slope of 2:1 to 3:1
depending on site conditions and d/s slope as required for the glacis of stilling basin.

Waterway: The length of waterway which is equal to the length of the weir or barrage is fixed to
pass safely the maximum flood discharge. The length of the waterway should be equal to the

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stable river width for the maximum flood discharge so that shoaling upstream is mostly
eliminated and a nearly straight and stable approach to the weir or barrage is obtained.

The clear waterway to be provided between guide banks or abutments, excluding thickness of
piers, is usually taken equal to the Lacey’s regime perimeter given by

P=4.75 √ Q

Where,

P = Lacey’s regime perimeter in m,

Q = design flood discharge (m3/s)

To account for the silt load carried by the alluvial rivers, the clear waterway of 1.1 to 1.25 times
Lacey’s regime perimeter is provided.

Effect of Retrogression: As a result of construction of a weir or barrage progressive retrogression

or degradation of the downstream river bed is caused which results in lowering of the
downstream river stages and the same has to be suitably provided for in the design of
downstream cisterns.

4.4.3 Design of Impervious Floor for Subsurface Flow

4.4.3.1 Bligh’s Creep Theory
Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base profile of the structure, which is
in contact with the subsoil. The length of the path thus traversed by the percolating water is
called the creep length. Bligh also assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep (called
hydraulic gradient) is proportional to the distance of the point from the upstream of the
foundation.

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Figure 4. 8 Bligh’s Creep Theory

Shortcoming of this theory is that it does not discriminate between the horizontal and vertical
creeps in estimating the exit hydraulic gradient. The total creep length, L, is given by

L = d1+ d1+ L1+ d3+ d3+ L2+ d2+ d2= (L1+ L2) + 2d1+ 2d2+ 2d3

L= b + 2(d1+ d2+ d3)

The hydraulic gradient or the loss of head per unit length of creep is,

H H H
= =
L b +2 d 1+2 d 2+ 2 d 3 [b+2 ( d 1+d 2+ d 3 ) ]

Therefore, for any point the head loss is proportional to the creep length. As the hydraulic
gradient is constant, if L1is the creep length up to any point, then head loss up to this point will
be (H/L) L1and the residual head at this point will be (H - (H/L) L1).).

The head losses at the three vertical cutoffs will be:

[(H/L) 2d1], [(H/L) 2d2] and [(H/L) 2d3]

The reciprocal of the hydraulic gradient, i.e., L/H is known as Bligh’s coefficient of creep, C.

(a) Safety against piping and undermining

According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep length,
given by L = C.H, where C is the Bligh’s Coefficient for the soil. Bligh recommended certain

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H 1
values of C for different soils. According to Bligh if the hydraulic gradient ≤ (for the soil)
L C
there is no danger of piping.

Table 4.1 Recommended values of Bligh coefficient of creep C and safe hydraulic gradient

Type of soil Value of C Safe Hydraulic

Gradient
Fine micaceous sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder and gravel; and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/9 to1/5
Light sand & mud 8 1/8

(b) Safety against uplift pressure

The ordinate of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line above the bottoms of the floor at any point
represents the residual seepage head or the uplift pt pressure at that point. If h´ is the uplift
pressure head at a point under the floor, the pressure intensity is,
P= ρgh'
This is to be resisted by the weight of the floor, the thickness of which is t and density

ρm(for concrete, ρm = 2400 kg/m3). Downward force per unit area due to the weight of
the floor is
W= ρmgt
ρmgt = ρgh'
' ρm
h= t = Smt
ρ

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Figure 4. 9 Safety against uplift pressure

where Sm is the relative density of the floor material. Thus, we can write,
h’-t = Smt -t
which gives the thickness of the floor,
'
h −t h
t= =
S m−t S m
where h is the pressure head (ordinate of hydraulic gradient) measured above the top of floor,
and (Sm-1) is submerged specific gravity of the floor material.
Considering a safety factor of 4/3 to 3/2
4 h 3 h
t= ¿
3 S m−1 2 S m−1
with Sm= 2.24, t ≈ 1.08 h to1.2 h
The design will be economical if the greater part of the creep length (i.e., of the impervious
floor) is provided upstream of the weir where nominal floor thickness would be sufficient. The
downstream floor has to be thicker to resist the uplift pressure. However, a minimum floor length

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is always required to be provided on the downstream side from the consideration of surface flow
to resist the action of fast flowing water whenever it is passed to the downstream side of t1.

Figure 4. 10 Creep length

Moreover, the provision of maximum creep length on the upstream side of the weir (barrier) also
reduces uplift pressures on the portion of the floor provided on the downstream side of the
barrier (Fig 4.10a). This is because a large portion of the total creep having taken place up to the
barrier; the residual heads on the downstream floor are reduced. Further, (see Fig 4.10b) a
vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor reduces uplift all over the floor. Thus, according to
Bligh’s theory a vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor is more useful than the one at the
downstream end of the floor.
Limitations of Bligh’s Theory
(i) Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.
(ii) The theory holds good as long as horizontal distance between cut-offs or pile lines is
greater than twice their depth.
(iii)No distinction is made between the effectiveness of the outer and inner faces of sheet
piles and short and long intermediate piles. However, investigations, later, have shown
that the outer faces of the end piles are much more effective than the inner ones. Also
intermediate piles of shorter length than the outer ones are ineffective except for local
redistribution of pressure.
(iv)No indication on the significance of exit gradient. Average value of hydraulic gradient
gives idea about safety against piping. Exit gradient must be less than critical exit
gradient (for safety)

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(v) The assumption, loss of head is proportional to creep length is not true and actual
uplift
pressure distribution is not linear, but it follows a sine curve.
(vi)Bligh did not specify the absolute necessity of providing a cutoff at the downstream
end
of the floor, whereas it is absolutely essential to provide a deep vertical cutoff at the
downstream end of the floor to prevent undermining.

4.4.3.2 Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory

Lane made distinction between vertical and horizontal creep. He indicated that the horizontal
creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in causing head loss) than the vertical creep. He,
therefore, used a weightage factor of (1/3) for the horizontal creep. Thus, the weighted creep
length, Lw, is given by

1
Lw = N +V
3

Where

N = sum of all the horizontal contacts and all the sloping contacts less than 450to the

horizontal.

V = sum of all the vertical contacts and all sloping contacts greater than 45 0to the horizontal.

To ensure safety against piping Lw> C1H

Where H = Total seepage head (difference in in water head between upstream and
downstream)

C1= Lane’s coefficient (empirical) of creep

Further if the hydraulic gradient ( )( )

H
Lw
≤
1
C1
safety against piping can be ensured.

Table 4.2. Recommended values of Lane’s coefficient of creep C1and safe hydraulic
Gradient.

Type of of Soil (Material) Value of of C1 Safe Hydraulic Gradient

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( C1 )
1

Very fine sand or or silt 8.5 1/8.5

Fine sand 7.0 1/7
Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
Gravel & Sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
Boulders, with some cobble & gravel 2.5 1/2.5
Boulders, gravel and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
Clayey Soils 3.0 to1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6

Lane’s method for determination of the uplift pressure is criticized on the grounds that it is an
empirical method and not based on any mathematical approach. However, because of the of the
method it is also widely used.

4.4.3.3 Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets

The main principles of this theory are summarized below:

a) The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca-floor as stated by Bligh,
but moves along a set of streamlines. This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a homogeneous
soil can be expressed by Laplacian equation:
2 2
d φ d φ
2
= 2
d x dz

Where, φ = Flow potential = Kh; K = the coefficient of permeability of soil as defined by

Darcy’s law and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.

The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally. The
resultant flow diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net. The streamlines
represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil. Every particle entering the
soil at a given point upstream of the work will trace out its own path and will represent a
streamline. The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is the same as
Bligh’s path of creep. The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting slowly from
the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as shown in Figure 4.11.

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Figure 4. 11 Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets

Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the downstream side, it can be
easily stated that every streamline possesses a head equal to h 1while entering the soil; and when
it emerges at the downstream end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the head h 1 is
entirely lost during the passage of water along the streamlines. Further, at every intermediate
point in its path, there is certain residual head, h, still to be dissipated in the remaining length to
be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is applicable to every streamline, and hence, there
will be points on different streamlines having the same value of residual head h. If such points
are joined together, the curve obtained is called an equipotential line. Every water particle on line
AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a residual head h = 0, and hence, AB
and CD are equipotential lines.

b) The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines. This force (F) has an upward component from the point where the streamlines turn
upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this force should be
counterbalanced by the submerged weight of the soil grain. This force has the maximum
disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component. For the soil grain to remain
stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this upward disturbing force. The
disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of pressure of water at that point. This
gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called the exit gradient. In order that the soil
particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure at exit should be safe. In other words, the exit

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gradient should be safe. This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force
on the grain is just equal to the submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety
equal to 4 to 5 is used, the exit gradient can then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient
equal to ¼ to 1/5 of the critical exit gradient is ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against
piping.

4.4.3.4 Khosla’s Theory of Independent Variables

In order to know how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place, it
is necessary to plot the flow net. In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations. This can
be accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by graphically
sketching and by adjusting the streamlines and equipotential lines with respect to the boundary
conditions. These are complicated methods and are time consuming. Therefore, for designing
hydraulic structures such as weirs or barrage on pervious foundations, Khosla has evolved a
simple, quick and an accurate approach, called Method of Independent Variables.

In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of simple profiles;
each of which can be solved mathematically. Mathematical solutions of flow nets for these
simple standard profiles have been presented in the form of equations and curves (given in
Figure 4.18 (a), (b) and (c)), which can be used for determining the percentage pressures at the
various key points. The simple standard profiles used are:

(a) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end, i.e. at

upstream or downstream end.

(b) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut-offs.

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(c) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some

intermediate position.

In general, the usual weir section consists of a combination of all or some of the three forms
mentioned above. Each elementary form is treated as independent of the others. The pressures as
a percentage of the water head are read from Khosla’s curves at the key points. The key points
are the junction of the floor and the pile or cut-off walls, the bottom points of the pile or walls,
and the bottom corners in the case of depressed floor. The percentage pressure observed from the
curves for the simple form into which the profile has been broken up, is valid for the profile as a
whole if corrected for:

(i) Mutual interference of piles;

(ii) The floor thickness; and

(iii) The slope of the floor.

i) Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles

The correction C to be applied as a percentage of head is given by

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C=19
√ (
D d+D
b' b )
Where b’= the distance between two pile lines

D= the depth of pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the neighboring pile of
depth d. D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired.

d= the depth of pile on which the effect is to be determined.

b= total floor length.

The correction is positive for points in the rear or backwater and subtractive for points forward in
the direction of flow. This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an
intermediate pile, if the intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a
distance less than twice the length of the outer pile.

ii) Correction for Floor Thickness

In the standard forms with cutoffs, the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible. Thus, as
observed from Khosla’s curves, the percentage pressures at the junction points E and C pertain to
the level at the top of the floor whereas the actual junction is with the bottom of the floor.

The percentage pressures at the actual points E and C are interpolated by assuming a straight-line
pressure variation from the hypothetical point E to D and also from D to C.

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For pile no. 1, since the corrected pressure at E 1should be less than the calculated pressure at E,
the correction to be applied for the joint E 1shall be negative. Similarly, the pressure calculated at
C is less than the corrected pressure at C 1, and hence, the correction to be applied at point C 1is
positive.

iii) Correction for Slope of the Floor

A correction is applied for a sloping floor, and is taken as positive for the down and negative for
the up slopes following the direction of flow.

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Table 4.3: Correction for floor slope

Slope (V: H) Correction (% of pressure)

1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3
1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 2.0

The correction given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope and divided
by the distance between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located. This
correction is applicable only to the key points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the ends
of the slope.

Exit Gradient (GE)

For standard form consisting of a floor length b with a vertical cutoff of depth d, the exit gradient
at its d end is given by:

H 1
G E=
d π√λ

1+ √ 1+ α 2
Where λ= , and
2

b
α=
d

H = maximum seepage head

The exit gradient so calculated must lie within safe limits as given in the following table (Table

4.4).

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Table 4.4: Safe exit gradient for different types of soils

Type of soil Safe exit gradient

Shingle ¼ to1/5
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Fine sand 1/6 to 1/7

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Depth of sheet piles on upstream and downstream of impervious floor

The sheet pile must be taken up to the level of possible deepest scour below the bed of the river.
According to Lacey the depth of scour in alluvial soils is given by

( )
2 1 /3
q
R=1.35
f

Where,

R = scour depth measured below the highest flood level (HFL),

q = discharge per unit length,

f = Lacey’s silt factor.

In order to ensure further safety, for the design of sheet piles the scour depth is considered as
1.25 to 2 times R given by the above equation.

Design of protection works at the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious floor

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In order to further safeguard the impervious floor against failure due to piping certain protection
works are provided at both the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious floor. These protection works
consist of

(i) Inverted filter,

(ii) Block protection, and

(iii) Launching apron or pervious apron

Inverted Filter: consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top.
The thickness of the inverted filter varies from 0.5 to 1.25 m. To prevent the filter material from
dislocation by surface flow they are loaded with large size stones or concrete blocks. The blocks
are usually 0.9 to1.2 m thick and are placed with open joints filled with river sand or filter
material.

It is provided immediately at the d/s end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.
The length depends on the scour depth D below the river bed and it usually varies from 1.5 D to
2 D, where D is given by

D = XR – Y

Where XR = depth of deepest scour level below high flood level

X = a multiplying factor (varies from 1.25 to 2)

Y = depth of the river bed or impervious floor below high flood level

Y = High flood level – River bed level (or floor level)

Block Protection: It is provided immediately at the u/s end of the impervious floor. It consists of
0.6 to 1.0 m thick stone or concrete blocks laid on 0.4 to 0.6 m thick loosely packed stone. The
length of the block protection is usually equal to the depth of scour, D, below the river bed at the
u/s end of the impervious floor.

Launching apron or pervious apron: It is an apron of loosely packed stones. Its function is to
protect the impervious floor and the pile from the scour holes progressing towards the floor

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and the pile. The protection is provided by a launching apron by forming a protective covering of
stones over a certain slope below the bed of the river at which the apron is originally laid to the

bottom of the deepest scour likely to occur.

The size of the stones (that shall not be washed away during maximum flood) is given by USBR

( )
2
VA
as d=
4.915

Where VA= average velocity of flow in m/s and d = mean diameter of stones in m.

It is generally assumed that the stones launch at a slope of 2:1. The quantity of stone in a
launching apron should be sufficient to provide about 1.0 m thick cover over a slope of 2:1 in the
launched position. Thus, if D is the depth of scour, the length of the launched apron would be
about √ 5D=2.236D Since the thickness of the launched apron is 1 m, the quantity of stone
required is 2.236D m3per m length of the apron.

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5 CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

5.1 Definition and type of cross drainage

A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream. Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains and other
canals. The various types of structures that are built to carry the canal water across the above-
mentioned obstructions or vice versa are called cross drainage works. It is generally a very costly
item and should be avoided by: Diverting one stream into another. Changing the alignment of the
canal so that it crosses below the junction of two streams.

5.1.1 Types of Cross-Drainages Works:

Depending upon the relative positions of the canal and the drainage, the cross-drainage works
may be classified into 3 categories as:

1. Canal over the drainage

(a) Aqueduct: An aqueduct is a structure in which the canal flows over the drainage and the
flow of the drainage below is open channel flow. An aqueduct is similar to an ordinary road
bridge (or railway bridge) across drainage, but in this case, the canal is taken over the drainage
instead of a road (or a railway). A canal trough is to be constructed in which the canal water
flows from upstream to downstream. This canal trough is to be rested on a number of piers. An
aqueduct is provided when the canal bed level is higher than the H.F.L. of the drainage.

Figure 5. 1 Aqueduct

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(b) Syphon aqueduct: In a syphon aqueduct also, the canal is taken over the drainage, but the
flow in the drainage is pipe flow (i.e., the drainage water flows under syphonic action and there
is no atmospheric pressure in the drainage). A syphon aqueduct is constructed when the H.F.L. of
the drainage is higher than the canal bed level. When sufficient level difference is not available
between the canal bed and the H.F.L. of the drainage to pass the drainage water, the bed of the
drainage may be depressed below its normal bed level. The drainage is provided with an
impervious floor at the crossing and thus a barrel is formed between the piers to pass the
drainage water under pressure. Syphon aqueducts are preferred than Aqueducts, though costlier.

Figure 5. 2 Syphon aqueduct

2. Canal below the drainage

(a) Super passage: In a super passage, the canal is taken below the drainage and the flow in the
channel is open channel flow. A super passage is thus reverse of an aqueduct. A super passage is
required when canal F.S.L is below the drainage bed level. In this case, the drainage water is
taken in a trough supported over the piers constructed on the canal bed. The water in the canal
flows under gravity and possess the atmospheric pressure.

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Figure 5. 3 Super passage

(b) Canal syphon: A canal syphon (or simply a syphon) is a structure in which the canal is taken
below the drainage and the canal water flows under symphonic action and there is no presence of
atmospheric pressure in the canal. It is thus the reverse of a syphon aqueduct.

A canal syphon is constructed when the F.S.L. of the canal is above the drainage bed level.
Because some loss of head invariably occurs when the canal flows through the barrel of the canal
syphon, the command of the canal is reduced. Moreover, there may be silting problem in the
barrel. As far as possible, a canal Syphon should be avoided.

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Figure 5. 4 Canal syphon

3. Canal at the same level as drainage

(a) Level crossing: A level crossing is provided when the canal and the drainage are practically
at the same level. In a level crossing, the drainage water is admitted into the canal at one bank
and is taken out at the opposite bank.

A level crossing usually consists of a crest wall provided across the drainage on the upstream of
the junction with its crest level at the F.S.L. of the canal. The drainage water passes over the crest
and enters the canal whenever the water level in the drainage rises above the F.S.L. of the canal.
There is a drainage regulator on the drainage at the d/s or the junction and a cross-regulator on
the canal at the d/s of the junction for regulating the outflows.

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Figure 5. 5 Level crossing

(b) Inlet and outlet: An inlet-outlet structure is provided when the drainage and the canal are
almost at the same level, and the discharge in the drainage is small. The drainage water is
admitted into the canal at a suitable site where the drainage bed is at the F.S.L. of the Canal. The
excess water is discharged out the canal through an outlet provided on the canal at some distance
downstream of junction. There are many disadvantages in use of inlet and outlet structure,
because the drainage may pollute canal water and also the bank erosion may take place causing
the deterioration of the canal structure so that maintenance costs are high. Hence, this type of
structure is rarely constructed.

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Figure 5. 6 Inlet and outlet

5.1.2 Necessity of Cross - Drainage Works
The cross – drainage work is required to dispose of the drainage water so that the canal supply
remains uninterrupted. The canal at the cross – drainage work is generally taken either over or
below the drainage. However, it can also be at the same level as the drainage. As we know that,
canals are usually aligned on the watershed so that there are no drainage crossings. However, it is
not possible to avoid the drainages in the initial reach of a main canal because it takes off from a
diversion headworks (or storage works) located on a river which is a valley. The canal, therefore,
requires a certain distance before it can mount the watershed (or ridge). In this initial reach, the
canal is usually a contour canal and it intercepts a number of natural drainages flowing from the
watershed to the river.

After the canal has mounted the watershed, no cross-drainage work will normally be required,
because all the drainage originate from the watershed and flow away from it. However, in some
cases, it may be necessary for the canal to leave the watershed and flow away from it. In that
case, the canal intercepts the drainages which carry the water of the pocket between the canal
and the watershed and hence the cross-drainage works are required. A cross-drainage work is an
expensive structure and should be avoided as far as possible. The number of cross-drainage
works can be reduced to some extent by changing the alignment of the canal. However, it may
increase the length and hence the cost of the canal. Sometimes it is possible to reduce the number
of cross-drainage works by diverting the small drainages into large drainages or by constructing
the cross-drainages work below the confluence of two drainages by shifting the alignment.

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However, the suitability of the site for the construction of the structure should also be considered
while deciding the location of the cross-drainage works.

5.2 Selection of suitable site for type of CD works

The following points should be considered while selecting the site of a cross-drainage work:
 At the site, the drainage should cross the canal alignment at right angles. Such a site
provides good flow conditions and also the cost of the structure is usually a minimum.
 The stream at the site should be stable and should have stable banks.
 For economical design and construction of foundations, a firm and strong sub-stratum
should exit below the bed of the drainage at a reasonable depth.
 The site should be such that long and high approaches of the canal are not required.
 The length and height of the marginal banks and guide banks for the drainage should be
small.
 In the case of an aqueduct, sufficient headway should be available between the canal
trough and the high flood level of the drainage.
 The water table at the site should not be high, because it will create De-watering
problems for laying foundations.
 As far as possible, the site should be selected d/s of the confluence of two streams,
thereby avoiding the necessity of construction of two cross-drainage works.
 The possibility of diverting one stream into another stream upstream of the canal crossing
should also be considered and adopted, if found feasible and economical.
 A cross-drainage work should be combined with a bridge, if required. If necessary, the
bridge site can be shifted to the cross-drainage work or vice versa. The cost of the
combined structure is usually less. Moreover, the marginal banks and guide banks
required for the river training can be used as the approaches for the village roads.

5.2.1 Selection of a Suitable 'Type' of Cross Drainage Work

The following factors should be considered while selecting the most suitable type of the cross-drainage
work.

1. Relative levels and discharges:

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The relative levels and discharges of the canal and of the drainage mainly affect type of cross-drainage
work required. The following are the broad outlines:

1. If the canal bed level is sufficiently above the H.F.L. of the drainage, an aqueduct is selected.
2. If the F.S.L. of the canal is sufficiently below the bed level of the drainage, a super-passage is
provided.
3. If the canal bed level is only slightly below the H.F.L. of the drainage, and the drainage is small, a
siphon aqueduct is provided. If necessary, the drainage bed is depressed below the canal.
4. If the F.S.L. of the canal is slightly above the bed level of the drainage and the canal is of small
size, a canal syphon is provided.
5. If the canal bed and the drainage bed are almost at the same level, a level crossing is provided
when the discharge in the drainage is large, and an inlet-outlet structure is provided when the
discharge in the drainage is small. However, the relative levels of the canal and the drainage can
be altered to some extent by changing the canal alignment to have another crossing. In that case,
the most suitable type of the cross-drainage work will be selected depending upon the levels at
the changed crossing.

2. Performance:

As far as possible, the structure having an open channel flow should be preferred to the
structure having a pipe flow. Therefore, an aqueduct should be preferred to a syphon aqueduct.
Likewise, a super-passage should be preferred to a canal siphon. In the case of a syphon
aqueduct and a canal syphon, silting problems usually occur at the crossing. Moreover, in the
case of a canal syphon, there is considerable loss of command due to loss of head in the canal.
The performance of inlet-outlet structures is not good and should be avoided.

3. Provision of road:

An aqueduct is better than a super-passage because in the former, a road bridge can easily be
provided along with the canal trough at a small extra cost, whereas in the latter, a separate road
bridge is required.

4. Size of drainage:

When the drainage is of small size, a syphon aqueduct will be preferred to an aqueduct as the
latter involves high banks and long approaches. However, if the drainage is of large size, an
aqueduct is preferred.

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5. Cost of earthwork:

The type of cross-drainage work which does not involve a large quantity of earthwork of the
canal should be preferred.

6. Foundation:

The type of cross-drainage work should be selected depending upon the foundation available at
the site of work.

7. Material of construction:

Suitable types of material of construction in sufficient quantity should be available near the site
for the type of cross-drainage work selected. Moreover, the soil in sufficient quantity should be
available for constructing the canal banks if the structure requires long and high canal banks.

8. Cost of construction:

The cost of construction of cross-drainage work should not be excessive. The overall cost of the
canal banks and the cross-drainage work, including maintenance cost, should be a minimum.

9. Permissible loss of head:

Sometimes, the type of cross-drainage is selected considering the permissible loss of head. For
example, if the head loss cannot be permitted in a canal at the site of cross-drainage, a canal
syphon is ruled out.

10. Subsoil water table:

If the subsoil water table is high, the types of cross-drainage which requires excessive
excavation should be avoided, as it would involve De-watering problems.

11. Canal alignment:

The canal alignment is sometimes changed to achieve a better type of cross-drainage work. By
changing the alignment, the type of cross-drainage can be altered. The canal alignment is
generally finalized after fixing the sites of the major cross-drainage works.

Various Types of Aqueducts and Syphon-Aqueducts:

They may be classified into three types depending on the sides of the aqueduct:

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Type I: In this type, the cross section of the canal is not changed. The original cross section of
the canal with normal side slopes is retained. The length of the barrel through which the drainage
passes under the canal is maximum in this type of structure because the width of the canal
section is maximum. This type is suitable when the width of the drainage is small (less than 2.5
m).

Type II. In this type, the outer slopes of the canal banks are discontinued and replaced by
retaining walls. Thus, the length of the barrel is reduced, but the cost of retaining wall is added to
the overall cost. This type is suitable when the width of the drainage is moderate (2.5 to 15m).

Type III. In this type, the entire earth section of the canal is discontinued and replaced by a
concrete or masonry trough over the drainage. This type is suitable when the width of the
drainage is very large (greater than 15 m), so that the cost of the trough and canal wing walls is

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less in comparison to the saving resulting from decreasing the length of barrel. In this type, the
canal can be easily flumed which further reduces the length of the barrel.

Selection of the Suitable Type: The selection of a particular type out of three types of aqueducts
or syphon-aqueducts lies on the considerations of economy. The cheapest of the three types at a
particular place shall be the obvious choice. In fact, in all cases, the cost of abutments and wing
walls is independent of the length of the culvert along the canal. In type 1, no canal wings are
required since the canal section is not at all changed. However, in this type, the width of the
aqueduct is the largest. Type I will, therefore, prove economical only where the length of the
aqueduct is small and where the cost of bank connections would be large in comparison to the
savings obtained from the reduction in the width of the aqueduct. In type III, the width of the
aqueduct is minimum but the cost of bank connections is maximum. This type is, therefore,
suitable where the length of the aqueduct is very large and where the cost of bank connections
would be small in comparison to the savings obtained from the reduction in the width of the
aqueduct.

On the basis of above discussion, it can be concluded that the choice of a particular type depends
mainly upon the length of the aqueduct (i.e., the width of the drainage) in relation to the size of
the canal. The exact choice of a particular type in particular case can be made by working out the
cost of all the types and then choosing the cheapest.

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Design Considerations for Cross Drainage Works:

The following steps may be involved in the design of an aqueduct or a syphon-aqueduct. The
design of a super passage and a syphon is done on the same lines as for aqueducts and syphon
aqueducts, respectively, since hydraulically there is no much difference between them, except
that the canal and the drainage are interchanged by each other.

 Determination of Maximum Flood Discharge

The high flood discharge for smaller drains may be worked out by using empirical formulas; and
for large drains, other reliable methods Such as Hydrograph analysis, Rational formula, etc. may
be used.

 Fixing the Waterway Requirements for Aqueducts and Syphon-Aqueducts

An approximate value of required waterway for the drain may be obtained by using the Lacey's

equation, given by

P=4.75 √ Q

where P is the wetted perimeter in meters and Q is the Total discharge in cumecs. For wide
drains, the wetted perimeter may be approximately taken equal to the width of the drain and
hence, equal to waterway required. For smaller drains, a smaller figure for the waterway than
that given by Lacey s regime perimeter, may be chosen. The maximum permissible reduction in
waterway from Lacey’s perimeter is 20%. Hence, for smaller drains, the width of the waterway
provided should be so adjusted as to provide this required perimeter (minimum value =0.8 P).
The decided clear water way width is provided in suitable number of bays (spans).

 Afflux and Head Loss through Syphon Barrels

The velocity through syphon barrels is limited to a scouring value of about 2 to 3 m/sec. A higher
velocity may cause quick abrasion of the barrel surfaces by rolling grit, etc. and shall definitely
result in higher amount of afflux on the upstream side of the syphon or syphon aqueduct, and
thus, requiring higher and longer marginal banks. The head loss (h) through syphon barrels and
the velocity (V) through them are generally related by Unwin's formula as

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[ ]
2 2
L V Va
h= 1+ f 1+ f 2 − (a)
R 2g 2g

here L= Length of the barrel.

R= Hydraulic mean radius of the barrel.

V= Velocity of flow through the barrel.

Va = Velocity of approach and is often neglected.

f1 =Coefficient of head loss at entry = 0.505 for unshaped mouth

= 0.08 for bell mouth

f2 = is a coefficient such that the loss of head through the barrel due to surface friction
2
L V
is given by f 2 .
R 2g

After having fixed the velocity (V) through the barrels, the head (h) required to generate that
much velocity can be found by using equation (a). The d/s HFL of the drain remains unchanged
by the construction of works, and thus the u/s HFL can be obtained by adding h to the d/s HFL.
The u/s HFL, therefore, gets headed up by an amount equal to h and is known as afflux. The
amount of afflux is limited because the top of guide banks and marginal bunds, etc. are governed
by this raised HFL. So, a limit placed on afflux will limit the velocity through the barrels and
vice versa. Hence, by permitting a higher afflux and, therefore, a higher velocity through the
barrels, the cross-sectional area of syphon barrels can be reduced, but there is a corresponding
increase in the cost of guide banks and marginal bunds and also the length of d/s protection is
increased. Hence, an economic balance should be worked out and a compromise obtained
between the barrel area and afflux. Moreover, in order to reduce the afflux for the same velocity,
the entry is made smooth by providing bell mouthed piers and surface friction is reduced by
keeping the inside surface of the barrels as smooth as possible.

 Fluming of the Canal

The contraction in the waterway of the canal (i.e., fluming of the canal) will reduce the length of
barrels or the width of the aqueduct. This is likely to produce economy in many cases. The

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fluming of the canal is generally not done when the canal section is in earthen banks. Hence, the
canal is generally not flumed in works of Type l and Type II. However, fluming is generally done
in all the works of Type III. The maximum fluming is generally governed by the extent that the
velocity in the trough should remain subcritical (of the order of 3 m/sec). Because, if
supercritical velocities are generated, then the transition back to the normal section on the
downstream side of the work may involve the possibility of the formation of a hydraulic Jump.
This hydraulic Jump would lead to undue loss of head and large stresses on the work. The extent
of fluming is further governed by the economy and permissible loss of head. The greater is the
fluming, the greater is the length of transition wings upstream as well as downstream. This extra
cost of transition wings is balanced by the saving obtained due to the reduction in the width of
the aqueduct. Hence, an economic balance has to be worked out for any proposed design.

After deciding the normal canal section and the flumed canal section, the transition has to be
designed to avoid sudden transition and the formation of eddies, etc. For this reason, the u/s or
approach wings should not be steeper than 26.50 (i.e., 2:1 splay) and the d/s or departure wings
should not be steeper than 18.50 (i.e., 3:1 splay). Generally, the normal earthen canal section is
trapezoidal, while the flumed pucca canal section is rectangular. It is also not necessary to keep
the same depth in the normal and flumed sections. Rather, it may sometimes be economical to
increase the depth and still further reduce the channel width in cases where a channel encounters
a reach of rocky terrain and has to be flumed to curtail rock excavation. But an increase in the
water depth in the canal trough will certainly increase the uplift pressures on the roof as well as
on the floor of the culvert, thus requiring larger roof and floor sections and lower foundations.
Due to these reasons, no appreciable economy may be obtained by increasing the depth.

 Design of Pucca Canal Trough:

The canal trough is designed as follows:

For an Aqueduct: In case of an aqueduct, the bottom of the canal i.e., the roof of the culvert is

subjected to the dead weight and the vertical load of water from the top.

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Since in an aqueduct, there is no uplift from the underside acting on the bottom of the canal bed,
the canal bottom has to be designed for taking the dead weight and full water load by either
providing a thickness sufficient to take this much of load merely by gravity or by providing
reinforced concrete slab with reinforcement at its bottom. The side walls of the canal are to be
designed as retaining walls. They may be made of masonry or R.C.C. It is preferable to have an
entire R.C.C. section. The retaining walls will be designed to carry the entire horizontal force
exerted by the canal water and shall, therefore, carry reinforcement on the water face.

For an Aqueduct Syphon: In case of an aqueduct syphon, besides the vertical load of canal
water, one more force comes into action i.e., the uplift pressure exerted by the drain water. The
roof of the culvert i.e., the bottom-slab of canal should now be designed to withstand these two
forces independently. Although these two forces act in a opposition to each other but still under
the worst circumstances, there may be times when only one of them may be acting. For example,
when drainage is flowing at its maximum high flood level, canal may be empty. Similarly, there
may not be any drainage water touching the slab when the canal may be running full. Hence, the
slab should be designed for

(i) full water load and dead weight, with no uplift

(ii) full-uplift with no water load.

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When the slab is designed to counter-balance the maximum uplift, merely be gravity, it is
sometimes found that the slab thickness required is less than what is required for the first
condition i.e., when designed for full water load). But many a times, the thickness required for
balancing uplift may exceed the thickness required for balancing the water load. In that case, it is
generally not advisable to increase the thickness because any increase in thickness will result in
lowering the levels of both the roof of the culvert as well as the bottom slab of culvert. This, in
turn, will increase the uplift on the roof slab as well as on the bottom slab of culvert.

 Design of bottom floor of Aqueduct and Syphon Aqueduct:

The floor of the aqueduct or syphon-aqueduct is subjected to uplift due to two causes:
(a)Uplift due to water-table: This force acts where the bottom floor is depressed below the
drainage bed, especially in syphon aqueducts.
The maximum uplift under the worst condition would occur when there is no water flowing in
the drain and the water table has risen up to the drainage bed. The maximum net uplift in such a
case would be equal to the difference in level between the drainage bed and the bottom of the
floor.

(b) Uplift due to seepage of water from the canal to the drainage: The maximum uplift due to this
seepage occurs when the canal is running full and there is no water in the drain. The
computations of this uplift, exerted by the water seeping from the canal on the bottom floor, are
very complex and difficult, due to the fact that the flow takes place in three-dimensional flow
net. The flow cannot be approximated to a two-dimensional flow, as there is no typical place
across which the flow is practically two dimensional. Hence, tor the smaller works, Bligh's Creep
theory may be used for assessing the seepage pressures. But, for the larger works, the uplift

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pressures must be checked by model studies. The seepage pressure can be evaluated by Bligh’s
theory as explained below:

The seepage flow occurs from the beginning of pucca canal trough (point a) and reappears in the
drainage bed on either side of the impervious floor along the center of the floor of the first
culvert bay (say point c or point d) in below. Point b is the point under the center of the floor of
the first culvert bay.

The seepage path from a to b and from b to c can be known. The total creep length will then be
equal to a b + b c. If H is the total seepage head (i.e. H=FSL of canal - d/s bed level of drain), the
residual head at the point b (i.e., Hb) is then given by Bligh’s theory as equal to

H b =H−
[ H
ab+ bc
∗ab
]
Hb=
[ H
ab+bc
∗ab
]
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The floor of the syphon-aqueduct must be designed for the total uplift which is equal to the sum
of the uplift due to seepage plus the uplift due to static head. The total uplift may be partly
resisted by the wt. of the floor and partly by bending in reinforcement.

Methods of reducing uplift on the floor: The uplift on the bottom floor may be reduced in two

ways:

(i) By extending the impervious canal trough on either side of the drainage so as to increase the
creep length ab. A puddle apron may be used in place of concrete floor, if clay is easily available.

(ii) By providing drainage holes in the culvert floor so as to release the uplift. If such relief holes
are provided in the bottom floor; an inverted filter, should also be provided below the floor. The
inverted filter would help in preventing the soil particles from getting out of the holes. The
performance of such holes may not prove very successful in actual field as it appears to be on
paper. Because, if these get choked or if there occurs some defect in filter system, there may be a
danger of failure of work by excessive uplift or by undermining.

 Design of Bank Connections:

Two set of wings are required in aqueducts and syphon-aqueducts. These are

(i) Canal Wings or Land Wings.

(ii) Drainage Wings or Water Wings.

(i) Canal wings or Land wings: These wings provide a strong connection between the masonry or
concrete sides of a canal trough and earthen canal banks. These wings are generally warped in
plan so as to change the canal section from trapezoidal to rectangular. They should be extended
up to the end of splay. These wings may be designed as retaining walls for maximum differential
earth pressure likely to come on them with no water in the canal. The foundations of these wings
should not be left on filled earth. They should be taken deep enough to give safe creep length.

(ii) Drainage wings or Water wings or River wings: These wing walls retain and protect the
earthen slopes of the canal, guide the drainage water entering and leaving the work, and join it to
guide banks and also provide a vertical cut-off for the water seeping from the canal into the
drainage bed. The foundations of these wing walls should be taken below the deepest anticipated

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scour in the river. The sections of these wing walls should be capable of withstanding the
maximum differential earth pressure likely to come on them.

The layouts of these sets of wings depend on the extent of contraction of canal and drainage
waterways, and the general arrangement of the work.

Design of Canal Transitions:

The following methods may be used for designing the channel transitions:

(i) Mitra's method of design of transitions (when water depth remains constant).

(ii) Chaturvedi's method of design of transitions (when water depth remains constant).

(ii) Hind's method of design of transitions (when water depth may or may not vary).

(i) Mitra's Hyperbolic Transition when water depth remains constant:

Shri A.C. Mitra, Chief Engineer, U.P. Irrigation Deptt. (Retd.), has proposed a hyperbolic
transition for the design of channel transitions. According to him, the channel width at any
section X-A, at a distance x from the flumed section is given by

Bn B f L f
Bx =
Lf Bn−( B n−B f ) x

where Bn = Bed width of the normal channel section.

Bf = Bed width of the flumed channel section.

Bx = Bed width at any distance x from the flumed section

Lf = Length of transition.

(ii) Chaturvedi's Semi-Cubical Parabolic Transition when water depth remains constant:

Prof. R.S. Chaturvedi, Head of Civil Engineering Deptt. in Roorkee University (Retd.), on the
basis of his own experiments, had in 1963, proposed the following equation for the design of
channel transitions when water depth remains constant.

[ ( )]
3 /2 3 /2
L . Bn Bf
X= 1−
Bn3 /2−B f 3 /2 Bx

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Choosing various convenient values of the corresponding distance x can be computed easily
from the above equation.

(ii) Hind's Method for the design of Transitions when water depth may also vary:

This is a general method and is applicable either when the depths in the flumed and unflumed
portions are the same, or when these depths are different. In Figure below, the contraction
transition (i.e. the approach transition) starts at section1-1 and finishes at section 2-2. The flumed
section continues from section 2-2 to section 3-3. The expansion transition starts at section 3-3
and finishes at section 4-4. From section 4-4 onwards, the channel flows in its normal cross-
section and the conditions at this section are completely known. Let V and y with appropriate
subscripts refer to velocities and depths at different sections.

The FSL at section 4-4 = Bed level at section 4-4 + y4 = (known)

2
V
TEL at section 4-4=FSL at section 4-4 + (known)
2g

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Between section 3-3 and 4 4, there is an energy loss in the expansion, which is equal to 0.3

( )
2 2
V 3 −V 4
2g

( )
2 2
V 3 −V 4
TEL at section 3-3 = TEL at section 4-4 (known) + 0.3
2g

As the trough dimensions at section 3-3 are known, V is also known and hence, TEL at section 3-

( )
2
V3
3 can be computed. Knowing TEL at 3-3; FSL at 3-3 can be calculated by subtracting from
2g
TEL. Similarly, bed level at 3-3 can also be computed by subtracting Y3 from FSL at 3-3.

Between sections 2-2 and 3-3, the channel flows in a trough of constant cross-section. The only
loss in the trough (HL) is the friction loss which can be computed with

Manning's formula, i.e.

1 2/3 1/ 2
Q= A . R . S
n

1
Q= A . R 2/3 .
n
HL
L √
2 2
Q n L
OR H L= 2 2/ 3
A R

Adding this head loss to TEL of section 3-3, the TEL at section 2-2 is obtained. The FSL at
2
V
section 2-2 can then be obtained by subtracting from TEL of 2-2. Similarly, the bed level at
2g
section 2-2 can be easily obtained by further subtracting y2 from FSL at 2-2. Since the depth and
velocity are constant in the trough, the TEL, FSL and bed lines are all parallel to each other from
section 2-2 to 3-3. Between section 1-1 and 2-2, there is a loss of energy due to contraction. This

( )
2 2
V 2 −V 1
loss is generally taken as equal to 0.2 .
2g

( )
2 2
V 2 −V 1
Thus, the TEL at section 1-1 =TEL at section 2-2 + 0.2 = unknown
2g

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2
V
Knowing TEL at section -1, FSL at 1-1 can be obtained by subtracting 1 from TEL at 1-1.
2g
Similarly, bed level at 1-1 can be obtained by subtracting y1 from FSL at 1-1. The bed level, FSL
and TEL having been determined at all the four sections, the total energy line may be drawn by
assuming it to be a straight line between adjacent sections. The bed line may also be drawn
straight between adjacent sections, provided the rise or fall in bed is small. However, if the
change in bed level is considerable, the bed line in the transition section should be drawn as a
smooth reverse curve, tangential to the bed lines at ends.

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6 CANAL REGULATION WORKS

6.1 Introduction
The water which enters into· the main canal from the river has to be divided into different
Branches and Distributaries, in accordance with the relative urgency of demand on different
channels. This process of distribution is called 'Regulation'. To distribute water effectively, the
discharge has to be adjusted to any desired value. This aim is achieved by means of regulators.

The works which are constructed in order to control and regulate discharges, depths, velocities
etc. in canals, are known as canal -regulation works. These structures ensure the efficient
functioning of a canal irrigation system, by giving full control upon the canals. The important of
these structures are :

(i) Canal Falls.

(ii) Canal Regulators (Head Regulator and Cross Regulator).

(iii) Canal Escapes.

(iv) Metering Flumes, etc.

(v) Canal Outlets and Modules.

6.2 Cross regulator and distributary head regulator

6.2.1 Canal head regulator
A canal head regulator which is located just upstream of a barrage (or placed appropriately near
about a reservoir) is provided to help,

(a) regulate the discharge flowing into the off taking channel, and

(b) control the entry of sediment into the channel.

A head regulator is generally aligned at an angle of 90' to 110' to the axis of the barrage in order
to minimize the entry of sediment entering into the channel, besides preventing backflow and
stagnant pools in the under-sluice pocket that lies in the vicinity of the regulator. Steel gates of
spans usually in the range of 6 to 8 m, for manual operation, are provided in the regulator to

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control the discharge. Larger spans can be adopted for gates which are operated by electric
winches.

Figure 6. 1 Canal head regulator

6.2.2 Distributary head regulator
The distributary head regulator is distinguished from a canal head regulator in that the former is
located in a main canal for feeding the water into a distributary canal while the latter is located at
the barrage at the head of the off taking canal. The location of a distributary head regulator is at
the entry point of the distributary where it takes off from the main carnal.

The purpose of the distributary head regulator is to :

(a) divert (and control the supplies off taking from the main canal and entering the

distributary,

(b) restrict the silt entering the distributary canal from the main canal, and

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(c) measure the discharge being carried by the distributary.

Figure 6. 2 Distributary head regulator

6.2.3 Cross regulator
It is provided on the parent channel just downstream of the offtake point of the offtaking channel
to raise water level in the parent channel, so that the full supply can be taken into the offtaking
channel even when the parent channel is running partly full. Canal regulators are also provided
on the downstream of the canal escape and various other locations

6.3 Silt control devices

Silt control devices:

Silt excluder: are constructed on the bed of the river, upstream of the head regulator. It removes
silt from the water before it enters the canal.

Silt ejectors: are constructed on the bed of the canal and a little distance downstream from the
head regulator. It extracts silt from the canal water after the silted water has travelled a certain
distance in the off-taking canals.

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In general silt control devices are:

 Silt control at head works

 Entry of silt to canal can be controlled by providing a divide wall to create a trap or
pocket
 Create scouring capacity of under sluices by concentrating the currents towards them
 Paving the bottom, the approach channel to reduce disturbance because due to
disturbance sediment remains in suspension

6.4 Canal Escapes

These are the structures which are designed to remove the water from the canal when excess
rainfall occurs or when breaches occur in the canal downstream. They are a sort of safety valves
in the canal system to remove the excess water or to empty the canal at the times of emergency
or for repair works.

Types of canal scape

1. Weir or surface escape

Are constructed in the form of weirs, without any gate or shutter and spills over when the water
level of the canal goes above its crest level.

2. Sluice or surplus escapes

gated escapes with a very low crest height.
these sluices can empty the canal much below its full supply level and at a very fast rate.
In some cases, these escapes act as scouring sluices to facilitate removal of sediment.

The locations for providing escapes are often determined on the availability of suitable drains,
depressions or rivers with their bed level at or below the canal bed level.

Escapes may be necessary upstream of points where canals takeoff from a main canal branch.

Canal escapes may be provided at intervals of 15 to 20km for main canal and at 10 to 15km
intervals for other canals.

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7 SPILLWAYS

7.1 Introduction
A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of surplus water from the
reservoir to the channel downstream. Spillways are provided for all dams as a safety measure
against overtopping and the consequent damage sand failure. Spillway is thus safety valve for a
dam.

7.1.1 Requirements of a Spillway

1. The spillway must have sufficient capacity.

2. It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate.

3. It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water.

4. The bounding surfaces of spillway must be erosion resistant.

5. Energy dissipater should be located in downstream side of the spillway for dissipation of
energy.

Location of Spillway

 Within the body of the dam

 At one end of dam.
 Entirely away from it, independently in a saddle.

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Figure 7. 1 Location of spill way

Required spillway capacity

• Required spillway capacity is determined by flood routing.

• Spillway capacity should be equal to the maximum outflow rate determined by flood routing.

It requires the following data:

i) inflow hydrograph( plot of rate of inflow Vs time)

ii) reservoir capacity curve( reservoir storage Vs reservoir water surface elevation)

iii) discharge curve( rate of outflow through spillway Vs reservoir water surface elevation)

Factors affecting the Required spillway capacity

1. Inflow flood hydrograph

2. Available storage capacity

3. Capacity of outlets

4. Gates of spillways

5. Possible damage, if the capacity is exceeded

7.2 Types of spillways

Spillways can be classified into different types based on various criteria:

A. Classification based on purpose

1. Main or service spillway 2. Auxiliary spillway 3. Emergency spillway

B. Classification based on control

1. Controlled or gated spillway 2. Uncontrolled or ungated spillway

C. Classification based on prominent feature

1. free overfall (or straight drop) 2. overfall (or ogee spillway)

3. chute (or open channel or trough) 4. side channel spillway

5. shaft which (or morning glory) 6. siphon

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7. conduit (or tunnel)

Classification based on purpose

Main spillway

A main(or service) spillway is the spillway designed to pass a prefixed or the design flood.

This spillway is necessary for all dams and in most of the dams, it is the only spillway.

Auxiliary spillway

It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located that it

comes into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed are exceeded.

Total spillway capacity (Q) = Qm + Qa , Where Q is the designed flood,

Qm is the capacity of main spillway,

Qa is the capacity of the auxiliary spillway

Emergency spillway

It is provided in addition to the main spillway but it comes into operation only during emergency
which may arise at any time.

Classification based on control

Controlled spillway

A controlled spillway is one which is provided with the gates over the crest to control the
outflow from the reservoir.

In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level (F.R.L) of the reservoir is usually kept at the
top level of the gates. Thus, the water can be stored up to the top level of the gates.

Uncontrolled spillway

In an uncontrolled spillway the gates are not provided over the crest to control the outflow from
the reservoir.

The full reservoir level(F.R.L) is at the crest level of the spillway. The water escapes
automatically when the water level rises above the crest level.

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Classification based on prominent feature

1. Free overfall or straight drop spillway:

-In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest. It is a low weir and simple
vertical fall type structures.

-The water falls freely from the crest under the action of gravity.

-To prevent scouring at the downstream, an auxiliary dam of artificial pool is to be constructed at
the place of fall of water.

-This type of spillway is not recommended for high head since the vibrations of falling jet might
damage the structure.

-To direct the small discharge away from the face of the overfall section the crest is extended to
form an overhanging clip.

Figure 7. 2 Free overfall or straight drop spillway

2. Ogee or overflow spillway

-It represents the S-shape curve so, it is called ogee spillway.

-It is an improved form of straight drop spillway.

-It is mainly used in gravity dams.

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-It has got the advantage over other spillways for its high discharging efficiency.

-The overflow water is guided smoothly over the crest so that water do not break the contact with
the spillway surface.

Figure 7. 3 Ogee or overflow spillway

3. Side channel spillway

-The flow in this spillway is turned 90 ̊ after passing the crest such that the flow is parallel to the
weir crest.

-Best suitable for non-rigid dams like earthen dams.

-It is preferred where space is not available for providing sufficient crest width for chute
spillway.

-The discharge carrier may be an open channel type or a conduit type.

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Figure 7. 4 Side channel spillway

4. chute (or open channel or trough)

-It is often called as trough or open channel spillway.

-For earthen and rockfill dams, spillway is to be constructed separately away from the main
valley.

-Chute Spillway is the simplest type of a spillway which can be easily provided independently
and at low costs.

-It is lighter and adaptable to any type of foundations.

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5. shaft which (or morning glory)

-The water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft which conveys this water into a
horizontal tunnel which finally discharges the water into the river downstream.

-This type of spillway is preferred where the space is not available for providing the above type
of spillways

-If the inlet leg is provided in shape of a funnel, it is called Morning Glory Spillway.

-It has maximum discharge even at low heads.

Figure 7. 5 shaft which (or morning glory)

6. Siphon

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-It works on the principle of syphonic action.

-It consists of a syphon pipe whose inlet leg is kept just below the normal pool level and an air
vent kept at normal pool level is connected to the crown of syphon.

-When the water raises the pool level, syphonic action starts automatically and the water
discharges to downstream side.

-When the water level falls below the pool level, air is entered through air vent and the
discharging of water stops.

Figure 7. 6 Siphon
7. conduit (or tunnel)

- A conduit Spill-way consist of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to the downstream
channel . It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam .

- The closed conduit may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel, or a
conduit constructed in an open cut and then covered.

- To ensure the free flow in the tunnel, the ratio of flow area to total tunnel area is often limited
to 75%of air vents are provided.

- Such a spill-way is suitable for dam sites in narrow canyons with steep abutments.

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Figure 7. 7 conduit (or tunnel)

8 ENERGY DISSIPATION

8.1 Introduction
Hydraulic jump is the jump or standing wave formed when the depth of flow of water changes
from supercritical to subcritical state.

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8.2 Energy dissipations on spillways

Water flowing over a spillway has a very high kinetic energy because of the conversion of the
entire potential energy to the kinetic energy. If the water flowing with such a high velocity is
discharged directly into the channel downstream, serious scour of the channel bed may occur. If
the scour is not properly controlled, it may extend backward and may endanger the spillway and
the dam. In order to protect the channel bed against scour, the kinetic energy of the water should
be dissipated before it is discharged into the d/s channel. The energy-dissipating devices can be
broadly classified into two types:

1. Devices using a hydraulic jump for the dissipation of energy.

2. Devices using a bucket for the dissipation of energy.

The choice of the energy-dissipating device at a particular spillway is governed by the tail water
depth and the characteristics of the hydraulic jump, if formed, at the toe. If the tail water depth at
the site is not approximately equal to that required for a perfect hydraulic jump, a bucket-type
energy dissipating device is usually provided. The characteristics of the hydraulic jump are
discussed in the following section. The sequent depth (conjugate depth or post-jump depth) y2 is
determined for different values of the discharge, and a jump height curve (JHC) is plotted
between the conjugate depth y2 as ordinate and the discharge (Q) as abscissa. The tail water
rating curve (TWRC) at the spillway site is determined by stream gauging, (Q) as abscissa. As
discussed later, the correct choice of the energy-dissipating device is made after comparing the
relative positions of the jump height curve (JHC) and the tail water rating curve (TWRC). For
the design of spillways, the discharge per unit length (q) is usually taken as abscissa instead of Q.
Different types of stilling basins have been developed which are quite effective for the formation
of stable hydraulic jumps and for confining the hydraulic jump. Stilling basins are commonly
used for spillways and other hydraulic structures, such as weir and barrages. In a stilling basin,
chute blocks, basin blocks (baffle blocks) and an end sill are usually provided. Chute blocks are
triangular blocks installed at the upstream end of the basin.

An end sill is constructed at the downstream end of the basin. It may be a solid sill or a dentate
sill. Baffle blocks are installed on the basin floor between the chute blocks and the end sill. These
are also known as baffle blocks or baffle piers.

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Characteristics of a Hydraulic Jump:

Hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in an open channel when
the flow changes from the supercritical flow state to the subcritical state. It is accompanied by
the formation of extremely turbulent rollers and considerable dissipation of energy. Thus, a
hydraulic jump is a very effective means of dissipation of energy below spillways.

Types of jumps

The type of jump and its characteristics depend mainly upon the Froude number of the incoming
V1
flow or the initial Froude number (F1), given by F 1=
√ g y1
Where V1 is the mean velocity of flow before the hydraulic jump, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and y1 is the pre-jump depth (or the initial depth of flow).

For the formation of a hydraulic jump, the initial Froude number F 1 should be greater than unity.
Different types of hydraulic jump are as follows:

1. Undular Jump An undular jump is formed when F1 = 1.0 to 1.70. In an undular jump, the water
surface shows some undulation. The energy dissipation is about 5%.

2. Weak Jump When F1 = 1.70 to 2.50, a weak hydraulic jump occurs. In this case, a series of
small rollers develops on the surface of the jump, but the downstream water surface remains
quite smooth. The velocity is uniform throughout. The energy dissipation is about 20%.

3. Oscillating Jump An oscillating hydraulic jump occurs when F1 = 2.50 to 4.50. There is an
oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to surface and back again without any periodicity. The
energy dissipation is between 20 to 40 %.

4. Steady Jump A steady jump occurs when F1 = 4.50 to 9.0. The jump is quite stable and
balanced. This jump is not much sensitive to variations in the tail water depth. The steady jump
has very good performance, and most of the hydraulic structures utilize this type of jump for the
dissipation of energy. The energy dissipation is between 45 to 70 %.

5. Strong Jump A strong jump occurs when F1 >9.0. The jump action is quite rough but effective.
It causes a rough water surface with strong surface waves downstream. The energy dissipation is

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between 70 to 85 %. Because of rough action, a strong jump is avoided in spillways, as far as

possible.

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9 OTHER STRUCTURES

9.1 Introduction
Flow measuring structures are defined as hydraulic structures, installed in open channels or in
closed conduits with a free water level where in most cases the discharge can be derived from the
measured upstream water level.

In fact, such a structure is an artificial reduction of the cross-sectional area in the channel or pipe
Which causes an increase in the upstream water level, thus creating a drop in water level over the
structure. Provided the reduction is strong enough, we have a unique relation between the
dischargeandtheupstreamwaterlevel.Andbymeasuringthiswaterlevelcontinuouslywecanalso
obtain a continuous record of discharges as a function of the time.

The relation between the discharge and the upstream water level depends primarily on the shape
and dimensions of the structure, and only slightly on the geometry of the upstream channel or
pipe. The relation can be set up from a theoretical approach which is to be supported by a
calibration, mostly carried out by a hydraulic model study.

Duringthepastcenturiesnumeroustypesofflowmeasuringstructureshavebeendesignedwhose
characteristics meet modern demands of water resources development, particularly in irrigation
schemes and hydrological studies.

9.2 Flow measuring structures

There are nine methods of which three single measurement methods and six methods of
continuous measurements. Sigle measurements are carried out occasionally or for a short period,
often to calibrate one of the methods of continuous measurements.
Single measurements:
 velocity-area method: the area of the cross-section is determined from soundings and
flow velocities are measured using current meters or floats.
 slope-area method: from measurements of the water surface slope S, the cross-sectional
area A and the hydraulic radius R and by estimating a roughness coefficient for the
channel boundaries, the discharge can be calculated using the Manning equation or the
Chezy equation.
 Dilution method: a tracer is added to the stream after which a section downstream is
sampled where it is uniformly distributed throughout the cross-section. The discharge
then is calculated from the dilution of the tracer.

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Continuous measurements:
 Stage-discharge method: Once a unique relation has been established between water level
and discharge by one of the single measurement methods, discharges are derived from the
continuously measured water levels.
 slope-stage-discharge method: Firstly, a relation must be set up between water level,
water surface slope and discharge based up on the Manning equation or the Chezy
equation and calibrated by one of the single measurement methods. After these discharges
are derived from two water levels which are measured continuously.
 Acoustic method:
 Discharges are calculated from measurements of both the flow velocity and the water
level. The velocity is computed from the difference in running time of a sound wave
which is transmitted diagonally across the channel in upstream and downstream direction.
 Electromagnetic method :the flow velocity is determined by measuring the voltage
induced by a moving conductor(streamflow) in a magnetic field.
 Pumping stations: for any pumping station a relation can, be established between the
discharge and the total loss of head, supported by calibration with one of the single
measurement methods. By counting the pumping hours, the total volume of water can be
calculated.
 flow measuring structures: discharges are derived from measurements of the upstream
water level which is continuously measure data certain distance upstream of the structure.
Classification of flow measuring structures
Discharge measuring structures are classified according to the shape of the crest in the flow
direction. They can further be subdivided according to the different cross-sections:
1. Broad-crested weirs
The length of the crest should be sufficient to allow straight and parallel stream lines at least
along a short distance above the crest. The crest height with respect to the bottom of the
approach channelmustcomplywithacertainminimumvalue.Thebest-knownstructures are the
following weirs

 The round-nose horizontal broad-crested weir

 The rectangular broad-crested weir
 The Romijn measuring and regulating weir
 The trapezoidal profile weir
 The Fayoum standard weir
 The V-shaped broad-crested weir.
2. Sharp-crested weirs

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The length of the crest is 1to 2mm. For this reason, they are also called thin-plate weirs. The
nappe is completely free from the weir body after passing the weir, and the stream lines above
the crest are strongly curved. In the air-filled area below the underside of the outflowing jet
atmospheric pressure should prevail. Among the most used thin-plate weirs are:

 The horizontal sharp-crested weir

 The rectangular sharp-crested weir (with side contraction)
 the V-shaped sharp-crested weir(Thomson)
 the trapezoidal shaped weir(Cipoletti)
 the circular sharp-crested weir
 the proportional weir(Sutro weir)
3. Short-crested weirs

We call weirs short-crested when their characteristics in some way look like those of broad
crested and sharp-crested weirs. The streamlines above the crest are curved. Well-known
examples are:

 Weir sill with rectangular control section

 V-notch weir sill
 the triangular profile weir (Crump weir)
 the flat V-weir
 Butcher's movable standing wave weir
 WES-standard spillways
 Cylindrical crested weir
 the stream lined triangular profile weirs
 flap gates.
4. End depth methods

Where the bottom of the canal drops suddenly, a free overfall is created. The water level is
measured exactly above the drop(end depth or brink depth). The discharge is function of both the
end depth and the shape of the cross-section. There we can identify

 Rectangular channels with a free overfall

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 Non-rectangular channels with a free overfall.

5. Parshall flumes

The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1)
a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a
diverging section at the downstream end

Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are
taken on one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously.

6. Cut-throat flume

The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only converging
and diverging sections. Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat bottom. Because
it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the Parshall flume.

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