NCERT Solutions for Class 11

- Plant Growth And Development

1:

Define growth, differentiation, development, dedifferentiation, redifferentiation,

determinate growth, meristem and growth rate.

(a) Growth

It is an irreversible and permanent process, accomplished by an increase in the size of

an organ or organ parts or even of an individual cell.

(b) Differentiation

It is a process in which the cells derived from the apical meristem (root and shoot apex)
and the cambium undergo structural changes in the cell wall and the protoplasm,
becoming mature to perform specific functions.

(c) Development

It refers to the various changes occurring in an organism during its life cycle – from the
germination of seeds to senescence.

(d) De-differentiation

It is the process in which permanent plant cells regain the power to divide under certain
conditions.

(e) Re-differentiation

It is the process in which de-differentiated cells become mature again and lose their
capacity to divide.

(f) Determinate growth

It refers to limited growth. For example, animals and plant leaves stop growing after
having reached maturity.

(g) Meristem

In plants, growth is restricted to specialised regions where active cell divisions take
place. Such a region is called meristem. There are three types of meristems – apical
meristem, lateral meristem, and intercalary meristem.

(h) Growth rate

It can be defined as the increased growth in plants per unit time

2. Why is not anyone parameter good enough to demonstrate growth throughout

the life of a flowering plant?

Solution:

Growth is a consequence of an increase in the quantity of protoplasm. Measuring the

protoplasmic growth includes several parameters, to name a few – increase in
height, weight, number of cells, fresh tissue sample, length, area, volume, etc. Hence, it
is difficult to demonstrate any one parameter of growth throughout the life of a
flowering

3. Describe briefly.

(a) Arithmetic growth

(b) Geometric growth

(c) Sigmoid growth curve

(d) Absolute and relative growth rates

(a) Arithmetic growth: If the length of a plant organ is plotted against time it shows a
linear curve, the growth is called arithmetic growth. In this growth, the rate of growth
is constant and increase in growth occurs in arithmetic progression e.g., length of a
plant is measured as 2,4, 6, 8,10,12 cms at a definite interval of 24 hrs. It is found in
root or shoot elongating at constant rate. Arithmetic growth is expressed as L t = L0 +
rt Here, Lt = length after time t. L0 = length at the beginning, r = growth rate.

(b) Geometric growth: Geometric growth is the growth where both the progeny cells
following mitosis retain the ability to divide and continue to do so. It occurs in many
higher plants and in unicellular organisms when grown in nutrient rich medium.
Number of cells is initially small so that initial growth is slow which is called lag
phase. Later on, there is rapid growth at exponential rate. It is called log or
exponential phase.

(c) Sigmoid growth curve: Geometric growth cannot be sustained for long. Some
cells die. Limited nutrient availability causes slowing down of growth. It leads to
stationary phase. There may be actually a decline. Plotting the growth against time
will give a typical sigmoid or S-curve.

S-curve of growth is typical of most living organisms in their natural environment. It

also occurs in cells, tissues and organs of plants.

(d) Absolute growth rate is the measurement of total growth per unit time. Relative
growth rate is growth per unit time per unit initial growth.
Growth in given time period/ Measurement at start of time period
Suppose two leaves have grown by 5 cm2 in one day. Initial size of leaf A was 5
cm2 while that of leaf B was 50 cm2. Though their absolute growth is the same (5
cm2/day), relative rate of growth is faster in leaf A(5/5) because of initial small size
than in leaf B(5/50).

4: List five main groups of natural plant growth regulators. Write a note on discovery,
physiological functions and agricultural/horticultural applications of any one of them.
Plant growth regulators are the chemical molecules secreted by plants affecting the
physiological attributes of a plant. There are five main plant growth regulators. These
are:

(i) Auxins

(ii) Gibberellic acid

(iii) Cytokinins

(iv) Ethylene

(v) Abscisic acid

(i) Auxins

Discovery:

The first observations regarding the effects of auxins were made by Charles Darwin and
Francis Darwin wherein they saw the coleoptiles of canary gross bending toward a
unilateral source of light.

It was concluded after a series of experiments that some substance produced at the tip
of coleoptiles was responsible for the bending. Finally, this substance was extracted as
auxins from the tips of coleoptiles in oat seedlings.

Physiological functions:

1. They control plant cell-growth.

2. They cause the phenomenon of apical dominance.

3. They control division in the vascular cambium and xylem differentiation.

4. They induce parthenocarpy and prevent abscission of leaves and fruits.

Horticultural applications:

1. They are used as the rooting hormones in stem cuttings.

2. 2-4 D is used weedicide to kill broadleaf, dicotyledonous weeds.

3. They induce parthenocarpy in tomatoes.

4. They promote flowering in pineapple and litchi.

(ii) Gibberellic acid

Discovery:

Bakane or the “foolish rice seedling” disease was first observed by Japanese farmers. In
this disease, rice seedlings appear to grow taller than natural plants, and become
slender and pale green. Later, after several experiments, it was found that this condition
was caused by the infection from a certain fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. The active
substance was isolated and identified as gibberellic acid.

Physiological functions:

1. It causes elongation of internodes.

2. It promotes bolting in rosette plants.

3. It helps in inducing seed germination by breaking seed dormancy and initiating the
synthesis of hydrolases enzymes for digesting reserve food.

Horticultural applications:

1. It helps in increasing the sugar content in sugarcane by increasing the length of the
internodes.

2. It increases the length of grape stalks.

3. It improves the shape of apple.

4. It delays senescence.

5. It hastens maturity and induces seed-production in juvenile conifers.

(iii) Cytokinins

Discovery:

Through their experimental observations, F. Skoog and his co-workers found that the
tobacco callus differentiated when extracts of vascular tissues, yeast extract, coconut
milk, or DNA were added to the culture medium. This led to the discovery of cytokinins.

Physiological functions:

1. They promote the growth of lateral branches by inhibiting apical dominance.

2. They help in the production of new leaves, chloroplasts, and adventitious shoots.

3. They help in delaying senescence by promoting nutrient mobilisation.

Horticultural applications:

1. They are used for preventing apical dominance.

2. They are used for delaying senescence in leaves.

(iv) Ethylene

Discovery:

It was observed that unripe bananas ripened faster when stored with ripe bananas.
Later, the substance promoting the ripening was found to be ethylene.

Physiological functions:

1. It helps in breaking seed and bud dormancy.

2. It promotes rapid internode-elongation in deep-water rice plants.

3. It promotes root-growth and formation of root hairs.

4. It promotes senescence and abscission of leaves and flowers.

5. It hastens the respiration rate in fruits and enhances fruit ripening.

Horticultural applications:

1. It is used to initiate flowering and synchronising the fruit set in pineapples.

2. It induces flowering in mango.

3. Ethephon is used to ripen the fruits in tomatoes and apples, and accelerate the
abscission of flowers and leaves in cotton, cherry, and walnut.

4. It promotes the number of female flowers in cucumbers.

(v) Abscisic acid

Discovery:

During the mid 1960s, inhibitor-B, abscission II, and dormin were discovered by three
independent researchers. These were later on found to be chemically similar and were
thereafter called ABA (Abscisic acid).

Physiological functions:

1. It acts as an inhibitor to plant metabolism.

2. It stimulates stomatal closure during water stress.

3. It induces seed dormancy.

4. It induces abscission of leaves, fruits, and flowers.

Horticultural application:

It induces seed dormancy in stored seeds.

5. Why is abscisic acid also known as stress hormone?l

Abscisic acid is responsible for stimulating the closure of stomata in the epidermis
and raises the tolerance of plants to different types of stresses. Hence, it is also called
the stress hormone. Abscisic acid is responsible for promoting seed dormancy,
thereby ensuring the germination of seeds during favourable conditions. This helps
the seeds to withstand desiccation and to induce dormancy towards the end of the
growing season in plants, thereby promoting abscission of the fruits, leaves and
flowers. ABA is accelerated under stress condition and the same is destroyed or
inactivated when stress is relieved, it is also known as stress hormone.

6.‘Both growth and differentiation in higher plants are open.’ Comment.

The ability of higher plants to retain the capacity to have indefinite growth through
their life span is because of the presence of meristems at specific locations of their
body. The cells, as a result of these meristems, have the capacity to divide and
perpetuate on their own. This is why the growth in higher plants is open. A few of these
cells undergo differentiation, always subsequent to a few rounds of cell division. Thus,
differentiation is open too.

7. Both a short-day plant and a long-day plant can produce flowers simultaneously
in a given place.’ Explain.

A short day plant (SDP) flowers only when it receives a long dark period and short
photoperiod, e.g., Xanthium, Dahlia etc. On the other hand, a long day plant (LDP) will
flower only when it receives a long photoperiod and short dark period, e.g., wheat,
oat etc. Thus critical photoperiod is that continuous duration of light which must not
be exceeded in SDP and should always be exceeded in LDP in order to bring them to
flower. Xanthium requires light for less than 15.6 hrs and Henbane requires light for
more than 11 hrs. Xanthium (a SDP) and Henbane (DP) will flower simultaneously in
light period between 11 to 15.6 hrs.

8. Which one of the plant growth regulators would you use if you were asked to:

(a) induce rooting in a twig.

(b) quickly ripen a fruit.

(c) delay leaf senescence.

(d) induce growth in axillary buds.

(e) ‘bolt’ a rosette plant.

(f) induce immediate stomatal closure in leaves.

Listed below are the plant growth regulators for the corresponding events:

(a) induce rooting in a twig. – Auxins

(b) quickly ripen a fruit. – Ethylene

(c) delay leaf senescence. – Cytokinins

(d) induce growth in axillary buds. – Cytokinins

(e) ‘bolt’ a rosette plant. – Gibberellins

(f) induce immediate stomatal closure in leaves. – Abscisic acid

9. Would a defoliated plant respond to a photoperiodic cycle? Why?

No, the leaves are the sites of perception of light / dark duration. As a result,
a defoliated plant will not respond to the photoperiodic cycle. Hence, the
plant would not respond to light in the absence of leaves.

10. Whatwould be expected to happen if:

a) GA3GA3 is applied to rice seedlings
When GA3 is applied to rice seedlings, the rice seedlings will show an
increase in height and promote elongation of internodes.

b) Dividing cells stop differentiating

Ans: Plant organs such as leaves and stems will not form if dividing cells
stop differentiating.

c) A rotten fruit gets mixed with unripe

Ans: When a rotten fruit is mixed with unripe fruits, the ethylene produced
by the rotten fruits causes the unripe fruits to ripen faster.

d) You forget to add cytokinin to the culture medium

Ans: Cell division, growth, and differentiation will be slowed if you forget to
add cytokinin in the culture medium.