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KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)

COURSE MATERIAL
EC8751 - OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT -1
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS
PREPARED BY
A.SURESH KUMAR
S.BASKAR
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Communication
• Wired Communication.
• Wireless Communication.

• Wired Communication:
– Coaxial cable
– Twisted pair cable
– Optical cable
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Coaxial cable
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Twisted pair cable

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• Coaxial • Twisted Pair cable

• Coaxial cable is used as a • The use of two wires
transmission line twisted together helps to
• for ? reduce crosstalk and
• radio frequency signals. electromagnetic induction.
• connecting
• radio transmitters and
receivers
• To ?
• their antennas
• distribution
• Of ?
• cable television signals.
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Optical fiber
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What is optical fiber?

• Turns out they can be made of just glass, glass
plus polymers, or just polymers
("plastic optical fibers" -POF-).
• The most basic optical fiber consist of:
An inner cylinder with high refractive index,
called the core.
A middle cylinder with a lower refractive
index, called the cladding.
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Why Optical fiber ?

• Optical fibers are used most often as a means
to transmit light between the two ends of
the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-
optic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical
cables.
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Topics to be covered
• Evolution of fiber optic system
• Elements of an optical fiber transmission link
• TIR-Total Internal Reflection
• Acceptance angle
– Numerical Aperture
• Skew rays
• Ray optics
• Optical fiber modes & configurations
• Mode theory of circular wave guides
• Overview of modes
– Key modal concepts
– Linearly polarized modes
– Single mode fibers
– Graded index structures
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•
Evolution
What is this ?
of Fiber optic systems
A cable
made of ?
Optical fiber.
• It Deals with study of ?
- Propagation of light
through?
- waveguides
waveguides is like ?
transparent dielectric
• Dielectric ?
- insulator (eg: plastic , glass)
- Plastic: External usage
-Glass : Internal usage
• The fiber optics are used for ?
- Transmission of data from ?
point
to
point location.
• Fiber optic system currently used as ?
- Transmission line between hardwired systems.
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• The carrier frequencies used in conventional
systems had the limitations in ?
- Handling the volume
&
- Data rate transmission.

1st Gen 2nd Gen 3rd Gen 4th Gen 5th gen
Bit rate 45 Mb/s 100 Mb/s to 10Gb/s 10 Tb/s 40 – 160
1.7 Gb/s gb/s
Repeater 10 Km 50 Km 100 Km > 10000 24000
spacing km Km -
35000
Km
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Repeater spacing
• The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication
system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation
and by fiber distortion. By using opto-electronicrepeaters,
these problems have been eliminated.

• What is the maximum distance for fiber optic cable?

The equipment used for communications over multi-mode
optical fiber is less expensive than that for single-mode
optical fiber. Typical transmission speed and distance limits
are 100 Mbit/s for distances up to 2 km (100BASE-FX), 1
Gbit/s up to1000 m, and 10 Gbit/s up to 550 m.
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• What is a fiber optic repeater?

• An optical communications repeater is used in
a fiber-optic communications system to
regenerate an optical signal. ...
Some repeaters also correct for distortion of
the optical signal by converting it to an
electrical signal, processing that electrical
signal and then retransmitting
an optical signal.
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• How is the data transmitted over the fiber optical

cable?
• Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands
of very pure glass about the size of a human hair.
They are arranged in bundles called optical cables
and used totransmit signals over long
distances. Fiber optic data transmission systems
send information over fiber by turning electronic
signals into light
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Need for Optic Communication:
• Need of low loss transmission medium
• Compact & least weight transmitters and
receivers.
• Increased span of transmission
• Increased bit rate distance product.
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Principle of wireless communication
✓ transmits and receives the electromagnetic waves
✓ Low freq radio waves 30 Hz to high freq cosmic rays (>
10 million trillion Hz)
✓ Amount of information is carried by the electro
magnetic waves = width of the wavelength band
✓ Freq, wave length and speed of the waves are related
by
c=λxf
‘c’ is 3x108 m/s
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Types of electromagnetic radiation

• Gamma radiation
• X-ray radiation
• Ultraviolet radiation
• Visible radiation
• Infrared radiation
• Microwave radiation
• Radio waves
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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Frequency bands in electromagnetic
spectrum
• Defined by International Telecommunication
Union
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio waves & light waves are EM Waves.
- Rate @ which they alternate in polarity is called
?
- frequency (f)
- measured in hertz (Hz).
- Speed (c) of electromagnetic wave in free space
is approximately 3 x 108 m/sec.
- distance travelled during each cycle is called as ?
Wavelength .
• Wavelength = Speed of light / frequency = c/f.
 Advantages of Opticalwww.rejinpaul.com
fiber link.
• Wide range of bandwidth:
– 2 x 1012 H to 3.7 x 1012 Hz.
– Information carrying capability of fiber optic
cables is much higher.
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Advantages contd.,
• Low losses
– Very less attenuation over long distances.
– 1 db/km.
• Immune to cross talk
- Very high immunity to Electrical & Magnetic field.
- Since fiber optic cables are non conductors of
electricity hence
- They do not produce magnetic field.
- Thus fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk
between cables caused by magnetic induction.
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• Interference immune
– Lightning , electric motors,
fluorescent lights
• Light weight
– Silica glass / plastic
• Small size
• More strength
• Security
– Impossible to tap into a
fiber cable as they do not
radiate signals.
• Long distance
transmission
• Environment immune
• Safe and easy installation
• Less cost
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Disadvantages of Optical fiber link

• High initial cost
• Maintenance and repairing cost
– Not only difficult but also expensive
• Joining and test procedures
• Tensile stress
• Short links
– Price of opto electronic transducers are very high.
• Fiber losses
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Elements of Optical Fiber Transmission
Link
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Elements of Optical Fiber Transmission
Link
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Optical Laws & Definitions

• Laws governing the nature of light must be studied.
• These are called as laws of optics (Ray theory).
• Light always travels at the same speed.
• Speed of light depends upon the material or medium
through which it is moving.
• In free space light travels at max speed: 3 x 108 m/s or
186 x 103 miles/sec.
• When light travels through a material it exhibits
- certain behaviour explained by ?
- laws of reflection , refraction.
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• Reflection:
- When a light ray
is incident upon a reflective surface
at ?
Some incident angle from imaginary
perpendicular normal.
The ray will be reflected from surface ?
at some angle from normal which is equal to
the angle of incidence.
Law: “angle of incidence = angle of reflection”
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• Refraction (bending):
- Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to
another
- ( i.e.) The light ray changes its direction at interface.
• Refraction occurs whenever density of medium changes.
• Refraction takes place because light travels at different speed in
different mediums.
• Speed of light in free space is higher than in water/glass.

• Eg: refraction occurs at air & water interface.

• Straw in a glass of water will appear as it is bent.
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• Refractive Index:
Amount of refraction / bending
that occurs at ?
the interface of ?
two material of different densities.
Refractive index is also known as index of refraction
(n).
Based on material density:
Refractive index = ( speed of light in air /
speed of light in medium)
= c/v.
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Snell’s Law:
• It states how light ray reacts
- when it meets
- the interface of two media
- having different refractive index (n1 & n2).
n1 > n2
ɸ1 be the angle of incidences w.r.t normal.
ɸ2 be the angle of refraction w.r.t normal.
n1 sin ɸ1= n2 sin ɸ2
n1/n2 = sinɸ2 / sinɸ1.
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Critical angle:
When the angle of incidence (ɸ1) is progressively increased,
Refractive angle (ɸ2) also increased.
At some condition of (ɸ1) ,
(ɸ2) becomes 90° to the normal.
When this happens, the refracted light ray travels along the
interface.
During this case, (ɸ1) is called critical angle.
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Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
• When the incident angle is increased beyond the
critical angle
• The light ray does not pass through the interface into
the other medium.
• This gives the effect of mirror exist at the interface with
no possibility of light escaping outside the medium.
• (ɸ1) = (ɸ2)
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Propagation in optical fiber

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Single mode fiber

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Propagation in Optical Fiber:
Innermost is glass core – refractive index n1
Surrounded by cladding – lower refractive index
n2.
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• Refractive Index:
Based on material density:
Refractive index = ( speed of light in air /
speed of light in medium)
= c/v.
• Single mode fibers are capable of carrying www.rejinpaul.com
only one signal of a specific wavelength.
• In multi mode propogation the light
propogates along the fiber in zigzag fashion,
provided it can undergo TIR at the core
cladding boundaries.
• TIR at the fiber wall can occur only if two
conditions are satisfied.
1) refractive index of fiber glass n1 (core) >
refractive index of n2 (cladding)
n1>n2
2) angle of incidence (ɸ1) > ɸc
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Acceptance angle
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• Acceptance angle:
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Acceptance cone
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• Numerical Aperture (NA) :
- It is light gathering capability of a fiber.
- When the NA is high?
- greater the amount of light accepted by
fiber.
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• The Numerical Aperture (NA) is a measure of

how much light can be collected by
an optical system such as an optical fibre or a
microscope lens. The NA is related to the
acceptance angle , which indicates the size of
a cone of light that can be accepted by
the fibre.
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• The significance of NA is that light entering in

the cone of semi vertical angle imonly
propagate through the fibre. The higher the
value of im or NA more is the light collected for
propagation in the fibre. Numerical
aperture is thus considered as a light
gathering capacity of an optical fibre.
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•
Optical fiber as Waveguide
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide.
• It is capable of ?
- Conveying waves
• What types of waves ?
- EM Waves.
• at what frequencies?
- Optical frequency
• EM energy is in the form of ?
- Light
• This light propagates along the axis of the fiber.
• The structure of the fiber determines the transmission characteristics.
• The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by ?
- Modes of the waveguides.
-Modes means path.
• Each mode has distinct pattern of ?
- Electric & Magnetic field distributions along the fiber length.
• Only few modes can satisfy the homogenous wave equation in the fiber.
• When there is only one path for light to follow,
- then it is called as Single mode propagation.
• When there is more than one path for the light to follow,
- multimode propagation.
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Single Fiber structure:
• Core Consists of solid dielectric cylinder
- radius ‘a’
• Core surrounded by cladding.
• Refractive index of core n1 (glass fiber) > Refractive index of
cladding.
• n1 > n2.
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• Advantages of Cladding:
• Provides mechanical strength to the fiber
core.
• Protects the core from absorbing surface
contaminants with which it coming contact.
• Reduces scattering losses
• Protection.
– Resistance to sunlight
– Reduces water absorption
– Resistance to temperature
– Resistance to air/chemical pollution.
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TYPES OF RAYS
• When the rays are launched
- Where ?
Within core
- It Can be successfully propagated along the fiber.
But, the exact path of the ray is determined by ?
- Position and angle of ray at which it strikes the core.
3 types of rays.
i) Skew rays
ii) Meridional rays
iii) Axial rays.
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• Skew Rays:
- It does not pass through the center axis.
- Skew rays reflects off
- from the core cladding boundaries.
- again bounces around the outside of the core.
- Cannot be tracked easily
- because they are not in single plane.
- It takes spiral / helical path.
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• Meridional Rays:
- Meridional ray enters the core and passes through its axis.
• When the core surface is parallel,
- it will always be reflected to pass through the center.
• It uses TIR from the core cladding boundaries.
• Path can be easily tracked as it travels along the length of fiber.
2 types of meridional rays:
i) Bound rays: trapped in core and propagate along the fiber.
ii) Unbound rays: Reflected out of the fiber.
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• Axial rays:
It travels along the axis of the fiber & stays at
the axis ?
All the time.
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Modes of Fiber
• Fiber cables can also be classified as per their mode.
- Light rays propogate
• As ?
- EM Wave.
• Along ?
- Fiber.
2 Components:
Electric field
& Magnetic field
Form patterns across the fiber.
These patterns called as modes of transmission.

Mode of a fiber refers to ?

Number of paths for the light rays in the cable.
Modes classified into 2 types:
1) Single mode fiber
2) Multi mode fiber.
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• Single mode fiber:
It allows propagation of light ray
By ?
Only one path.

• Multimode fiber:
- numerous modes (light rays) are carried simultaneously through
the waveguide.
- it has a much larger diameter compared to single mode fiber.

• Advantages of multimode fiber:

- suitable for long distances

• Disadvantages of multimode fiber:

- Modal noise is present
- Intermodal dispersion is high.
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• A fiber is characterized by its profile & by its core and cladding diameters.
• Index profile is a graphical representation
of ?
- Refractive index Value
across the ?
- Core diameter.

2 types of Index profiles:

i) Step index fiber
ii) Graded index fiber.
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Definition
• Definition of: step-index fiber. step-index
fiber. A multimode or singlemode
optical fiber with a uniform
refractive index throughout the core.
The step is the shift between the core and the
cladding, which has a lower refractive index.
See graded-index fiber, dispersion-
shifted fiber and dispersion.
• Step Index (SI) fiber :
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- It is a cylindrical waveguide core
with ?
- Central / inner core has a uniform index of n1
- Core is surrounded by cladding with uniform refractive index of n2.
• n2<n1
• Horizontal axis: refractive index is plotted
• Vertical axis: radial distance from the core is plotted
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• Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber:
- It has a Core
- made from?
- many layers of glass.
- In GRIN, refractive index is not uniform within
the core
- It is highest at center
- Decreases smoothly and continuously with
distance towards the cladding.
- It takes the parabolic nature.
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• In graded index fiber
• The light waves are bent by ?
- Refraction
• Towards ?
- The core axis.
• They follow the curved path down the fiber
length.
• This results because of ?
- Change in refractive index as moved away
from the centre of the core.
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Comparison of step index & Graded
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index
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• Optical Fiber Configurations:
Depending on ?
The refractive index profile
of what ?
Fiber ?
There exists 3 types of fiber configurations:
1) Single Mode step index fiber
2) Multimode step index fiber
3) Multimode graded index fiber.
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• It has central core
• It is sufficiently small
• Only one path for light ray through the cable.
• Light ray propagated in ?
- Fiber
• Through ?
- Reflections.
• Core sizes are?
2 to 15 µm.
• Core fiber is very narrow compared to ?
- light wavelength.
Single mode fiber (or) monomode fiber.
It will permit only one mode to ?
- Propogate
Does not suffer from mode delay differences.
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• Disadvantages of Single mode step index fiber.
Because of extremely small size
Following work is difficult:
- Interconnection of Cables
- Interfacing with Source
Multimode Step Index fiber:
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• It is most widely used
• Easy to manufacture
• Core diameter is 50 to 1000µm. (ie) large aperture and allows more light to enter
the cable.
• Light rays propagated in zigzag manner.
• There are many paths that a light ray follow during the propagation.
• Light ray propagates using the principle ?
- TIR (Total Internal Reflection)
• Since the core index of refraction is higher than ?
- Cladding index of refraction
- light enters at ?
- less than critical angle
- light is guided along the fiber.
• Light rays passing through the fiber are ?
- continuously reflected off
- the glass cladding towards the centre of the core
at ?
- different angles & lengths.
It limits,
- overall bandwidth.
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Disadvantages of Multimode step index fiber:

• Different optical length caused by ?

- various angles at which ?
- light is propagated relative to the core
Causes ?
- Small BW.
• Applies for < 1 Km.
Multimode graded index fiber:
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• Core size of 50-100 µm.
• Light propagates through ?
- refraction.
• Light ray enters the fiber at ?
- many different angles.
• As the light propagates
- across the core &
- towards the center.
• It is intersecting from ?
- a less dense
to ?
- more dense medium.
• Hence, light rays are constantly being refracted
• Ray is bending continuosly.
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• The light rays no longer follows straight lines
• They follow serpentine modes.
• It reduces,
- arrival time
because ?
- all mode arrive at same time.
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• What does Maxwell's equation mean?

• Maxwell's equations describe how electric
charges and electric currents create electric
and magnetic fields.
• Further, they describe how an electric
field can generate a magnetic field, and vice
versa.
• The first equation allows you to calculate the
electric field created by a charge.
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• Electric field: Magnetic field

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theory for
Optical Propogation
• To analyze the optical fiber propagation mechanism within a fiber,
At ?
- Core-Cladding interface.

- Maxwell equations are to ?

Solve the boundary conditions.
- Boundary conditions are cylindrical.

• The core-cladding boundary conditions lead to ?

- Coupling of EM field components

resulting in ?
- Hybrid modes.

• Hence the analysis of optical waveguide is more complex than ?

- metallic hollow waveguide analysis.

• Depending on the larger E- Field or H-field. The hybrid modes are ?

- HE or EH modes.
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• Maxwell Equations
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• Electric polarization, slight relative shift of

positive and negative electric charge in
opposite directions within an insulator,
or dielectric, induced by an
external electricfield.
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• What is Faraday's Law equation?

• Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic
field will interact with an electric circuit to
produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a
phenomenon called electromagnetic
induction.
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Cylindrical fibers:
• The order states that , www.rejinpaul.com
- Number of field zeros across the guide.
• The electrical fields are not completely confined with ?
- Core.
(ie) they do not go to zero @ ?
core cladding interface
& Extends into the cladding.
• The low order modes confines the electric field near ?
- axis of the fiber core.
- less penetration into the cladding.
• The high order modes distribute the field towards the ?
- edge of the core fiber
- penetrates into the cladding.
The cladding modes also appear results in ?
- Power loss.
• In Leaky modes fields are confined partially in ?
- Fiber core
As they propagate along the fiber length , due to radiation effect ?
- It Attenuates.
In order to mode remain guided, propagation factor (ᵝ) must satisfy the condition
n2k < ᵝ < n1k.
n1 – refractive index of fiber core
n2- refractive index of cladding
k- propagation constant = 2∏ / λ.
Normalized frequency
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• Normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter.
• Otherwise called as V number
• What it gives ?
- it provides relation
Among ?
- design variables (3 design variables)
Of ?
- fiber.
- Core radius (a)
- relative index difference (Δ)
- Operating wavelength (λ)
• Normalized frequency variable , V is given as
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Fiber Modes:
• Optical mode:
- It is a solution of the wave equation that
satisfies boundary conditions.
3 types of fiber modes:
- Guided modes
- Leaky modes
- Radiation modes
Guided mode is used for ?
- Signal Transmission.
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Graded Index fiber structure
Refractive index of graded index fiber
decreases Continuously towards its radius
From ?
axis

For cladding ?
It is constant.
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• Refractive index variation in the core is usually
designed by ?
• Power law relationship.
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Single mode fibers:
• Propagation in single mode fiber is advantageous
• Because ?
due to differences
• in?
delay
• Among ?
various modes
• in ?
multimode is avoided.
• Multimode step index fibers cannot be used for ?
- single mode propagation
Due to ?
- difficulties in single mode fiber.
In single mode fiber, all the other modes are attenuated by ?
- leakage or absorption.
For single mode operation:
- Only fundamental LP01 mode may exist.
- The single mode propagation of LP01 mode in step index fibers is possible over the range.
0 <= V < 2.4 ( V number = radius, refractive index, wavelength)
• Frequency of the fiber can be adjusted within the range by ?
Reducing
-core radius
- refractive index difference <1 %
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In order to obtain single mode operation
• With ?
Maximum V number (2.4)
• Single mode fiber must have ?
- Smaller core diameter than the equivalent multimode
step index fiber.
- But smaller core diameter has problem of launching light
into the fiber, jointing fibers & reduce refractive index
difference.
• Graded index fibers can also be used for ?
- Single mode operation
With some special fiber design.
The cut off value of normalized frequency Vc in single mode
operation for a graded index fiber is given by:
Vc = 2.4 ( 1 + 2/(α)1/2
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Cut off wavelengths
• For a Single mode fiber
Cut-off wavelength is an important transmission parameter.
• For ?
1st higher order mode as it distinguishes the single and
multi mode regions.
• The effective cut off wavelength is defined as the ?
Largest wavelength
• at which ?
higher order (Lp11) mode power (fundamental mode
(LP01) )
• Is reduced to 0.1 db
• The range of cut off wavelength recommended to avoid
modal noise & dispersion problems is
- 1100 nm to 1280nm.
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UNIT-II
TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTIC OF OPTICAL FIBER

V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN

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V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN

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Attenuation in optical fiber
• What is attenuation ?
- It is a measure of decay of ?
- signal strength
Or
- loss of light power
Loss occurs as ?
- light pulses propagate through the length of
the fiber.
Attenuation caused by 2 factors:
- absorption
- scattering losses.
V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN
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Absorption:
- Due to fiber materials.
Scattering:
- It occurs due to structural imperfections within the fiber.
- Nearly 90 % of total attenuation is caused by ?
- Rayleigh scattering only.
- Micro bending of optical fiber also contributes to ?
- attenuation of signal.
- The rate at which light is absorbed is dependent on ?
- wavelength of the light
& characteristics of particular glass.
- The attenuation of fiber is governed by the materials from which it is
fabricated.
- Attenuation is measured in DB/KM

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Sources of Attenuation:
1. Material absorption
2. Scattering loss
3. Bending Loss
4. Core and cladding loss
5. Dispersion
6. Mode coupling
7. Leaky modes
8. Pulse broadening.

V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN

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Attenuation Units
• Attenuation leads to ?
- Loss of power
Along ?
- fiber.
Output power is significantly less than ?
- Coupled power.
Let the coupled optical power is P(0)
(i.e) @ origin (z=0).

V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN

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• Attenuation is also a function of wavelength.

V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN

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Absorption Loss
• It is related to ?
- Material composition & fabrication process of fiber.
• It results in ?
- dissipation of optical power in terms of heat.
• Even after purification of glass materials
there exists ?
- impurities as residue.
• The amount of absorption by these impurities depends on ?
- Concentration & light wavelength.
It is caused by 3 different mechanisms:
1) Atomic defects in glass composition
2) Extrinsic absorption
- by impurity atoms in glass matts.
3) Intrinsic absorption
- by basic constituent atom of fiber.
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Absorption by Atomic defects:
• Atomic defects are ?
- Imperfections
in ?
- Atomic structure
Of what materials ?
Fiber
This defect is like ?
- missing molecules
- high density clusters of atom groups
These losses are negligible compared with ?
- Intrinsic & extrinsic losses.

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This absorption effect is most significant
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• When the Fiber is exposed to ?
Ionizing radiation
• In ?
Nuclear reactor
Medical therapies
Space missions
Radiation damages the ?
- Internal structure of the fiber.
• Damages are proportional to ?
- intensity of ionizing particles.
• Results in ?
- increase in attenuation.
• The total dose a material receives is expressed in ?
- rad (si)
- this is the unit for measuring radiation absorbed in bulk silicon.
- 1 rad (si) = 0.01 J/Kg.

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Extrinsic Absorption
• It is due to ?
• Impurities present
• In ?
• Fiber material
• Such as ?
- Transistion metal impurities
- OH ions.
• It occurs due to ?
1) Electronic transitions
Between ?
- Energy levels
2) charge transitions
From ?
- one ion
To ?
- another ion.

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Major source of attenuation is from
Transition of metal impurity ions such as
- Iron
- chromium
- cobalt
- copper
These lossed can be upto ?
- 1 to 10 db/km.

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• Another major extrinsic loss is caused by

absorption due to ?
- OH ions

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• Material absorption is a intrinsic property of a

material to absorb light of one or more
wavelengths and hence this property of glass
may cause some amount of attenuation in the
signal as it propagates along the optical fiber.

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• What causes the most fiber optic attenuation and

absorption?
• Optics. Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as
transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of
the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance
travelled through a transmission medium. ...
Empirical research has shown
that attenuationin optical
fiber is caused primarily by both scattering
and absorption.

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Intrinsic Absorption
• When It occurs ?
- Material is absolute pure state.
- no density variations & inhomogenities.
• It sets the fundamental lower limit on ?
- Absorption for any particular material.
• Intrinsic absorption results from ?
- electronic absorption bands in UV region &
from
atomic vibration bands in the near infrared
region(IR).
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• Electronic absorption bands are associated with ?
- band gaps
• Of ?
- amorphos glass materials.
Absorption occurs:
• When a photon interacts with ?
an electron
In ?
valance band
& excites it to higher energy level (conduction band)

The IR absorption
• is due to ?
Interaction between ?
- vibrating band
&
- EM field of optical signal .
• This results in ?
- transfer of energy from field to band.
Hence results in ?
- absorption.
This absorption is strong because ? & T.MEENAL KNCET-ECE-OCN
V.P.KAVIN
- many bonds present in the fiber.
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Scattering Losses
Exists due to ?
1. Microscopic variations in density of fiber material
2. Compositional functions
3. Structural in homogeneities
4. Structural defects in fiber.

Scattering Losses:
1) Linear scattering loss
- Rayleigh scattering
- Mie scattering
2) Non linear scattering loss
- Stimulated Brillouin scattering
- Stimulated Raman Scattering.
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Rayleigh Scattering Losses
• it exists in ?
- optical fibers
• Because of ?
- Microscopic variations
• In ?
- material density & Composition.
As glass is composed by ?
randomly connected network of molecules & several oxides
(eg: SiO2 , GeO2 & P205).
These are the major cause of ?
compositional structure fluctuation.
These two effects results to ?
variation in ?
refractive index
& Rayleigh type scattering of light.
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• Rayleigh scattering of light is due to ? www.rejinpaul.com
- Small localized changes
in ?
refractive index
Of ?
Core & cladding material.
2 causes during manufacturing of fiber:
1. Due to slight fluctuation in ?
- mixing of ingredients.
random changes, because of this ?
- impossible to eliminate completely.
2. Due to slight change in density
as ?
Silica cools & solidifies.

When a light ray strikes such zones ?

- it gets scattered in all directions.
The amount of scatter depends on ?
- size of the discontinuity
compared with ?
- wavelength of light.
So the shortest wavelength (high frequency) suffers ?
- More
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Rayleigh scattering

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Mie Scattering
• Linear scattering also occurs at ?
- inhomogenities
These arise from ?
- imperfections.
In ?
- fiber’s geometry
- irregularities in refractive index
- presence of bubbles
Caused during ?
- manufacture.
Careful control of manufacturing process can reduce ?
mie scattering.

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Non linear Scattering Losses:
• Because of this ?
- Optical power from one mode to other modes is
transferred
In ?
- forward/backward direction
At ?
- different frequency.
• These losses are dependent on ?
- optical power density
In ?
- fiber.
The non linear scattering losses are more important above ?
- threshold power levels.

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• Types of non linear scattering losses:
- SBS- Stimulated Brillonin Scattering
- SRS- Stimulated Raman Scattering.

Stimulated Brillonin Scattering (SBS):

SBS exists
• When ?
light is modulated through?
- thermal molecular vibrations within fiber.
• Scattered light is observed as
- both sidebands.
-(Upper , Lower sidebands)
Separated from ?
- incident light
By ?
- modulation frequency.
Threshold Power can be given as :

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Stimulated Raman Scattering:
• it is stimulated with ?
- high frequency optical photon
Photons Generated in ?
- Scattering Phenomena.
• SRS exists in ?
- both forward / backward directions in optical fibers.
• SRS Threshold power is three times higher than SBS threshold
power.

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Bending Losses:
• Losses due to ?
- Curvature
• Losses caused by ?
- abrupt change
In ?
- radius of curvature
Are referred as Bending loss.
• The sharp bend of a fiber causes ?
- significant radiative losses
& possibility of mechanical failure.
• As the core bends,
Ray will now find itself on the wrong side of critical angle
& will escape.

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• The radiation loss from a bent fiber depends on ?
• 2 factors

1. Field strength
• of ?
Certain critical distance
• From ?
- fiber axis.
• In that location what happens ?
- power is lost through radiation.
2. Radius of curvature R.

• Higher order modes are less tightly bound to ?

- fiber core
• Higher order modes radiate out of fiber firstly.
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 For multimode fiber, www.rejinpaul.com
- effective number of modes that can be guided by
curved fiber is given as ?

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• Types of Bending losses :
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1. Microscopic bending losses
2. Macroscopic bending losses.

Microscopic bending is a loss

• Occurs Due to ?
- Small bending/distortions.
- It is not visible
• Loss are ?
- temperature related
- tensile related
- crush related.
• Effects of this loss results in ?
- increasing attenuation
to a ?
- series of periodic peaks
on ?
Spectral attenuation curve.
• These effects can be minimized
during ?
- installation & testing.

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Macrobending Losses / Large www.rejinpaul.com
Radius losses.
No peaks available in the
bending area
• Because ?
- no light is coupled back
into the core from cladding.
How it can be eliminated?
-Fibers Straightned
- Not exceeding the long
term bend radii.
• bending losses are large in
multimode fibers
at ?
critical radius of curvature.

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Core & Cladding Losses / Wave guide
imperfections
• Since the core & cladding have different indices of refraction .
- they have different attenuation co-efficients
α1 – attenuation coefficient for core
α2 – attenuation coefficient for cladding
For step index fiber
Loss for a mode order (v , m) is given by,

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Signal Distortion in fibers
The pulse gets distorted
• When ?
As it travels along the fiber length.
• Spreading of pulse is referred as ?
- dispersion.
• Dispersion is caused by ?
- difference
• In ?
propagation times
• of ?
light rays
• That takes ?
Different paths during propagation.
• Types:
- Dispersion
1) Intramodal dispersion
- Material / chromatic dispersion
- Waveguide dispersion
- Group velocity / modal dispersion
2) Intermodal dispersion
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Information Capacity Determiniation

• After travelling some distance,
• Pulse starts broadening &
overlap with the neighbouring
pulses.
• @ certain distance the pulses
are not even distinguishable
• Error will occur at receiver.
• Information is specified by?
- bandwidth.distance product
( Mhz . Km)
- for step index – (20 Mhz. Km)
- graded index – ( 2.5 Mhz.Km)
• Bandwidth decreases with ?
- increase in cable length.

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Consider a fiber cable
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• Carrying ?
- Optical signal
• How ?
- Equally
• With ?
- Various modes / various paths.
Each modes contains
All the spectral components
• in ?
Wavelength band.
All the spectral components travel independently .
They observe different
time delay
group delay
In ?
Direction of propagation.
Velocity
at which ?
the energy in a pulse
travels along the fiber is known as ?
- Group velocity

• Thus different frequency components in ?

- a signal
• Will travel at ?
- different group velocities.
• Will arrive at ?
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- at different times
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For digital modulation of carrier
• Results in ?
Dispersion of pulse.
• Affects ?
Rate of modulation.

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• Material dispersion:
• Other wise called as chromatic dispersion.
• It exists due to ?
• Change in refractive index
• For ?
• Different wavelengths.
• Light ray contains components
• of ?
• various wavelengths centered at wavelength λ0.
• Time delay is different for different wavelength components.
• Results in ?
• Time dispersion
• Of ?
• Pulse
• At ?
• Receiving end of fiber.
•

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Waveguide dispersion:
• It is caused by ?
Difference
• In ?
– index of refraction
• Between ?
Core & cladding
• Resulting in ?
A drag effect
• Between ?
Core & cladding portions of power.
• It is significant only in fibers carrying fewer than ?
- 5-10 Modes.
• Since multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of modes -
• - they will not have observable waveguide dispersion.

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Chromatic Dispersion
• Combination of material dispersion & waveguide dispersion is called ?
- Chromatic dispersion.
• These losses primarily concern ?
- The spectral width
• Of ?
- transmitter
- Wavelength.

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• Modal Dispersion:
• As only a certain number of modes can propagate down the fiber.
• Each of these modes carry ?
- Modulation signal
• Each one is incident on ?
- Boundry
• At ?
- Different angle.
• Each will have their own individual propagation times.
• Net effect is ?
- Spreading of pulse.
• This form of dispersion is called modal dispersion.

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• Modal dispersion takes place in ?
- Multimode fibers
• In graded index fibers
- moderately present
• Single mode step index fibers
- eliminated

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Intermodal dispersion Intramodal dispersion

• It is between different • Occurs within single mode
modes in ofc. fibers
• It is applied to multimode • Dispersion is a result of
fiber. material properties of
• All modes have different optical fiber
group velocities. • It is known as chromatic
• It is known as modal dispersion
dispersion

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Pulse Broadening in GI fibers
In Graded index fibers:
• The core index Varies
• How ?
- Radially.
• Hence it supports,
Multimode propagation.
• With ?
- Low delay distortion.
- High data rate
Over ?
- Long distance is possible.
High refractive index region:
Higher order modes travelling in ?
- outer regions of the core
• It will travel faster than ?
- lower order modes.
If the Index profile is carefully controlled,
• Individual modes will be ?
- Identical.
So ?
- modal dispersion can be eliminated.
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UNIT-III

FIBER OPTIC
SOURCES & COUPLING

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• Sources
LED
- Monochromatic
- incoherent
LASER
- Monochromatic
- Coherent
• Coupling

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LED LASER
• Operation Principle • Operation principle
• Structure • Emission rate &
• Configurations Absorption rate
• Light source materials • Modes & threshold
• Quantum efficiency & LED conditions
power • PI Characteristics
• Power conversion • External Quantum
efficiency efficiency
• Modulation BW • Resonant frequency
• Power BW product • Injection Laser structure
• Advantages & • Fabry Perot resonator
Disadvantages • Distributed feedback
Laser
• Optical characteristics

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• Light Emitting Diode
• A diode which emits ?
- Light
LED-intro
• When ?
- it is forward biased.
• In general,
- energy is required to ?
- generate electron hole pair.
Similarly,
- energy is released when ?
- electron recombines with holes.
• Depending on the material used:
- energy may be released in the form of :
1) heat radiation
2) Light radiation
• In ordinary junction diode:
- energy is dissipated in the form of heat.
• In Light emitting diode:
- energy is released in the form of ?
- light radiation.
• Depending on the frequency:
- Light may be visible/invisible.

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Principle of Operation
• When LED is forward biased:
- Electron hole pair generated.
- These electron hole pair, move towards
the junction
- recombination takes place.
- electrons lying in the conduction band of
N region
- holes lying in the valance band of the P
region.
• After recombination, • Conduction band is having more energy than
- electron in conduction band fall into the valance band.
holes lying in the valance band. • Since electrons falling from higher energy
band
- difference of energy between conduction
band and valance band is radiated as light
energy.
• Depending on the material used for
constructing the diode:
- Different colours are emitted.
eg: Ga As.
si, Ge poor in emitting light radiations.

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LED construction
• P type layer is grown over N type
substrate.
• Forms PN junction
• Metal connections are made for ?
- Output leads • 5.27
• Window is provided at the top of
P type surface
- through which ?
- light energy radiates.
• Method of identifying lead ?
- longer lead is anode
- one side is flattened.
- lead close to this is
cathode.

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VI characteristics

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Advantages Applications
• Low working voltage & current • Alpha numeric display in
• Less power consumption - Calculators
• No warm up time
- Digital clocks
• Small size , less weight
• No effect of mechanical - Microwave Oven
vibration • Used in optical com
• Less fragile than glass • Image sensing circuits
• Long life
• Safety systems
• Emission of monochromatic
light • Indicators (On / Off )
• Intensity can be controlled

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INTRODUCTION

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EDGE EMITTING LED

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SURFACE EMITTING LED

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LASER DIODES
• LASER ?
- Light Amplification
By ?
-Stimulated Emission
Of ?
- Radiation.

❖ Highly coherent radiation

❖ Monochromatic
❖ EM wave.

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Population
In thermal equilibrium,
Inversion
• The Density of ?
- Excited atoms
• is ?
- Very small.
Hence,
Most of the photons incident
• On the system Will be ?
Absorbed.

Stimulated emission exceeds the absorption

Only if ?
Density of excited atoms is greater.

Population of the upper energy level > lower energy level

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LASER-Operating Principle
• Laser action is the result of 3 process.
1. Absorption of energy packets (photon
absorption)
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission

E1-Lower energy state

E2- Higher energy state

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Quantum energy
It states that ?
- Any atom
• That exists only in ?
- certain discrete energy state.

• Absorption of energy / emission of light

• causes the atom to ?
- make a transition
• From ?
- One state
• To ?
- Another.

Light frequency depends on :

• Frequency of ?
- the absorbed radiation / emitted radiation
• is related to ?
- Difference in energy E between the two states.
• If E1 = Lower energy state
E2= Higher energy state
E= (E2 – E1)
= h.f V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-OCN
H= plank constant ( 6.626 x 10-34 J/s)
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Photon absorption

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Emission
Spontaneous & Stimulated emission
• Spontaneous emission

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Emission
Spontaneous & Stimulated emission
• Stimulated emission

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• Spontaneous emission gives: incoherent emission
• Stimulated emission gives : coherent emission.
Light associated with emitted photon.
• is of ?
- same frequency, same phase
• of ?
-incident energy.
• It means that,
When an atom is simulated to emit light energy
• By ?
- an incident waves
• Liberated energy can add to ?
-The wave
• in ?
-Constructive manner.
• The emitted light is bounced back & forth internally Between ?
-Two reflecting surface.
-The bouncing back & forth of light wave cause their intensity to buildup.
• Results in ?
- high brilliance
- amplified light beam. V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-OCN
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EMISSION & ABSORPTION RATE

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MODES & THRESHOLD CONDITIONS

• In a laser diode:
- Optical radiation
- within resonance cavity
• sets up?
- a pattern
• Of ?
- EM lines
• referred as modes of cavity.
• 3 modes of cavity are /
1) Longitudinal modes :
- length L of cavity
2) Lateral modes:
plane of P-N junction
3) Transverse mode – associated with EM field.

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Lasing conditions
• The condition at which light amplification
possible is referred as lasing condition.
• Important condition for lasing is that a
population inversion must be achieved.

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Power Current Characteristics
• For typical LASER diode.
• Output Optic power Vs Forward input current characteristics is plotted in ?
• Below the threshold current (Ith)
- Only spontaneous emission is emitted
Hence , there is small increase
in ?
Optic power
with ?
drive current.
At threshold condition,
when lasing conditions are satisfied:

Because of stimulated emission

The optical power increases sharply
After ?
Lasing threshold.
The lasing threshold optical gain (gth) is related by ?
Threshold current density ( Jth)
For ?
Stimulated emission by expression
gth = ᵝ Jth. V.P.KAVIN & T.MEENAL KNCET-OCN
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External Quantum Efficiency
Defined as ?
• Above ?
- threshold point.
• Number of photons Emitted per ?
- Electron hole pair recombination.

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Resonant frequency

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Injection Laser Structure

• Gain guided structure
• Index – Guided Lasers
• Quantum Well Lasers
- Single Quantum Well
- Multi Quantum Well
- Modified multi-quantum well

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Gain Guided Structure

• It uses Stripe geometry
• For ?
-Fabrication
• Of ?
- Injection lasers
• With ?
- Single / Lateral modes.
• An electronic stripe runs along ?
- the length of diode.
• Refractive index of active layer is
changed by ?
- Injection of electrons and holes.
• Injected carrier profile creates a ?
- Weak, complex waveguide,
which confines the optical beam
laterally.
• Planner strip lasers provide ?
- High efficient coupling into
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multimode fibers.
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Index Guided Lasers

• Variation of real refractive
index
• of ?
Different material
• in ?
Structures
• controls the ?
modes in diode.

Hence, Device is called as

index-guided lasers.

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Index Guided Lasers

• Variation of real refractive index
• of ?
Different material
• in ?
Structures
• controls the ?
modes in diode.

Hence, Device is called as index-guided lasers.

Types :
1) Positive index waveguide laser:
Central region of the active region has higher
refractive index than
Outer region
2) Negative index waveguide laser:
Central region of the active layer has lower
refractive index than
Outer region.jy6

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Quantum Well Lasers:

QW laser diode is characterized by ?
Lower energy of electrons & holes
Makes recombination easier.
Hence , less current is required
To ?
Sustain oscillation.
Lasers have very thin active layer thickness (10 nm)
Makes lasing action very efficient.

3 types of Quantum well Lasers:

1. SQW – Single quantum well
2. MQW – Multi quantum well
3. Modified quantum well.

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Modulation of laser:
• What ? www.rejinpaul.com
Imposing information
• on ?
Light stream.
It can be done by ?
Either of two ways.
1) Directly varying laser current
to ?
produce
Optical Power.
Or ?
2) Using external modulator
to ?
modify
Optical power.
Limitations of Modulation:
Depends on 3 factors.
1) Spontaneous Lifetime
- Function of semiconductor band structure & concentration.
1) Stimulated Lifetime.
- Function of optical density
1) Photon life time.
- time that photon resides V.P.KAVIN
in lasing cavity KNCET-OCN
& T.MEENAL before being lost by absoption /
emission.
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• Light source linearity.
In order to have distortion free output signal
The modulation must be confined to ?
The linear region to the characteristics.
Two non linear effects are ?
• Harmonic
• Intermodulation distortions
Nonlinearities are the result of ?
- inhomogeneities
in ?
- active region
Of ?
- device.
Nonlinearites are also due to the result of ?
Power switching
Between ?
Dominant lateral modes
In ?
Laser.

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Applications of Injection Laser

• Used Where high radiance is required.
• Can supply optical power in Milliwatts.
• Laser diodes are preferred where modulation
is needed in GHz range.
• Where coherence is required.

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Advantages of Laser diode

1. Simple economic design

2. High optical power
3. Production of light can be precisely controlled
4. Can be used at high temperatures.
5. Better modulation capability
6. High coupling efficiency
7. Low spectral width
8. Ability to transmit optical output power between 5 & 10 mW.
9. Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer characteristics over long periods.

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• Disadvantages of Laser diode
1. At the end of fiber,
a speckle pattern appears
As,
Two Coherent light beams
add / subtract
What ?
their electric field
depending upon?
their phases.
2. Extremely sensitive
To ?
overload currents
At high transmission rates.

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Comparison of LED & LASER Diode

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Power Launching & Coupling

• In realization of optical fiber link, two important process are?

1. Launching optical power into fiber

2. Coupling of optical power from one fiber to other.

Power launching considerations are ?

• Numerical Aperture
• Core size
• Refractive index profile
• Core cladding index difference of fiber
• Radiance power distribution
• Angular power distribution .
Power coupling considerations are ?
• Types of fiber used
• Coupling process
• Fiber alignments
• Fiber core sizes
• Numerical aperture
• Core refractive index profiles
• Neat & smooth fiber end faces.
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Sources to fibre power Launching

• Introduction
• Source output pattern
• Power launching calculations
• Power coupled to step index fiber
• Power coupled to graded index fiber.

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Introduction
• Optical output from ?
Source
• Is measured In ?
Radiance (B).
• Radiance is defined as :
Optical power radiated
• Into?
-a solid angle / unit emitting surface area.
-B specified in Watts / cm2 / steradian.
• Why radiance is important?
- For defining
- Source to fiber coupling efficiency.

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Source output pattern

• Spatial radiation pattern
• of ?
• Source
• helps to ?
• Determine
• What ?
• the power accepting capability of fiber.

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• 3 dimensional spherical
co-ordinate system
• For ?
• Characterizing the
emission pattern from ?
• Optical source.
• Polar axis is normal to ?
• Emitting surface
• Radiance is a function
of ɵ & ɸ
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• Lambartian output by
surface emitting LED is
equally bright from any
direction.
• Emission pattern of
Lambartian output is

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• Power Launching Calculations

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• Power can be coupled into

1. Step Index fiber
2. Graded Index fiber

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Power Coupled to Step Index fiber

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Power coupled to Graded Index fiber

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Power Launching
Optical fiber launched into fiber is
• dependent only on ?
-Radiance (Brightness)
• Of ?
- Source.
• It does not depends on ?
- Wavelength of source.

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Fiber Joints

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Optical Detectors
• What is optical detector ?
- An electronic component.
• Component name:
- Photo detector / photo transistor.
• It is used to ?
Convert
• Convert what ?
Variation in optical power
• Into ?
Corresponding variation in electric current.
• Photo detector / light detector is used for its fast response.
• Most suited Photo detectors are ?
- PIN diode
- APD (Avalanche Photodiodes)

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Photodiode
• How many terminals ?
-2
• It converts light energy
- into ?
electrical energy.
• Normally operated in ?
- reverse biased condition
with ?
- light illuminating on it.
• If a reverse biased PN junction is
illuminated
- reverse current vary with ?
- light intensity.
This effect is used in photo diodes.

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Construction:
• Photo diode is embedded in ?
- clear plastic package
with ?
- focusing lens.
- lens is used to focus the
light falling on the photo diode
towards the PN junction.
• Light energy is allowed to fall
upon one surface across the
junction.
• The other side/ surface of the
plastic package is either
painted black or enclosed in a
metallic case.

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• Principle of operation:
- due to thermally generated electron hole
pair
- During reverse bias: a small amount of
reverse saturation current flows through the
diode.
- this current is called dark current.
• Dark current refers to the current that flows
when no light is falling on the diode.
• If the junction is illuminated, electron hole
pairs are generated and minority charge
carriers are swept across the junction.
• Depending on the intensity of light falling on
the junction
- more number of electron hole pairs are
created.
- therefore, more current flows through the
diode.
• for a particular light illumination, increasing
the reverse bias voltage will not increase the
current .
• Even if we reduce the reverse bias to zero,
some current will flow because of the light
falling on the diode.
• Thus a photo diode differs from a
semiconductor diode in the aspect ?
- reverse current increases with light energy
falling on the PN junction.
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Photo diode applications

• High speed reading of computer punched
cards and tapes
• Light detection system
• High speed switches
• Optical encoder
• Character recognition
• Optical communication system.

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UNIT 4
OPTICAL RECEIVER, MEASUREMENTS AND COUPLING

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What is the Purpose of preamplifier ?

• A preamplifier (preamp or "pre") is an
electronic amplifier that converts a weak
electrical signal into an output signal strong
enough to be noise-tolerant and strong
enough for further processing, or for sending
to a power amplifier and a loudspeaker.
Without this, the final signal would be noisy or
distorted.

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• Why do you need preamplifer ?

• The purpose of a preamp is to amplify low level signals
to line level, i.e. the “standard” operating level of your
recording gear.

• Line level is the specified strength of an audio signal

used to ?
• transmit analog sound
• between audio components such as CD and DVD
players, television sets, audio amplifiers, and mixing
consoles.

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• Difference between an amplifier and a

preamplifier ?

Preamp is used for boost the input signal to

match the line level signal

Amp or amplifier is used to amplify the line level

signal to get sound on speakers. Preamp built -in
guitars and other aquatic instruments.

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Trans Impedance amplifier

• It is a current to voltage convertor.
• Implemented using Opamp.
• Operation?
• Amplify the current.
• Without this ?
• Final signal would be noisy / distorted.

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• Why high input impedance is good for the

amplifier circuit ?
• To have good amplification of the input signal
• Otherwise, we get low voltage in, so low
amplification.
• To get all the voltage from a source to a target
without loss.

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Near field scanning method

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UNIT - 05
OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

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• BASIC NETWORKS
• SONET/SDH
• BROADCAST and Select WDM networks
• Wavelength Routed Networks
• Non Linear Effects of Network performance
• Link Power budget
• Rise time budget
• Noise effects
• WDM
• Erbium Doped Fiber amplifier
• Performance of WDM + EDFA System
• Solitions
• Optical CDMA
• Ultrahigh capacity networks
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