1.

Question: Who was the planetary scientist who first proposed the idea of using satellite
geodesy in 1955?

Answer: J. A. O’Keefe.

2. Question: In the historical development of satellite-based positioning, what was the primary
goal of the Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS)?

Answer: Facilitate the transportation of the United States Navy submarine fleet Polaris.

3. Question: What is the term used for the global coordinate reference frame established
through the Geometrical method in satellite geodesy?

Answer: Uniform, three-dimensional global coordinate reference frame.

4. Question: According to Helmert (1880), what does geodesy involve in addition to the
measurement and mapping of the Earth's surface?

Answer: Terrestrial external gravity field determination.

5. Question: Who proposed the use of an inflated satellite illuminated by searchlights or radar
for precise measurements of intercontinental distances and mapping of Earth's gravity field?

Answer: J. A. O’Keefe.

6. Question: What are the three basic problems of satellite geodesy according to Helmert
(1880/1884)?

Answer: Determination of precise positions, determination of Earth’s gravity field, measurement

and modeling of geodynamical phenomena.

7. Question: In satellite geodesy, how may techniques be classified based on instrument

platform?

Answer: Earth to space methods, space to Earth methods, space-to-space methods.

8. Question: According to the text, who proposed the first idea to use satellite geodesy in 1955?

Answer: J. A. O’Keefe.

9. Question: How did scientists in the early space era realize that artificial satellites could be a
powerful tool for mapping the gravity field and shape of the Earth?

Answer: Tracking of artificial satellites would permit precise measurement of intercontinental

distances and mapping of Earth's gravity field.

10. Question: What are the three basic methods for classifying satellite geodesy based on
instrument platform?

Answer: Earth to space methods, space to Earth methods, space-to-space methods.

11. Question: According to the text, what are the basic problems of satellite geodesy related to
the function of determination of Earth’s gravity field?
 Answer: Determination of Earth’s gravity field and linear functions of this field.

Question: What are some applications of satellite geodesy mentioned for the field of engineering?

Answer: Navigation, GPS, civil engineering, monitoring of deformations, cadastral information, GIS.

Question: What method in satellite geodesy is illustrated in Figure 2?

Answer: Geometrical method.

Question: How is the Dynamical SG (orbital/indirect) method described in the text?

Answer: Satellite as a sensor in Earth’s gravity field, observing orbital motion and variation of
parameters about the orbit.

Question: In the historical development of satellite-based positioning, what were the main goals of
satellite geodesy besides positioning?

Answer: Accurate determination of the size and shape of the Earth and its gravity field.

Question: What limits conventional surveying techniques in terms of line of sight?

Answer: The line of sight is limited by the series of triangles in conventional surveying.

Question: What was the term "satellite" derived from in ancient Rome, and why is it considered fitting
for artificial satellites?

Answer: Satellus, meaning a servant or slave of a powerful lord or master in ancient Rome; it is fitting as
artificial satellites serve various purposes for humans.

Question: What does satellite-based positioning technology determine, according to Hofmann et.al
(2008)?

Answer: Positions of observing sites on land or at sea, in the air, and in space through artificial satellites.

Question: What is the term used for the entire scope of satellite systems used in positioning, as
mentioned in the context?

Answer: Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS).

Question: According to the text, how does satellite-based positioning represent a departure from
conventional surveying procedures?

Answer: It does not rely on observed angles and distances but instead uses signals transmitted from
satellites

Question: According to Helmert (1880), what does geodesy involve besides the measurement and
mapping of the Earth's surface?

Answer: Terrestrial external gravity field determination.

Question: What are the three functions of satellite geodesy mentioned in the context?
Answer: Global, regional, and local three-dimensional positions; Earth’s gravity field and linear functions
of this field; measurement and modeling of geodynamical phenomena.

Question: How did scientists in the early space era realize that artificial satellites could be a powerful
tool for mapping the gravity field and shape of the Earth?

Answer: Tracking of artificial satellites would permit precise measurement of intercontinental distances
and mapping of Earth's gravity field.

Question: According to the text, what are the basic problems of satellite geodesy related to the
function of determination of Earth’s gravity field?

Answer: Determination of Earth’s gravity field and linear functions of this field.

Question: What are some applications of satellite geodesy mentioned for the field of engineering?

Answer: Navigation, GPS, civil engineering, monitoring of deformations, cadastral information, GIS.

Question: What method in satellite geodesy is illustrated in Figure 2?

Answer: Geometrical method.

Question: How is the Dynamical SG (orbital/indirect) method described in the text?

Answer: Satellite as a sensor in Earth’s gravity field, observing orbital motion and variation of
parameters about the orbit.

Question: In the historical development of satellite-based positioning, what were the main goals of
satellite geodesy besides positioning?

Answer: Accurate determination of the size and shape of the Earth and its gravity field.

Question: What limits conventional surveying techniques in terms of line of sight?

Answer: The line of sight is limited by the series of triangles in conventional surveying.

Question: What principles are used for positioning and precise measurement in satellite positioning?

Answer: Principles based on time and sound, such as distance = travel time x speed of sound.

Question: According to Seeber (2003), what are satellites considered in the gravity field of the Earth?

Answer: Satellites can be considered as high orbiting targets and probes or sensors in the gravity field of
the Earth

Question: What is the definition of geodesy according to Helmert (1880)?

Answer: Geodesy is the science of the measurement and mapping of the Earth’s surface.

Question: How can satellite geodesy be classified by instrument platform?

Answer: Ground-based instruments (Earth to space methods), instruments carried by satellites (space to
Earth methods), and instruments used for tracking or being tracked by other satellites (space-to-space
methods).
Question: What system, established at a cost of approximately $12 billion, became fully operational in
December 8, 1993?

Answer: The Global Positioning System (GPS).

Question: What is the name of the first artificial satellite launched in 1957?

Answer: SPUTNIK-1.

Question: In the historical development of satellite geodesy, what was the purpose of the TRANSIT
project?

Answer: To facilitate the transportation of the United States Navy submarine fleet Polaris.

Question: According to the text, what is NAVSTAR, which played a significant role in the historical
development of satellite-based positioning?

Answer: Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging.

Question: What acronym is used for the International Earth Rotation Service that provides highly
accurate Earth orientation parameters?

Answer: IERS.

Question: What international service, initiated in 1994, is the primary source for precise GPS orbits
and coordinates from a global set of reference stations?

Answer: IGS - International GPS Service.

Question: In the context of satellite geodesy, what does CORS, mentioned at the national level, stand
for?

Answer: Continuously Operating Reference Stations.

Question: What acronym is associated with a system started in 1987 that provides highly accurate
Earth orientation parameters and maintains reference frames based on space techniques?

Answer: ICRF - International Celestial Reference Frame.

Question: According to the context, what does SAPOS, mentioned at the national level, stand for?

Answer: Satellite Positioning Service.

Question: In the context of satellite geodesy, what does GRACE, mentioned in the section about 2000
onwards, stand for?

Answer: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment.

Question: According to the context, how many phases does the development of satellite geodesy go
through?

Answer: The development of satellite geodesy can be divided into many phases of approximately one
decade each.
Question: What characterized the first phase of satellite geodesy, spanning from 1958 to around
1970?

Answer: Development of basic methods for satellite observations and computation, characterized by
optical-photographic determination of directions with cameras.

Question: In the second phase of satellite geodesy (1970 to around 1980), what observation
techniques were developed and refined?

Answer: Laser ranging to satellites and the Moon, as well as satellite altimetry.

Question: What was a remarkable aspect of the third phase of satellite geodesy (1980 to around 1990)
mentioned in the context?

Answer: The operational use of satellite techniques in geodesy, geodynamics, and surveying, with an
increasing use of satellite methods by the surveying community.

Question: What characterized the fourth phase of satellite geodesy (1990 to around 2000) at the
international and national levels?

Answer: The establishment of international services such as IERS and IGS, and the evolution of
permanent services for GPS reference data at the national level.

Question: According to the context, what is the focus of the fifth phase of satellite geodesy (2000
onwards)?

Answer: Continuing development with significant improvements in accuracy, temporal and spatial
resolution, launching dedicated gravity field probes, establishment of next-generation GNSS, refinement
in Earth observation, and unification of different geodetic space techniques.

Question: What fundamental geodetic problems were successfully tackled during the first phase of
satellite geodesy (1958 to around 1970)?

Answer: Determination of a precise numerical value of Earth’s flattening, determination of the general
shape of the global geoid, and determination of connections between important geodetic datums.

Question: What was the purpose of the BC4 cameras used during the first phase of satellite geodesy?

Answer: To establish a geometrical worldwide network of 45 stations with BC4 cameras over a period of
6 years.

Question: What was a significant outcome of the second phase of satellite geodesy (1970 to around
1980) in terms of observation accuracy?

Answer: The increased accuracy of observations allowed the measurement of geodynamical phenomena
such as Earth rotation, polar motion, and crustal deformation.

Question: In satellite geodesy, what is the term for the observational and computational techniques
involving precise measurements to or from artificial satellites to solve geodetic problems?

Answer: Satellite geodesy.

Question: According to Helmert (1880/1884), what term encompasses the determination of Earth’s
gravity field and linear functions of this field in satellite geodesy?

Answer: Determination of Earth’s gravity field.

Question: What term is used to classify satellite geodesy techniques based on the instrument
platform, such as Earth to space methods?

Answer: Instrument platform.

Question: According to the context, what term is used to describe the first idea proposed by J. A.
O’Keefe in 1955 to use satellite geodesy?

Answer: Inflated satellite.

Question: What process involves tracking an artificial satellite using ground-based instruments?

Answer: Tracking.

Question: According to Seeber (2003), what term is used for satellites as high orbiting targets that are
visible over large distances?

Answer: High orbiting targets.

Question: In the historical development of satellite-based positioning, what term is associated with
the Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS)?

Answer: TRANSIT.

Question: What term describes the establishment of a geometrical worldwide network of 45 stations
using BC4 cameras over a period of 6 years during the first phase of satellite geodesy (1958 to around
1970)?

Answer: Geometrical network.

Question: What term refers to the determination of positions of observing sites on land or at sea, in
the air, and in space through artificial satellites?

Answer: Satellite-based positioning technology.

Question: What term, initiated in 1987 and exclusively based on space techniques, provides highly
accurate Earth orientation parameters with a high temporal resolution and maintains reference
frames?

Answer: IERS - International Earth Rotation Service.

Question: What term, according to Helmert (1880/1884), involves the determination of Earth’s gravity
field and linear functions of this field in satellite geodesy?

Answer: Determination of Earth’s gravity field.

Question: What are the six Kepler elements, and how do they contribute to defining the size and
shape of an orbit?

Answer: The six Kepler elements are semi-major axis (a), semi-minor axis (b), eccentricity (e), orbit
inclination (i), right ascension of the ascending node (Ω), argument of perigee (ω), and true anomaly (ν).
They collectively define the size and shape of an orbit.

Question: Describe the role of atmospheric drag in affecting the motion of artificial satellites in space.

Answer: Atmospheric drag is one of the perturbing forces affecting satellite motion. It arises from
interactions with the Earth's atmosphere and causes acceleration, influencing the satellite's trajectory.

Question: Why is the inclination of an orbit important, and how is it defined in the context of satellite
geodesy?

Answer: Inclination is crucial as it determines the angle between the equatorial plane and the orbital
plane. In satellite geodesy, it is a key parameter in understanding and defining the orientation of
satellite orbits.

Question: Explain Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion and their application to Earth orbiting
satellites.

Answer: 1. The orbit of a satellite is an ellipse with the Earth located in one of its foci. 2. The radius
vector covers a constant area per unit time. 3. The square of the orbital period increases with the third
power of the mean distance from the center of the Earth.

Question: In the context of satellite orbits, what is the significance of the semi-major axis?

Answer: The semi-major axis defines the size of an orbit, representing half the length of the major axis
of the ellipse.

Question: How does the inclination of an orbit influence the satellite's path relative to the equatorial
plane?

Answer: Inclination is the angle between the equatorial plane and the orbital plane. It determines the
path of the satellite, particularly how it crosses the equatorial plane from the southern to the northern
hemisphere.

Question: What are the fundamental considerations in determining the orientation of a satellite's
orbital plane in space?

Answer: The orientation is defined by the orbit inclination (i) and the right ascension of the ascending
node (Ω).

Question: Describe the difference between a geosynchronous orbit and a geostationary orbit.

Answer: A geosynchronous orbit has a period of 24 hours, while a geostationary orbit is a type of
geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero degrees, appearing motionless above one position on
the Earth's equator.

Question: How does Kepler’s Law contribute to the description of Earth orbiting satellites?
Answer: Kepler’s Law is used to describe the case of Earth orbiting satellites, emphasizing that their
orbits are elliptical with the Earth located in one of the foci.

Question: What is the importance of the semi-minor axis in defining the shape of an orbit?

Answer: The semi-minor axis, together with the semi-major axis and eccentricity, contributes to defining
the elliptical shape of an orbit.

Question: Define the terms apocenter and pericenter in the context of satellite orbits.

Answer: The apocenter is the point in an orbit farthest from the focus, while the pericenter is the point
nearest to the focus.

Question: How do artificial satellites in space experience acceleration, and what are the main
contributing factors?

Answer: Acceleration is caused by non-homogeneous mass distribution of Earth, celestial bodies near
the object, atmospheric drag, tides, and solar radiation pressure.

Question: Explain the role of celestial mechanics and orbital mechanics in understanding satellite
orbits.

Answer: Celestial mechanics is crucial in understanding planetary motions, while orbital mechanics
focuses on the motion of artificial satellites under various influences like gravity, atmospheric drag, and
thrust.

Question: According to Kepler’s three laws, what geometric shape does a planet's orbit follow, and
what are the key parameters in defining the orbit?

Answer: The orbit follows an elliptical path, and the key parameters are semi-major axis, semi-minor
axis, and eccentricity.

Question: How does the area in space swept by a planet from the sun change with time, according to
Kepler’s second law?

Answer: The area swept by a planet from the sun is equal at equal lengths of time.

Question: In Kepler’s Law, why is it important to consider eccentricities that are not near zero?

Answer: Eccentricities that are not near zero ensure that the computation avoids singularity and is
suitable for the approximation of true position in space.

Question: Describe the impact of perturbing forces on the motion of celestial bodies in space, focusing
on the example of artificial satellites.

Answer: Perturbing forces, such as Earth's non-homogeneous mass distribution, gravitational influences,
atmospheric drag, tides, and solar radiation pressure, affect the motion and acceleration of artificial
satellites in space. Corrections are required for accurate position determination.

Question: According to Isaac Newton's Principia, what significant topics were explained for the first
time?
Answer: The law of gravitation and laws of motion.

Question: Who formulated the three laws of planetary motion, and what are they?

Answer: Johannes Kepler; 1. Elliptical path with the Sun at one focus, 2. Equal areas swept by the planet
from the sun, and 3. Proportionality of the semi-major axis and revolution period.

Question: Define the six Kepler elements that classify the size and shape of an orbit.

Answer: Semi-major axis (a), semi-minor axis (b), eccentricity (e), orbit inclination (i), right ascension of
the ascending node (Ω), argument of perigee (ω), and true anomaly (ν).

Question: Describe the types of satellite orbits mentioned in the lesson.

Answer: Geosynchronous orbits (GEO), Polar orbits (PO), Low Earth orbit (LEO), Medium Earth orbit, Sun
synchronous orbits (SSO), Molniya orbits, and Hohmann transfer orbits.

Question: Explain the purpose of Polar orbits.

Answer: Useful for satellites carrying out mapping and surveillance operations, providing access to
virtually every point on the planet's surface.

Question: Define Low Earth orbit (LEO) and its key characteristic.

Answer: An orbit relatively close to Earth’s surface, usually at an altitude of less than 1000 km, offering
more available routes for satellites due to tilted paths.

Question: What is the primary advantage of Hohmann transfer orbits in interplanetary trajectories?

Answer: They consume the least possible amount of propellant.

Question: In Table 1, what does the orbital period represent for navigation satellite systems?

Answer: The time elapsed to complete one orbit around the Earth.

Question: What is the true anomaly, and how is it defined with respect to the point of perigee?

Answer: The true anomaly is an angle reckoned from the point of perigee to the satellite’s location in
orbit.

Question: Explain the calculation of the orientation of the orbit, focusing on azimuth heading and
declination.

Answer: Azimuth heading is the angle measured from north, and declination is equivalent to the
geocentric latitude of the point.

Question: How is the mean anomaly defined, and what does it represent in terms of satellite motion?

Answer: It is the fraction of an orbit period elapsed since perigee, representing the progress of the
satellite in its orbit.

to a higher-altitude mission orbit, typically a geosynchronous orbit.

Answer: It determines the Earth's rotation and is crucial for calculating the position of satellites relative
to Earth.

Question: In what way does the altitude of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) differ from other orbits, and why is
this significant?

Answer: LEO is relatively close to Earth’s surface, allowing for more available routes and flexibility
compared to orbits at higher altitudes.

Question: Why is the eccentricity of Kepler elements better suited for orbits with large eccentricities?

Answer: The motion of celestial bodies is governed by mutual gravitation, and parameters are good for
approximation of true position in space when eccentricities are large.

Question: How do Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) maintain synchronous timing, and why might
propulsive maneuvers be necessary?

Answer: The orbital plane precesses with the same period as the planet's solar orbit period; occasional
propulsive maneuvers may be needed to maintain exact synchronous timing.

Question: What are the three segments of the GNSS structure?

Answer: Space segment, control segment, and user segment.

Question: Which frequencies are part of the L-band radio spectrum for GNSS signals?

Answer: 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

Question: What is the role of the time-of-arrival (TOA) measurements in GNSS?

Answer: TOA measurements are used to determine the distance or range from the satellite to the
receiver.

Question: What are the carrier signals transmitted by GNSS satellites for civilian use?

Answer: L1, L2, and L5.

Question: What is the function of the C/A code in GNSS signals?

Answer: The C/A code is a coarse acquisition ranging code, serving as a unique fingerprint.

Question: How does a GNSS receiver obtain the pseudorange?

Answer: By measuring the difference between the receiver's clock and the satellite clock.

Question: What does the carrier phase measurement in GNSS provide?

Answer: The carrier phase measurement provides a more precise measure of the instantaneous beat
phase.

Question: What is the significance of the term "cycle ambiguity" in carrier phase measurements?

Answer: Cycle ambiguity refers to the unknown number of full wavelengths in carrier phase
measurements.
Question: What is the purpose of Doppler measurements in GNSS signals?

Answer: Doppler measurements indicate changes in frequency, helping to determine satellite orbit.

Question: What type of clocks does GNSS rely on for stability?

Answer: GNSS relies on highly stable clocks such as rubidium, cesium atomic frequency standards, or
hydrogen masers.

Question: In GNSS ranged-based positioning, what is the basic measurement involving time?

Answer: The basic measurement is (ρ) = (T-t)c, representing the signal propagation time.

Question: What coordinate frames are used in GNSS ranged-based positioning?

Answer: Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate frames: World Geodetic System 84 (WGS 84)
and International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).

Question: What does User Equivalent Range Error (UERE) summarize?

Answer: UERE summarizes the total error affecting a pseudorange, including time, multipath, ephemeris,
atmospheric, and noise errors.

Question: What is Dilution of Precision (DOP)?

Answer: DOP is a simple scalar indicator of the overall quality of the least square's solution, indicating
geometric strength.

Question: What does a low DOP indicate in GNSS positioning?

Answer: A low DOP indicates widely separated receiver-satellite geometry, leading to better accuracy.

Question: In GNSS positioning, what is the method of Pseudo-range positioning associated with?

Answer: Pseudo-range positioning is associated with simple data processing, C/A or P code, and low-
demand positioning conditions.

Question: What is the key characteristic of Carrier Phase positioning in GNSS?

Answer: Carrier Phase positioning offers high accuracy (2 mm or better) but involves complicated data
processing and has integer ambiguity.

Question: What does Precise Point Positioning (PPP) involve in GNSS positioning?

Answer: PPP involves one receiver, providing absolute coordinates of the receiver antenna.

Question: What is the difference between Real-time positioning and Non-real-time positioning in
GNSS?

Answer: Real-time positioning calculates the receiver's position in real-time based on observational
data, while non-real-time positioning involves post-processing.

Question: In terms of the receiver's state of motion, what is Kinematic positioning in GNSS?

Answer: Kinematic positioning involves a changing position of the receiver with time.
Question: What is the opposite of Kinematic positioning in GNSS?

Answer: Static positioning, where the position of the receiver remains the same throughout the
observation.

Question: What are the potential sources of error included in the User Equipment Error (UEE)
component of UERE?

Answer: Errors in the user's equipment receiver and environment contribute to UEE.

Question: What is the significance of the term "Cycle Slip" in Carrier Phase measurements?

Answer: A Cycle Slip occurs when there is an interrupted cycle count, indicating potential measurement
issues.

Question: How is the Position DOP (PDOP) related to the overall quality of GNSS positioning?

Answer: PDOP is one of the components of DOP and contributes to the overall quality of GNSS
positioning.

Question: What does the term "Dilution of Precision" specifically measure?

Answer: Dilution of Precision measures the geometric strength of the receiver-satellite geometry.

Question: What does the abbreviation "SISRE" stand for in the context of GNSS signal measurements?

Answer: SISRE stands for Signal-in-Space Range Error, representing errors related to the space and
control segment

Question: What does the abbreviation "TOA" stand for in the context of GNSS signals?

Answer: TOA stands for Time-of-Arrival, which is a measurement used in determining the distance from
the satellite to the receiver.

Question: What is the primary purpose of the Control Segment in the GNSS structure?

Answer: The Control Segment is responsible for the monitoring system and tracking stations around the
globe.

Question: What is the role of the User Segment in GNSS?

Answer: The User Segment includes GNSS receivers, data processing software, and other equipment
used by end-users.

Question: What is the significance of the term "Propagation Time" in GNSS signal measurements?

Answer: Propagation Time is the time required for the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver,
crucial for distance calculations.

Question: What is the speed of light used in GNSS signal measurements?

Answer: The speed of light is used, which is approximately 300,000/300,000km/s.

Question: What are the three frequencies associated with GNSS signals, and what are their respective
wavelengths?

Answer: L1 - 1,575.42 MHz1,575.42MHz (=19.03 cmλ=19.03cm), L2 - 1,227.60 MHz1,227.60MHz (=24.42

cmλ=24.42cm), L5 - 1,176.45 MHz1,176.45MHz (=25.48 cmλ=25.48cm).

Question: How is the Doppler effect utilized in GNSS signal measurements?

Answer: The Doppler effect helps determine changes in frequency, indicating the satellite's movement.

Question: What are the potential errors summarized by User Equivalent Range Error (UERE)?

Answer: UERE summarizes errors affecting pseudorange, including time, multipath, ephemeris,
atmospheric, and noise errors.

Question: Name the types of oscillators mentioned in the context of Satellite Geodesy.

Answer: Precision quartz crystal oscillator, Rubidium frequency standard, Cesium frequency standard,
Hydrogen masers.

Question: What does the term "Signal Propagation" refer to in the context of Satellite Geodesy?

Answer: Signal Propagation is the process by which signals travel through atmospheric regions.

Question: What are the four parameters associated with electromagnetic wave modulation?

Answer: Amplitude, Frequency, Phase of the harmonic signal, Polarization.

Question: Why is circular polarization, specifically right-handed circularly polarized (RHCP) signals,
used in satellite navigation systems?

Answer: RHCP signals are used to overcome changes in polarization caused by the Earth's magnetic field
during signal propagation.

Question: What property of electromagnetic waves is described by the term "Dispersion"?

Answer: Dispersion refers to the frequency-dependent influence on the propagation velocity of

electromagnetic waves in a dispersive medium.

Question: Define the terms "Phase Velocity (vp)" and "Group Velocity (vg)" in the context of velocity
dispersion.

Answer: Phase Velocity (vp) is the propagation velocity of the phase of a particular wavelength, and
Group Velocity (vg) is the propagation velocity of a wave group generated by superposition of different
waves of different frequencies.

Question: In satellite geodesy, what are the two domains used for frequency representation?

Answer: The two domains used are Visible light and Microwave domains.

Question: What are the main advantages of using microwave frequency bands in GNSS signal
propagation?
Answer: Advantages include good propagation conditions, smaller antenna size, and the availability of a
large variety of mature hardware components at a low cost.

Question: In terms of GNSS positioning methods, what is the characteristic of Pseudo-range

positioning?

Answer: Pseudo-range positioning involves simple data processing, uses C/A (3 m accuracy) or P code
(30 cm accuracy), and is suitable for low-demand positioning conditions with no integer ambiguity.

Question: What is the primary advantage of Carrier Phase Positioning in GNSS?

Answer: Carrier Phase Positioning offers high accuracy, typically 2 mm or better, but it involves
complicated data processing and may have integer ambiguity.

Question: What is the basis for Absolute Positioning in GNSS, and what is an example of this method?

Answer: Absolute Positioning in GNSS is based on observed values, and an example is Precise Point
Positioning (PPP), which uses one receiver for determining absolute coordinates.

Question: What does "Velocity Dispersion" represent, and what are the two observed velocities
associated with it?

Answer: Velocity Dispersion represents different propagation velocities observed for sinusoidal waves
(phases) and groups of waves. The observed velocities are phase velocity (vp) and group velocity (vg).

Question: What is the significance of the troposphere in signal propagation?

Answer: The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface to about 40 km and is where weather takes
place. Signal propagation depends mainly on water vapor content and temperature in this region.

Question: How is the ionosphere affected by solar activity, and what role does it play in satellite
geodesy?

Answer: The ionosphere is severely affected by solar activity, especially near the geomagnetic equator
and at high latitudes. It plays a role in satellite geodesy by influencing signal propagation.

Question: What term is used to describe the state of the ionosphere in satellite geodesy, and what unit
is associated with it?

Answer: The state of the ionosphere is described by the electron density (ne), and it is measured in
[number of electrons/m^3] or [number of electrons/cm^3].
Question: What is the purpose of the Navigation Message in GNSS, and how long does it take to
broadcast the entire message?

Answer: The Navigation Message contains information such as the time since the last restart of GPS
time. The entire message contains 37,500 bits and takes 12½ minutes to broadcast at a rate of 50 bits-
per-second.

Question: How is time defined mathematically in the context of a fourth dimension?

Answer: Time is defined as a coordinate in a fourth dimension mathematically.

Question: Why do we perceive time, according to the text?

Answer: We perceive time because things change.

Question: What are the two coordinate systems associated with Dynamic Time?

Answer: Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB) and Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG).

Question: How is Terrestrial Time (TT) defined, and what does it represent?

Answer: TT is defined as proper time at the geoid and is independent of the variable rotation of the
Earth.

Question: What is the basic unit of Julian Day, and how is it defined?

Answer: The basic unit is Julian day, defined as 86,400 SI seconds.

Question: What does the term "Modified Julian day number" (MJD) represent?

Answer: MJD is relative to a new origin and counts days as starting at midnight in Greenwich.

Question: How is Atomic Time realized, and what is its origin?

Answer: Atomic Time is realized by the oscillations in energy states of the cesium-133 atom. Its origin is
at 0h0m0s, January 1, 1958.
Question: Define Sidereal Time and its relationship to the rotation of the Earth.

Answer: Sidereal Time represents the rotation of the Earth with respect to the celestial sphere. One
mean solar day in sidereal time is 23h56m04.0905s.

Question: What is the primary function of the GPS time (GPST)?

Answer: GPS time provides user coordinates based on the propagation time of signals transmitted.

Question: How is GPS time (GPST) related to International Atomic Time (TAI)?

Answer: tGPS = TAI - 19s.

Question: What is the origin of GLONASS Time (GLST)?

Answer: GLST originates from January 1.0, 1996, in the UTC(SU) time system.

Question: How are Galileo System Time (GST) and BeiDou Time (BDT) related to TAI?

Answer: tGalileo = TAI - 19s, tBeiDou = TAI - 33s.

Question: What does the term "Transformation" refer to in the context of spatial reference systems?

Answer: Transformation refers to converting coordinates between different coordinate systems.

Question: Define Cartesian coordinates in the context of spatial reference systems.

Answer: XP = r cos Φ cos λ, YP = r cos Φ sin λ, ZP = r sin Φ.

Question: What are the three geometric parameters used in the Earth ellipsoid?

Answer: The three parameters are semimajor axis (a), semiminor axis (b), and flattening (f).

Question: How is Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) related to GPS time (GPST)?

Answer: GPST is steered to deviate by at most 1 microsecond from UTC.

Question: What is the origin of Modified Julian Day number (MJD)?

Answer: MJD has an origin of Greenwich noon, January 1, 1900, JD 2,415,021.0.

Question: How is Spherical Coordinates defined in spatial reference systems?

Answer: ΦP = arctan(ZP / √X^2 + Y^2), λP = arctan(Y / X), rP = √X^2 + Y^2 + Z^2.

Question: How is Terrestrial Time (TT) different from Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB)?

Answer: TT is independent of the variable rotation of the Earth, while TCB is a coordinate time
associated with the barycenter of the solar system.

Question: How is GLONASS Time (GLST) obtained and synchronized?

Answer: GLST is obtained from an ensemble of hydrogen-masers in the GLONASS ground segment and
synchronized to UTC(SU).

Question: What is the transformation involved in converting Geocentric to Geodetic coordinates?

Answer: The transformation involves calculating Φi, λ, and h based on the given geometric parameters
and coordinates.

Question: How does Sidereal Time represent the rotation of the Earth with respect to the celestial
sphere?

Answer: Sidereal Time represents the rotation of the Earth with respect to the celestial sphere, and one
mean solar day in sidereal time is 23h56m04.0905s.

Question: How are Galileo System Time (GST) and BeiDou Time (BDT) related to TAI?

Answer: tGalileo = TAI - 19s, tBeiDou = TAI - 33s.

Question: What is the purpose of Modified Julian Day number (MJD)?

Answer: MJD provides a new origin, counting days as starting at midnight in Greenwich.

Question: How is Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) related to GPS time (GPST)?
Answer: GPST is steered to deviate by at most 1 microsecond from UTC.

Question: Explain the concept of Cartesian coordinates in the context of spatial reference systems.

Answer: Cartesian coordinates are represented as XP = r cos Φ cos λ, YP = r cos Φ sin λ, ZP = r sin Φ in
spatial reference systems.

Question: Define the three geometric parameters used in the Earth ellipsoid.

Answer: The three parameters are semimajor axis (a), semiminor axis (b), and flattening (f).

Question: How is Spherical Coordinates defined in spatial reference systems?

Answer: Spherical Coordinates are defined as ΦP = arctan(ZP / √X^2 + Y^2), λP = arctan(Y / X), rP = √X^2
+ Y^2 + Z^2.

Question: Explain the transformation procedure in the Hirvonen/Moritz algorithm for Geocentric to
Geodetic coordinates.

Answer: It involves calculating Φi, λ, and h based on the given geometric parameters and coordinates.

Question: What is the significance of Greenwich noon in the context of Julian Day?

Answer: Greenwich noon is the origin (J0.0) of Julian day, defined as noon at Greenwich, England, on
January 1, 4713 BC.

Question: How is GLONASS Time (GLST) obtained and synchronized?

Answer: GLST is obtained from an ensemble of hydrogen-masers in the GLONASS ground segment and
synchronized to UTC(SU).

Question: How are Galileo System Time (GST) and BeiDou Time (BDT) related to TAI?

Answer: tGalileo = TAI - 19s, tBeiDou = TAI - 33s.

Question: What does the term "Transformation" refer to in the context of spatial reference systems?
Answer: Transformation refers to converting coordinates between different coordinate systems.

Top of Form

Question: What is the term used to describe the process of extracting information from transmitted
signals in GNSS?

Answer: Signal decoding.

Question: In the context of GNSS, what is the term for the steps involving signal acquisition, data
demodulation, and clock recovery?

Answer: Fundamental steps in determining position.

Question: Identify the type of receivers used in aviation, marine, and land applications, costing between
$10,000 and $30,000.

Answer: Non-handheld receivers.

Question: What term is used to describe GNSS receivers with multi-system, multi-frequency capabilities,
providing sub-centimeter accuracy?

Answer: Geodetic receivers/survey-grade GNSS receivers.

Question: What does the term "CDU" stand for in the context of GNSS receivers?

Answer: Control and Display Unit.

Question: Identify the term for the component used to amplify weak GPS satellite signals in GNSS
receivers.

Answer: Preamplifier.

Question: In GNSS hardware, what is the term for the process of converting electromagnetic waves into
currents sensible to the RF section?

Answer: Antenna.
Question: What is the term for the device that multiplies two frequencies together in the RF section of a
GNSS receiver?

Answer: Mixer.

Question: Identify the term for a type of antenna suitable for handheld GNSS that doesn't require a
ground plane.

Answer: Quadrifilar.

Question: What term is used for the primary function of a microprocessor in a GNSS receiver that
controls the entire device?

Answer: Data management and control.

Question: In the context of GNSS, what is the term for the type of receiver used for determining clock
offset and frequency offset?

Answer: Time transfer receivers.

Question: Identify the term for the feature in GNSS receivers that operates on battery power.

Answer: Power source.

Question: What is the term for the band-pass filter's resulting signal that removes higher frequencies
and selects lower frequencies?

Answer: IF or beat frequency signal.

Question: What term is used to describe the process of identifying and segregating undifferentiated
signals from different satellites in GNSS receivers?

Answer: Channels.

Question: Identify the term for GNSS receivers used in aviation, marine, and land applications that cost
$200 or less.

Answer: Hand-held receivers.

Question: What is the term for the GNSS receiver's ability to provide capabilities for autonomous single-
point positioning, differential GPS, and RTK?

Answer: Microprocessor functionality.

Question: In GNSS, what term is used to describe the unit that displays information and sends it to the
microprocessor?

Answer: CDU (Control and Display Unit).

Question: Identify the term for GNSS receivers that have multi-system, multi-frequency capabilities and
provide high-precision carrier-phase measurements.

Answer: Geodetic receivers/survey-grade GNSS receivers.

Question: What is the term used to describe the type of antenna that must be high in sensitivity or high
gain due to the low power density of satellite signals?

Answer: High gain or high sensitivity antenna.

Question: Identify the term for the output section's device that controls the entire GNSS receiver and
manages data collection.

Answer: Microprocessor.

Question: Where are signals transmitted from in the context of GNSS?

Answer: Signals are transmitted from the orbiting satellites.

Question: What is the role of receivers in GNSS signal transmission?

Answer: Receivers receive the transmitted signals and decode them.

Question: What is the purpose of decoding signals in GNSS receivers?

Answer: Decoding signals involves the extraction of information.

Question: Define the fundamental steps involved in determining position using GNSS receivers.
Answer: The fundamental steps include signal acquisition, data demodulation, data clock recovery, and
measuring Tsent and Trec for position calculation.

Question: In GNSS hardware, what is the significance of the 1s and second-counting dials?

Answer: They are properly set as part of the process of determining position.

Question: What are some features of GNSS receivers used in surveying operations?

Answer: Features include accuracy ranging from sub-meter to sub-centimeter, differential GPS
capabilities, and compatibility with various processing techniques.

Question: How is the signal strength of received signals characterized in some GNSS receivers?

Answer: Signals received can be as low as 26W, 40W, or 50-60W, broadcast at a 28◦ arc.

Question: What types of GNSS receivers are mentioned in the text?

Answer: Navigation receivers, Engines, OEM modules, chip, and dies, Geodetic receivers/survey-grade,
Time transfer receivers, Space receivers, and Attitude determination receivers.

Question: Define Geodetic receivers/survey-grade GNSS receivers.

Answer: These receivers are multi-system, multi-frequency, have 400 channels or more, and provide
high-precision carrier-phase measurements with sub-centimeter accuracy.

Question: What is the function of the antenna in a GNSS receiver?

Answer: The antenna collects and receives signals transmitted by satellites and converts electromagnetic
waves into currents sensible to the RF section.

Question: Why is high sensitivity or high gain essential for GNSS receiver antennas?

Answer: The satellite signal has low power density, and a high gain antenna is needed for effective
reception.
Question: Explain the purpose of a preamplifier in GNSS receivers.

Answer: The preamplifier is used to amplify weak GPS satellite signals, especially when connected to the
receiver by a coaxial cable.

Question: What is the role of the mixer in the RF section of a GNSS receiver?

Answer: The mixer multiplies two frequencies together, producing the IF or beat frequency signal.

Question: What is the significance of the band-pass filter in a GNSS receiver's RF section?

Answer: The band-pass filter removes higher frequencies, selects lower frequencies, and eliminates
noise, producing the IF or beat frequency signal.

Question: How are channels used in a GNSS receiver?

Answer: Channels identify and segregate undifferentiated signals from different satellites, and each
channel can operate in parallel.

Question: What are the components of the output section of a GNSS receiver?

Answer: The output section includes a microprocessor, CDU (Control and Display Unit), storage for data,
and power source.

Question: How does the microprocessor contribute to GNSS receiver functionality?

Answer: The microprocessor controls the entire receiver, manages data collection, and provides
capabilities for autonomous single-point positioning, differential GPS, and RTK.

Question: Define CDU in the context of a GNSS receiver.

Answer: CDU stands for Control and Display Unit, which displays information and sends it to the
microprocessor.

Question: What is the purpose of the storage component in a GNSS receiver?

Answer: Storage is used for data storage, observation, and navigation data download.

Question: How do GNSS receivers usually operate in terms of power source?

Answer: GNSS receivers usually operate on battery power.

Question: Summarize the main topics discussed in the provided text.

Answer: The text covers signal transmission, fundamental steps in determining position using GNSS
receivers, various types of GNSS receivers, antenna types, and receiver architecture.

Question: What is the primary function of GNSS receivers in surveys?

Answer: GNSS receivers play a crucial role in determining accurate positions in surveying operations.

Question: What are the essential hardware elements in a GNSS receiver?

Answer: Hardware elements include the antenna, RF section, preamplifier, mixer, channels, and the
microprocessor.

Question: Explain the importance of the patch antenna design in GNSS receivers.

Answer: The patch antenna design is one of the antenna types and is used for its stable phase center
and good ground plane characteristics.

Question: Why is the choke ring antenna suitable for handheld GNSS?

Answer: The choke ring antenna is suitable for handheld GNSS because it doesn't require a ground plane
and has good gain patterns.

Question: What is the role of the preamplifier in GNSS receivers when connected by a coaxial cable?

Answer: The preamplifier increases the signal's power to endure the attenuation of the cable, ensuring
effective signal transmission.

Question: Define the role of the band-pass filter in the RF section of a GNSS receiver.

Answer: The band-pass filter removes higher frequencies, selects lower frequencies, and eliminates
noise, producing the IF or beat frequency signal.

Question: How are undifferentiated signals identified and processed in GNSS receivers?
Answer: Undifferentiated signals are identified and processed by channels, and each frequency from one
satellite can have its own channel.

Question: What is the primary function of the microprocessor in a GNSS receiver?

Answer: The microprocessor controls the entire receiver, manages data collection, and provides
capabilities for autonomous single-point positioning, differential GPS, and RTK.

Question: How does the CDU contribute to the functionality of a GNSS receiver?

Answer: The CDU displays information and sends it to the microprocessor, contributing to the user
interface and data management.

Question: Describe the main features of Geodetic receivers/survey-grade GNSS receivers.

Answer: Geodetic receivers/survey-grade GNSS receivers are multi-system, multi-frequency, have 400
channels or more, and provide high-precision carrier-phase measurements with sub-centimeter
accuracy.

Question: What is the primary function of a preamplifier in GNSS receivers?

Answer: The preamplifier is used to amplify weak GPS satellite signals, especially when connected to the
receiver by a coaxial cable.

Question: What is the method of orbit determination that involves an approximate solution and is
known for its universal applicability?

Answer: Analytical orbit integration.

Question: In orbit determination, what method introduces a reference orbit and integrates the
difference between the primary acceleration and perturbing accelerations?

Answer: Method of Encke.

Question: Which numerical integration method, commonly used in satellite geodesy, includes filter
techniques like Adam-Moulton or Gauss-Jackson?

Answer: Predictor-corrector methods.

Question: Identify the mathematical process named after Rudolf E. Kalman, used to estimate the true
value, position, velocity, etc., of an object.

Answer: Kalman filter.

Question: In Kalman filter calculations, what does the process use to quickly estimate the true value,
considering unpredicted or random errors?

Answer: Consecutive data input.

Question: What are the two main steps in generating broadcast ephemerides?

Answer: Reference ephemeris generation (off-line) and correction prediction (on-line).

Question: What is corrected in the broadcast ephemerides generation process for ionosphere and
tropospheric delays, Earth rotation, and relativistic effects?

Answer: Code-pseudorange and carrier observations.

Question: What does the Kalman filter estimate in the context of broadcast ephemerides?

Answer: Satellite position, velocity, clock parameters, solar radiation pressure coefficients, Y-axis
acceleration bias, clock parameters for monitor stations, and tropospheric scale factor.

Question: Which type of integration method involves fitting a polynomial to consecutive points for
generating an additional point through extrapolation?

Answer: Numerical integration.

Question: In numerical integration, what is a well-known member of the family of single-step methods?

Answer: Runge–Kutta method.

Question: What is the primary advantage of Cowell's method in integrating perturbed orbits?

Answer: Conceptual simplicity.

Question: Which method is suitable when perturbing accelerations are small compared with the primary
acceleration in orbit determination?
Answer: Encke's method.

Question: What is the primary disadvantage of Cowell's method in integrating perturbed orbits?

Answer: Smaller integration steps are required near large attracting bodies, leading to increased
computation time and round-off errors.

Question: What does the Kalman filter predict and include in the data signal in the form of a 2nd order
polynomial?

Answer: Satellite clock behavior.

Question: In orbit representation, what are the time parameters involved?

Answer: Parameters of Keplerian broadcast ephemeris models.

Question: What is the purpose of the second-degree polynomial in the computation of GPS time?

Answer: To predict and correct individual satellite clocks.

Question: In satellite time computation, what is substituted for the time parameter without loss of
accuracy?

Answer: tSV (individual satellite time).

Question: What is the satellite drift expressed as in the calculation of elapsed time tk since the reference
epoch?

Answer: ∆txSV = a1 + 2a2(t − t0c).

Question: In orbit representation, what parameters are involved in Keplerian broadcast ephemeris
models for perturbation?

Answer: Perturbation parameters.

Question: In orbit determination, what is the term for the process of integrating the equation of motion
stepwise?
Answer: Analytical orbit integration.

Question: What type of integration methods are generally subdivided into single-step and multi-step
methods?

Answer: Numerical integration methods.

Question: What are some examples of predictor-corrector formulas used in numerical integration for
orbit determination?

Answer: Adam-Moulton and Gauss-Jackson.

Question: In satellite time computation, what is the elapsed time tk since the reference epoch?

Answer: tk = t − t0e.

Question: What is the purpose of the polynomial coefficients included in the first parameter group in
satellite time computation?

Answer: To monitor and predict the behavior of individual satellite clocks.

Question: What is the behavior of individual satellite clocks monitored by in satellite time computation?

Answer: Control segment.

Question: What are the steps involved in generating broadcast ephemerides?

Answer: Reference ephemeris generation and correction prediction.

Question: In orbit representation, what are the parameters of Keplerian broadcast ephemeris models
for perturbation?

Answer: Perturbation parameters.

Question: What is the method that uses a set of equations and consecutive data input to estimate the
true value, position, velocity, etc., of the object being measured?
Answer: Kalman filter.

Question: In broadcast ephemerides generation, what is used to estimate states such as satellite
position, velocity, clock parameters, and solar radiation pressure coefficients?

Answer: Corrected measurements and carrier-aided smoothed observations.

Question: What does the Kalman filter process use to predict corrections to the reference ephemeris?

Answer: Linear Kalman filter algorithm.

Question: In orbit determination, what does Encke's method integrate?

Answer: The difference between the primary acceleration and all perturbing accelerations.

Question: What method is suitable when perturbing accelerations are small compared with the primary
acceleration in orbit determination?

Answer: Encke's method.

Question: In the Kalman filter, what is predicted in the form of a 2nd order polynomial?

Answer: Satellite clock behavior.

Question: What are the two main steps in generating broadcast ephemerides?

Answer: Reference ephemeris generation (off-line) and correction prediction (on-line).

Question: In broadcast ephemerides generation, what is corrected for ionosphere and tropospheric
delays, Earth rotation, and relativistic effects?

Answer: Data (code-pseudorange and carrier observations).

Question: What are the states estimated by the Kalman filter in broadcast ephemerides generation?

Answer: Satellite position at epoch, satellite velocity at epoch, 3 clock parameters per satellite, solar
radiation pressure coefficients per satellite, Y-axis acceleration bias, 2 clock parameters per monitor
station, and 1 tropospheric scale factor per monitor station.
Question: What are the estimated perturbations in the elements used for in broadcast ephemerides
generation?

Answer: Correct the satellite reference ephemeris.

Question: In numerical integration, what is the special feature of multi-step solutions, also known as
predictor-corrector methods?

Answer: They are usually applied in satellite geodesy and are filter techniques.

Question: Who is the Kalman filter named after?

Answer: Rudolf E. Kalman.

Question: What does the Kalman filter use as an iterative mathematical process to estimate the true
value, position, velocity, etc., of the object being measured?

Answer: A set of equations and consecutive data input.

Question: What are some examples of predictor-corrector formulas in numerical integration mentioned
in the text?

Answer: Adam-Moulton or Gauss-Jackson.

Question: What is the purpose of the Runge–Kutta method in numerical integration?

Answer: It is a well-known member of the family of single-step methods used in satellite geodesy.

Question: In orbit determination, what is the equation of motion integrated stepwise in the method of
Cowell?

Answer: The equation of motion including all perturbations.

Question: What does Encke's method use as a reference trajectory for the initial epoch?

Answer: An osculating Kepler ellipse.

Question: What is the purpose of the Kalman filter sample computations in the text?
Answer: To demonstrate the iterative mathematical process for estimating true values.

Question: In satellite time computation, what is the behavior of individual satellite clocks monitored by?

Answer: The control segment.

Question: What is the method of integration that requires smaller steps near large attracting bodies,
leading to increased computation time and round-off errors?

Answer: Analytical orbit integration (Cowell's method).

Question: What are the two categories of GNSS positioning mentioned in the text?

Answer: Relative and absolute.

Question: In absolute positioning, what is another term used for it?

Answer: Navigation solution or single-point positioning.

Question: How many satellites must be observed in absolute positioning to provide a position?

Answer: At least four.

Question: What type of measurement is carried out in relative positioning?

Answer: Carrier phase measurement.

Question: In relative positioning, what is the baseline determined between?

Answer: The base and rover, forming a position vector.

Question: What is the purpose of a static survey in relative positioning?

Answer: To establish geodetic controls with sub-cm accuracy.

Question: How is redundancy defined in GNSS survey design?

Answer: By the number of independent baselines measured more than once and the percentage of
stations occupied more than once.

Question: What does loop closure in GNSS survey design help discover?

Answer: The internal consistency of a GNSS network.

Question: In forming loops, what limitations are mentioned in the text?

Answer: No loop contains more than ten vectors, and no loop is more than 100 km long.

Question: What is the primary difference between rapid-static and static surveying?

Answer: Rapid-static has a shorter observation time and shorter baselines.

Question: What is the procedure known as in pseudokinematic positioning?

Answer: Intermittent or reoccupation method.

Question: What is the goal of dynamic positioning in GNSS?

Answer: To obtain the position of points (antenna) while in motion.

Question: What must be resolved before conducting a kinematic survey?

Answer: Ambiguities.

Question: What are some common applications of dynamic positioning?

Answer: Road centerline, topographic and hydrographic surveys, air-borne applications, monitoring in
construction, etc.

Question: In real-time kinematic (RTK), what is needed for the position to be retrieved in real-time?

Answer: A pair of GNSS receivers connected by a wireless data link.

Question: What is one option for real-time kinematic corrections mentioned in the text?

Answer: Subscribing to RTK-GNSS services: continuously operating reference stations (CORS).

Question: What is the common goal mentioned for achieving accurate results in GNSS?

Answer: Avoid low elevation satellites, avoid working close to large or tall buildings, avoid below the
canopy of a tree, and use GNSS processing software to analyze GDOP ahead of time.

Question: What is the significance of avoiding low elevation satellites in GNSS?

Answer: Satellites with less than 15° above the horizon can cause accuracy degradation.

Question: What is the purpose of using GNSS processing software in GNSS surveying?

Answer: To analyze GDOP ahead of time and plan the survey accordingly.

Question: What term is used to describe lines created in each observing session in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Independent lines.

Question: How are independent baselines selected in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Shortest lines in a session are almost selected, and longest lines are eliminated.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Question: How is the number of sessions calculated in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Using the formula s = (m * n / r) + (m * n * (p - 1) / r) + (k * m / 2), where s is the number of

observing sessions, r is the number of receivers, m is the total number of stations involved, n is the level
of redundancy, p is firm experience (typically 1.1), and k is the safety factor.

Question: What is the purpose of loop closure in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To discover the internal consistency of a GNSS network.

Question: What is the significance of avoiding low elevation satellites in GNSS?

Answer: Satellites with less than 15° above the horizon can cause accuracy degradation.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Question: How is the number of sessions calculated in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Using the formula s = (m * n / r) + (m * n * (p - 1) / r) + (k * m / 2), where s is the number of

observing sessions, r is the number of receivers, m is the total number of stations involved, n is the level
of redundancy, p is firm experience (typically 1.1), and k is the safety factor.

Question: What is the purpose of loop closure in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To discover the internal consistency of a GNSS network.

Question: What is the significance of avoiding low elevation satellites in GNSS?

Answer: Satellites with less than 15° above the horizon can cause accuracy degradation.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Question: How is the number of sessions calculated in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Using the formula s = (m * n / r) + (m * n * (p - 1) / r) + (k * m / 2), where s is the number of

observing sessions, r is the number of receivers, m is the total number of stations involved, n is the level
of redundancy, p is firm experience (typically 1.1), and k is the safety factor.

Question: What is the purpose of loop closure in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To discover the internal consistency of a GNSS network.

Question: What is the significance of avoiding low elevation satellites in GNSS?

Answer: Satellites with less than 15° above the horizon can cause accuracy degradation.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Question: How is the number of sessions calculated in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Using the formula s = (m * n / r) + (m * n * (p - 1) / r) + (k * m / 2), where s is the number of

observing sessions, r is the number of receivers, m is the total number of stations involved, n is the level
of redundancy, p is firm experience (typically 1.1), and k is the safety factor.

Question: What is the purpose of loop closure in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To discover the internal consistency of a GNSS network.

Question: What is the significance of avoiding low elevation satellites in GNSS?

Answer: Satellites with less than 15° above the horizon can cause accuracy degradation.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Question: How is the number of sessions calculated in GNSS survey design?

Answer: Using the formula s = (m * n / r) + (m * n * (p - 1) / r) + (k * m / 2), where s is the number of

observing sessions, r is the number of receivers, m is the total number of stations involved, n is the level
of redundancy, p is firm experience (typically 1.1), and k is the safety factor.

Question: What is the goal of finding the number of sessions in GNSS survey design?

Answer: To determine the appropriate number of sessions for a given project.

Pseudoranges: Measurements from a single receiver to satellites used in GNSS positioning.

Baseline: The distance and direction between a base station and a rover station in relative positioning.

Carrier Phase Measurement: A technique in relative positioning that involves measuring the phase of
the carrier signal transmitted by satellites.

Reference Station: The base station used in differential positioning.

Position Vector: In relative positioning, it is the vector between the base and rover stations.

Static Survey: A type of relative positioning where the receivers are stationary, suitable for control
establishment.

Dynamic Survey: A type of relative positioning where the rover receiver is in motion, providing accurate
real-time or post-processed positions.

Geodetic Controls: Points with known coordinates used as reference in geodetic surveys.

Horizontal Control: Verification of the integrity of horizontal control by observing baselines between
stations.

Independent Lines: Also known as nontrivial lines, they are used in GNSS survey design and contribute to
a unique solution.

Trivial Lines: Lines in GNSS survey design that are not considered independent and are discarded during
post-processing.

Redundancy: In GNSS survey design, the concept of having more measurements than necessary for
validation and error detection.
Loop Closure: A procedure in GNSS survey design to check the internal consistency of the network.

Baseline Plan: A plan showing the baselines on the project map in GNSS survey design.

GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision): A parameter calculated using GNSS processing software to
assess the quality of satellite geometry.

Rapid Static: A procedure similar to static surveying but with shorter observation times and shorter
baselines.

Pseudokinematic: An intermittent or reoccupation method in dynamic surveying where short

observations are performed.

CORS (Continuously Operating Reference Stations): Stations that provide real-time corrections for GNSS
positioning.

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK): A popular GNSS positioning technique that provides real-time positions
without post-processing.

DMC (Data, Mission, Control) 2010-13: A reference to a document or standard related to GNSS
positioning.

Active Geodetic Station: A station that continuously operates and provides real-time data for GNSS
positioning.

Stop-and-Go: A dynamic survey technique where the receiver is stopped at various points to obtain
accurate positions.

Kinematic Positioning: Determining positions while the antenna is in motion in dynamic surveying.

Ambiguities: In dynamic surveying, uncertainties or ambiguities that need resolution before conducting
the survey.
GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision): A parameter calculated using GNSS processing software to
assess the quality of satellite geometry.

What are pseudoranges in GNSS positioning?

Answer: Pseudoranges are measurements from a single receiver to satellites used in GNSS positioning.

Define baseline in GNSS positioning.

Answer: Baseline refers to the distance and direction between a base station and a rover station in
relative positioning.

What does carrier phase measurement involve in GNSS positioning?

Answer: Carrier phase measurement is a technique in relative positioning that involves measuring the
phase of the carrier signal transmitted by satellites.

In differential positioning, what is the role of the reference station?

Answer: The reference station is the base station used in differential positioning.

What is a position vector in the context of relative positioning?

Answer: In relative positioning, the position vector is the vector between the base and rover stations.

Which type of survey involves stationary receivers and is suitable for control establishment?

Answer: Static survey is a type of relative positioning where the receivers are stationary, suitable for
control establishment.

What is the primary characteristic of a dynamic survey in GNSS positioning?

Answer: Dynamic survey involves a rover receiver in motion, providing accurate real-time or post-
processed positions.

What are geodetic controls in the context of GNSS positioning?

Answer: Geodetic controls are points with known coordinates used as reference in geodetic surveys.

How is horizontal control verified in GNSS positioning?

Answer: Horizontal control is verified by observing baselines between stations.

What are independent lines in GNSS survey design, and how are they used?

Answer: Independent lines, also known as nontrivial lines, contribute to a unique solution in GNSS
survey design.

Define trivial lines in GNSS survey design and their role.

Answer: Trivial lines are lines in GNSS survey design that are not considered independent and are
discarded during post-processing.

What is redundancy in GNSS survey design?

Answer: In GNSS survey design, redundancy is the concept of having more measurements than
necessary for validation and error detection.

Explain the concept of loop closure in GNSS survey design.

Answer: Loop closure is a procedure in GNSS survey design to check the internal consistency of the
network.

What does a baseline plan show in GNSS survey design?

Answer: A baseline plan shows the baselines on the project map in GNSS survey design.

What is GDOP, and how is it used in GNSS positioning?

Answer: GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision) is a parameter calculated using GNSS processing
software to assess the quality of satellite geometry.

Briefly describe the rapid-static technique in GNSS surveying.

Answer: Rapid static is a procedure similar to static surveying but with shorter observation times and
shorter baselines.

What is pseudokinematic in dynamic surveying, and how is it performed?

Answer: Pseudokinematic is an intermittent or reoccupation method in dynamic surveying where short

observations are performed.

What does CORS stand for in GNSS positioning, and what role do they play?

Answer: CORS stands for Continuously Operating Reference Stations, providing real-time corrections for
GNSS positioning.

Define Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) in GNSS positioning.

Answer: RTK is a popular GNSS positioning technique that provides real-time positions without post-
processing.

What is the significance of the term DMC 2010-13 in GNSS positioning?

Answer: DMC 2010-13 likely refers to a document or standard related to GNSS positioning.

Explain what an active geodetic station is in GNSS positioning.

Answer: An active geodetic station is a continuously operating station that provides real-time data for
GNSS positioning.

What is the stop-and-go technique in dynamic surveying, and when is it used?

Answer: Stop-and-go is a dynamic survey technique where the receiver is stopped at various points to
obtain accurate positions.

Differentiate between static and dynamic positioning in GNSS.

Answer: Static positioning involves stationary receivers, while dynamic positioning involves moving
receivers.
What is the goal of real-time kinematic (RTK) in dynamic surveying?

Answer: The goal of RTK is to provide real-time positions without the need for post-processing.

Name one common application of dynamic surveying in GNSS positioning.

Answer: Common applications of dynamic surveying include road centerline mapping, topographic and
hydrographic surveys, air-borne applications, and construction monitoring

Ionospheric Effects:

Definition: Disturbances in the ionosphere that impact the propagation of GNSS signals.

Tropospheric Refraction:

Definition: Refraction of GNSS signals caused by the Earth's troposphere.

Relativistic Effects:

Definition: Time dilation and other effects due to satellite motion and gravity.

Clock Errors:

Definition: Inaccuracies in the synchronization of satellite clocks affecting GNSS signals.

Multipath Effects:

Definition: Interference caused by signal reflections from surfaces, impacting signal accuracy.

Anti-spoofing:

Definition: Techniques to prevent the unauthorized use or manipulation of GNSS signals.

SA Effects:

Definition: Selective Availability effects, intentional degradation of GPS signals for non-military users.

Antenna Phase Center Offset:

Definition: Deviation of the effective point of signal reception in an antenna.

Instrumental Bias:

Definition: Systematic errors introduced by the GNSS receiver equipment.

Ephemeris Data:

Definition: Information about the position of a satellite at the time of signal emission.

User Equivalent Range Error (UERE):

Definition: The total error affecting a pseudorange in GNSS measurements.

Satellite Clock Bias (dt):

Definition: The difference between the satellite's clock time and the GNSS system time.

Group Delay:

Definition: The delay experienced by GNSS signals as they pass through the ionosphere.

Phase Delay:

Definition: Alteration of signal speed and direction in the ionosphere, affecting range measurement.

Dry and Wet Components:

Definition: Components of tropospheric effect related to atmospheric pressure and water vapor.

Multipath Reflections:

Definition: Signal reflections from the ground or structures causing interference in GNSS measurements.

Receiver Clock Bias (dT):

Definition: Errors introduced by the receiver's clock oscillator in GNSS measurements.

Orbital Bias:
Definition: Errors associated with the satellite's orbital motion affecting GNSS measurements.

Baseline Measurement:

Definition: The vector between two GNSS receivers used for position determination.

Cycle Slip:

Definition: Discontinuity in a receiver's continuous phase lock on a satellite's signal.

What are the physical influences of GNSS Surveying mentioned in the text?

Answer: Ionospheric effects, Tropospheric effects, Relativistic effects, Earth tide and ocean loading tide,
Clock errors, Multipath effects, Anti-spoofing and SA effects, Antenna phase center offset and variation,
Instrumental bias.

What is UERE in the context of GNSS Surveying, and what does it stand for?

Answer: UERE stands for User Equivalent Range Error, representing the total error affecting a
pseudorange.

Which biases contribute to UERE, and how are they affected by the length of baselines between
receivers?

Answer: Biases such as those attributable to the atmosphere (dion, dtrop) and satellite orbits (dρ)
increase and decrease with the length of baselines, while those due to receiver noise and multipath are
not affected.

What is the significance of ephemeris data in GNSS Surveying?

Answer: Ephemeris data provides information about the satellite's position at the time of signal
emission, accurate up to 1 to 5 meters.

Explain the importance of satellite clock bias in GNSS positioning.

Answer: Satellite clock bias is a significant error contributor, and if broadcast clock correction is not used
by the receiver, it can lead to errors. Relativistic effects, including time dilation and eccentricity of the
orbit, are associated with satellite clock bias.
What is the impact of ionospheric effects on GNSS signals?

Answer: Ionospheric effects, such as group delay and phase delay, alter the apparent speed and
direction of the signal as it passes through the atmosphere, introducing errors in the range
measurement.

How is tropospheric effect independent of frequency, and what components does it have?

Answer: Tropospheric effect is independent of frequency for frequencies below 30 GHz. It has dry and
wet components, where the dry component is correlated to atmospheric pressure, and the wet
component depends on water vapor and condensed clouds.

What is the primary cause of range delay in multipath, and how does it affect GPS signals?

Answer: Range delay in multipath is caused by the reflection of GPS signals from the ground, buildings,
or other objects. It interferes with the direct signal from the satellite, but the high frequency of GPS
codes limits its impact.

How is receiver clock bias introduced, and what kind of clock is typically used in GPS receivers?

Answer: Receiver clock bias is introduced by the receiver's oscillator, usually equipped with a quartz
crystal clock, known as OCXO (oven-controlled crystal oscillator).

What are the forces acting on satellites contributing to orbital bias?

Answer: Forces include Earth's gravitational attraction, non-spherical nature of Earth's gravity,
attractions of the sun and moon, and solar radiation pressure.

What is the purpose of a metal sheet (ground planes) in antenna design to minimize multipath effects?

Answer: Ground planes are used to reduce multipath interference by eliminating signals from low
elevation angles.

What is the classification of carrier phase observations in positioning solutions, and what are the
characteristics of kinematic applications?

Answer: Carrier phase observations are classified into Kinematic and Static positioning. Kinematic
applications involve movement, are in real time, require little redundancy, and can be periodic.
What is the characteristic of absolute positioning, and what does it rely on?

Answer: Absolute positioning relies on a single receiver measuring its range to a minimum of 4 satellites
simultaneously, using coded pseudorange measurement for virtually instantaneous positioning.

How does relative positioning achieve higher accuracy, and what is the advantage of simultaneous
observations from separate stations?

Answer: Relative positioning achieves higher accuracy due to the extensive correlation between
observations taken simultaneously from separate stations. Simultaneous observations provide very
similar errors.

What are baselines in the context of positioning, and how are their accuracies affected by observation
simultaneity?

Answer: Baselines are vectors between pairs of receivers. The simultaneity of observation and the
carrier phase observable yield typical baseline measurement accuracies of ±(1 cm + 2 ppm).

What are the four unknowns in positioning, and why is the stability of a quartz crystal clock adequate for
a receiver oscillator?

Answer: The four unknowns are the position of the receiver in three Cartesian coordinates (ux, uy, and
uz) and the receiver's clock error (dTu). The stability of a quartz crystal clock is adequate due to the
ability to achieve redundancy in the measurement of dT.

What is the concept of single differencing in positioning, and how does it eliminate certain errors?

Answer: Single differencing refers to the difference in simultaneous carrier phase measurements from
one GPS satellite as measured by two receivers. It eliminates the satellite clock error (dt) and nearly
identical atmospheric biases and orbital errors.

What is the purpose of double differencing in positioning, and what errors does it aim to eliminate?

Answer: Double differencing combines between-receivers and between-satellites differences, aiming to

create a solution virtually free from clock errors. It eliminates atmospheric effects and orbital errors.

Explain the concept of triple differencing in positioning and the components of the total carrier phase
observable.
Answer: Triple differencing involves combining two double differences, creating a difference between
two epochs. The total carrier phase observable (ϕ) has components α (fractional initial phase), β
(observed cycle count), and N (cycle count at lock on).