n, Inspiration.

Canon
1976 The Bible as Socrr?J Scripture: Reve/011o

did and taught for their eternal salvntion until the day content and unity of the whole of Scripture with du
e
He was taken up into heaven. (see Acts I: I) attention paid to the living tradition of the. whole
Church and the Analogy of the Faith.
Nothing is comparable in strictness to these paragraphs
Here a coume�eight is applied again
of Dei I erb11m about the buman authors of the gospels, st the
preponderance of a mere �'literary interpretation··
while in chapter 4 (nos 14-16) the staLCmcnts about the of the
biblical texts a� understood1 by Divina Af]lanre.
Old Testament appear much more conciliatory nnd open. For 11
is obvious that the u�il)' of the Scriptures, and th
We have here the clearest evidence that Dei Jerbitm was us the
born under unusual tensions which were not even fully ultimate meaning of the b)blical texts, must be sough
t in a
wider canonical context, ,whicl}, however, at lea st i n art
underst0od by the members of the council. 1t was tbe p ._
model of the double authorship that remained· unclear. remains nec_�.ssarily hidden fro� every human a ut
hor.
God alone. knows the whole context of salvation his o y
The difficulty identified by Karl Rahner in 1958 had not t r.
been overcome: God cannot be both the ..literary author" even in the highest fonns.of prophecy, the human auth
or
and .. a transcendental cause" of Scripture. (Cf., Ober die is not a�are of the full,�an9nical. c�:mtext into which his
Schrifii11spira1ion [Freiburg: Herder, 1958]. 25.) text is about tp be inserted,- Only in the mind of God docs
the meaning of the .diyine, words and deeds of salvation
history coalesce into a unified salvation history. The Trwlt
iii. From Lite1·a1J' Genre to Salvific Truth
"that I God wants to be assigned to writing in the Bible"
In the way Dei Verhum quotes Dil'ino .-1fflante Spirilll,
l �- t

the "literary genres" in the Bible seem to pertain

. . .
is available to the human mind only in the total comex1
of the Scriptures, because it was.not available until the
exclusively to the realm of human authorship. Divino
on; mediator bet)�ee� God a.n? humankind, the man Jesus
A (ffa111e Spiritu neither stated nor denied that God was
Christ, had manifested i�,(cf._l Ti£!12:5).
a "literary author." but also abstained deriving the
qh
literary genres of the Bible from God's authorship:
a. "Salvific1 T1111l?" and th,e.Aulfzorial intent
Yet from Dil'ino A_ffiante Spirir11 to Dei Jlerbum a shift
appears: in the latter it is not clear 'in what sense the lf we follow Divino Ajjlante Spiritu with an exclusive
truth. as intended by God, was revealed through the interest im the original "authorial intent,'' we certainly
literary form. One ends up wondering if the literary remain faithful, atJeast,implicitly, to two principles. both
genre is considered an obstacle. which the exegete had rooted in the wisdom of early Christianity and which
to remove in order to explore the text's meaning, or if admit no compromise:: ( l) thatext,bas a literal meaning
it plays a more positive role by presenting a �ivinely upon which all o(her (derived �or: accommodated)
intended content in a literary clothing. The medieval meanings are buil4°and (2)rtbe literal meaning cannot
concept of i11rn/11cru111 speaks of a diYinely intended be obtained with sufficient precision unless the tools of
content ·'wrapped" in literary clothes and thus attributes language (linguistics and grammar) are combined wuh
in this sense a positive role to the literary fonn, of Which the approach of literary a.nalysis,,sp'edfically the issue of
the spiritual meaning must remain inseparable. By determining the literary genre.. However, these principks
referring to "divine pedagogy" or --condescendence," need to be completed by a third one. the intent of the
both Dei I 'crb11111 and W1·ino Affla111e Spiriw refer to primary auctorloriginator· who is the living God and the
y
the biblicaJ texts' human characteristics (including their Holy Spirit. Although. we must deny that God is a lit erar
imperfections). as willed by the divine author, but more author, we must affirm God's personal authorship. which
in the sense of being allowed than being caused. cannot be restricted by the human author.

iv. Divine lnre111 and Canonical Conte.xi h. The Crucial Senierlce in Dei Yerbum no. 12
aurl
A further remedy to the ambiguities left behind by Divino These corisiderations al.low one to see both wistlom
111�
AD1w,re Spiritu and Humani Generis was addressed by prnblematic features in Dei Verbum ·s no. 11 concern
enl
Scripture ·s truthfulness-that statement which undefl
1
Dei Verbwn's last sentence of no. 12:

But. since Holy Scripture must be read aud .

numerous interpretations. The Latin text is as follows:

11s
interprellcd in the same Spirit in which it.was written, Scripturae libri veritatem quam Deus nostrJe salu
mite r.
for, in order to explain the meaning of U1e sacred causa Litteris Sacris consignari voluit. Hr
texts, no less careful attention must be given to the fidelitcr et sine errore docere profitendi sunt.

■ .r--,
 YI, Inspiration and Incarnation: Tn1tJ1 in the Bible 1977

Its English translation widely diffused in the editions of ambiguous: How do you discern the statements which
the New American Bihle is the follov.ing: are "salvific''? Ultimately. the salvific dimension of
God·s wol'd does not proceed (only) from the truthfully
The books of Scripture must be acknowledged as expressed conceptual content of a biblical text but from
teaching solidly. faithfully and without error that humanity·s encounter in faith with Christ through the
truth which God' wanted put in Sacred Writings for Spirit. which the inspired word initiates and furthers
the sake of our salvation. when the believer embraces the biblical message with
faith. The Bible cannot contain salvific truth without
The Latin text's final fonn was reached only after lengthy making concrete references to salvation history centered
debate. Its penultimate formulation had been shorter on Christ If they are cut off from their salvation­
by speaking only of "(the) salvific truth'' (veritarem bismricaJ relationship with Christ. the written words do
salutarem) which God intended to be put in the sacred oot contain or communicate: the truth God revealed for
writings. At an insistent intervention of a significant the sake of our salvation.
minority but facing the resistance of the committee which The purpose of inspiration coincides with that of the
had created it, the counci( was stuck with this fonnulation economy of salvation: God approaches human beings
until, at the intervention of Pope Paul VI. the question in order to tench them the truth. who is Christ. for the
was relegated to the Theological Commission. Then th� sake of leading men and women to know and love God
latter commission replaced the words veritatem salutarem as well as to know and love themselves and other human
("salvific truth'') with the phrase 1·eritatem quam Deus beings. Revelation aims not ar providing a shortcut or a
nvstrae salutis cm,sa (""that truth which God intended substitute for history which is necessary for the human
for the sake of our salvation") so that the resulting text journey of discovering the world.. developing one's
obtained quasi-unanimous suppon. faculties. exploring the laws (physical and human) of
Since the last conciliar discussion of Dei Verbum, nature or accumulating ways and means by which to
one is still uncertain about what the drafters of Dei master the world. exploiting the potential of technology.
Verbum had in mind when proposing and defending their and exploring the secrets of one's own rationaJity. If we
original expression of l'eritas sa/11taris (so/vi.fie truth). explore the Bible by treating it as if God were its literary
A quick search in the Patrologia Latina can convince author. then we are making false assumptions by seeking
anyone that this terminology does not belong to patristic its value in comparison to other human works. as if they
usage. not even in the Middle Ages. However, once io were on the same level. It is tempting to treat the Bible
the acts of the Council ofTrent, the Gospel is said to be as we treat classical texts of various cultures. like the
proclaimed first by Jesus and then preached by disciples Odyssey or the Bhaguvod-Gita. by deriving their value
over the ,whole world "as the fountainhead of all sa/,•ific from the esteem they enjoy in their cultural context.
truth and moral discipline." Apparently, the context Howc:ver. if we separate the Bjble from thi:: liVlng Christ,
'
speaks about the purity of the gospel so that veritas in whom its ultimate meaning consists. or from the power
.w/utaris meant the totality of the Christian doctrine. of the Holy Spirit. in whom God personally addresses us
But for a significant minority at the council, this was in his inspired words, we will not find in it the tnllh. Even
an unclear vocabulary indicating a slippery slope, as if when the human author of a biblical book adopts the genre
the Bible had contained "crrorless" truth only in texts of historiography in either the ancient or modem sense
concerning salvific mailers. of the term, the biblical book must not be considered as
As long as we are fixated on thinking about divine historiography. Nor are the biblical books which
propositional truths and continue to equate what the employ other genres, to be read as expressions of the
(human) author has in mind with ,, hat God is asserting, Holy Spirit's "st.ates of mind," as self-expressions of
we rem ain trnpped within the human author's perspective the Divine Author, when inspiring human authors and
and remain clueless about the truth of biblical texts, which thus becoming locked in space and time. The Bible is
often contain seemingly banal culturally and hi!.torically the wriuen record of God's word addressing humanity
conditioned statements. in the course of its ongoing search for God. When
It seems that even at Vatican II. the discussion addressing humanity, God's word calls men and women
abou1 the truth of the Bible was mesmerized by a to himself for conversion, repentance. self-knowledge,
literary meaning. identified \\ ith the human author's moral knowledge, and self-transcendence-ultimately
intent. But the fomrnla of Dei Verbum turned out to be for the purpose of encountering the God become man.
f, Re,'(·/ahOII. Jnspimlion. Can
on
1978 The B,hlc as Sacn:d Script11re·

theSon to reveal in his earthly life. Ooly when raj

Of course. the Bible reveals the ways God approaches . . se d ftu
the dead 1s the Lord given power over all things rn
humanity in historical events. but t11cse are paradigmatic. . . c re.i1cd
material and spmtual (Matt 28:20). These acts
i.e.• universally applicable to individual lives. The Bible's . of J
arc fully h1ston. ca 1 on account o f J esus , h uman · esu,
truth surpasses its historical framewor k in which it has . n •llllrc
been ddivcred. yet its truth cannot be separated from but they ar c. due to h 1s d'1vme
. nature and per s
onh
history. eve11 if humanity's historical knowledge is full of potentially supra-historical and fully become such i o��•
n IS
imperfections. glori fi cation.
.
The English translation of the crucial sentence in
no. 11 of Dei Verbum is exacerbated by the lack of the
D. Fullness of Truth in the Spiritual
definite article in Latin which results in ambiguity when
the word ,·eritas is translated as either "that truth.. or "the
Meaning
truth... Speaking of •·that truth.. suggests a multiplicity According to the neo-Thomistic doctrine or insp· r
. . 1 a11on.
of truths conveyed in the Bible. which may or may not the main effect or consequence of divine inspirat·
IOO I<,
be deemed by some as serving human salvation or may "inerrancy." When this was replaced by "truth w•,I 1
appear instrumental to salvation to a lesser degree. In fact, f.J , 1llllt
error, one expected a shift of meaning to occu B
the integrity of the original Latin text is better preserved if
r. Ut
then the statement was made: "Scriptu re must be read
ii
we render it as follows: the sam� Spirit in which it was written ." This soundc�
like a manifesto passing far beyond the "insp ir:Hio
The books of Scripture must be acknowledged as n/
inerrancy" model of the neo-Thomistic te xtbook�
teaching solidly faithfully and without error the truth
. Unfortu�ately, it rece!ved much less attention than i;
which God wanted put in theSacred Writings for the
deserved. Most importantly, the Latin text capitalizes
sake of our salvation.
Spiritu, making reference to the Holy Spirit. (Cf. l f! nacc
This rendition of the text excludes picking and de ia Potterie, "Reading Holy Scripture 'in the s;irit':
choosing among different kinds of truths, and the word Is the Patri�tic'Way of Reading the Bible Still Possibh:
). ,,
Today?"' L0/1111/UlliO (1986), 3-4; Id., '"Interpretation
1·criws preserv es its holistic meaning rather than the
distributive sense which the term •·that truth" would of the Holy Scripture in the Spirit in Which It Was
_
convey. as if it was chosen from among different kinds Written• (Dei Verbum I 2c)" in: Rene Latourelle (ed.)
Vatican' ll: ·'Assessmen� and Perspe_ctives Tll'e111y Five
1
of truths.
God. the divine author speaking through the Bible, Years After; (1962-1987), [New York, Paulist Prrn
r.:, eals himself through history. but also transcends I 988], r: 220-66.)
history. His inspired word. documenting '"the words and Tradllional neo-scl;olastic treatises, when mo, inl!
de.:ds"' of revelation in writing, conveys a perspective from in�piration to inerrancy (as errorless truth), oflt:!�
according to which the human authors panicipate in manifested a turn in the discourse, moving from speaking
rendering their own talents and potential to express these about"' "subjective'' inspiration (inspired a111hors) Lo
words and deeds. yet they cannot fully comprehend "objective" inspiration, that is, the inspired h'XI. The
re, dation beyond the limits of their historical existence. implied logic could be explained in this way: as in 1he
This applies to all mediators of revelation, from Abraham first chapter of the treatise on inspiration, GoJ i� d,fi11ed
to Moses and to the prophets. Jesus· case is. of course, as the litera,y aulhor of Scripture, in the next chapter w.:
quite different on account of the hypostatic union which may come to the conclusion that all scriptural statemenb
uniquely unites him with the Father so that the personal are truthful in an absolute sense because their (li1crar )
y

subject of hjs acts and words is the divine person of author is God who' cann�t lie or err. Howewr, if lilt:!
God's only Bt!gotten Son. Bui evl!n in the story of Jesus, premise is false, then the conclusion may be tru.: but
\\ e see an individual human being's history that takes does not follow. The composilion of the text i� the fniit
place from a beginning (in Greek, arche; cf. John I: I) to of a human authorial function and thus can (in foci. J,,l'S)
an end (telos, cf John 21 :30). shaped in a unique destiny. carry in itself unmistakable signs of limitations, typical of
Christ"s human consciousness perceives concepts . human cognition and self-expression but not applicabk to
formulates questions. moves from topic 10 topic, and God. Dei Verbum extends its definition of revdation ao<l
expresses in actions and words all that the Father wants inspiration to include both history and messag.: in their

�
...-

VI. /mpiration and /ncamation: Truth in the 81blt! 1919

concreteness and avoids running into the neo-scholastic the Christological fact .of the incarnation and
con undrum between God's literary authorship and the the ecclesiological fact of the living Christ.
a bsolute inerrancy ot'the resulting text. But the encyclical risen and glorified, manifesting himself alive to
Oivino A_fflante Spiritu did not do the same and thus his believers. both individually and collectively.
created an atmosphere of negativity toward cultivating the Thcrefofe, the truth of the Bible cannot be
"mystical sense" of lhe Bible. It expressed the intention reduced to a finite set of truthful sentences with
10 •·reduce to silence those who. affirming that they no reference to a higher. comprehensive reality:
scarcely ever find anything in biblical commentaries to the living and glorious Christ. who "once
raise their hearts to God. to nourish their souls or promote raised. dies no more. for death no longer has
their interior lifo. repeatedly urge that we should have , pqwer over him" (Rom 6:9).
recourse to a certain spiritual and, as they say. mystical iii) The truth of the Bible connotes a fullness which
interpretation.'.' (Divina Ajjfu111e Spir.i/11, no. 25.) is where Scripture. the sacraments. and the
In retrospect, the twenty-first-century reader can assembly of the believers invoke the events of
u erstand why Dei Ver.bum. a document about revelation.
nd the salvific history of God's int�raction with
inadvertently cracked open problems which in 1964 humankind. Tb.is truth of the Bible is identical
the theblogians of Vatican II were apparently not ready with the "two-edged sword.- by which the
to tackle. Some participants at the council, like Henri Epistle to the Hebrews characterizes God ·s
de Lubac, could have quoted Origen that inspiration's word ( 4:12 ). There are two essential aspects
main effect was the unfathomable depth of each text. the of the Incarnation that cannot be reduced to a
Christological sense of every part. the presence of the single dimension: God's word is both historical
"Spirit," and,, in this sense, the truth of which Jesus spoke and yet ever "living and effective." Although
by pointing to himself as ''the Way and the Truth and the other human words uttered in history fade into
Life" (John 14:6). This is the sense in which the biblical the past as soon as pronounced. ''the plan of the
truth is salvific and redemptive. De Lubac has also shown Lord stands forever'' (Ps 33:11 ). While God's
that while on the one hand. the Origenian thesis about the salvation history moves on to its completion.
omnipresence ofa "spiritual sense" in the Bible goes back Christ is Uthe one who is and was and is to
to apostplic tradition, this teaching survived in the church come" (cf. Rev I :4. 8; 4:8) so that his risen
until the end of Middle Ages and started to fade only in existence remains present and active.
modem times. (Cf. Chapter VIII in de Lubac's Histoire
The text of Dei Verb11m tried to convey this lofty
et Esprit [Paris: Aubier. 1950), 336-55. with references
outlook of the Bible's truth as the risen Christ. but the
to a posterity mostly in the Latin church in the persons
disputes which surrounded it obscured these issues by
of Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and many medieval
an an.'\ious preoccupation with the texts being error­
authors.)
free. Focusing on the absence of errors in the Bible and
While it is not possible to treat fully "the spiritual
calibrating the various propositional truths of human
meaning" of Scriptures, we must remain commined to a
assert.ions. the disputes misled many exegetes. For in such
patristic vision of Dei Verbum without compromises. Here
a perspective. the Scriptures are not regarded as serving
we mention some of its main implications:
..the church of the living God. the pillar and foundation
i) For providing biblical texts to serve the church of truth" (I Tit 3:15) but b�come subject to a scrupulous
through the centuries. the Holy Spirit has not inquiry that attributes to God the role of composing
,1 only prompted and guided writers to produce literary products perfectly free of (hwmm) errors. The
the biblical books but also continued speaking "full canonical context" is not to be defined in literary
through the church by proclaiming Christ terms as "from Genesis to Revelation'' but in tenns of the
and transmitting his "knowledge" (cf. 2 Cor fullness of revelation as the reality of God's words and
,2: 14) through both the written instruments of deeds "from Creation to Eschatology."
the Bible and assuring Christ's own personal God is working with human beings as a "paidagogos•·
presence in all functions of the Body of Christ. or "educator," forming ··a community of salvation;'
ii) The ''tr uth of the Gospel" (Gal 2:5. 14), which i.e., men and women responding in faith to God's self­
is "message and proclamation" (cf. I Thess I :5; disclosure through the words and deeds deposited in
2:2, 2:4, 2:9; 3:2; I Pet 4:6) and the meaning of b.iblical texts. (See Mark S. GigniUiat. A Brief History
"all the scriptures" (Luke 21 :22. 24:27), implies of Old Testament Criricism: From Benedicr Spinoza to
 11011. Canon
Scriplll/"C'.' RC'w:lat/on. J,,spira
1980 The Bible as Sacrr:d
and human speech to help the weakness of th
ids: Zonder an. 2012). See
v
e '11111'0"
Brevanl Child� [Grand Rap flesh." Although John Chrysostom is known
ipture: The Disclosure of 10 ha e
Francis Martin. Sacred Scr belonged to the Antiochian school of patristic c �
Sapientia. 2006). 234, and . ., .
the Word [Naples. Florida: the tenn
..con descens,on .
1s not specific to that
xeges1s
Kent Harold (eds.). The .. ·
trad111on
Christopher R. Seitz. Richards .
The source may be Ongen. the first and most i
The Work of Brevard S.
Bihle as Christian Scripture: . . .
thmker connectmg t he Scnptures with the Inca
. mportant
3].)
Childs [Society of/Biblical Lit. 201 of the Logos. Due to the Latin translation of
rna11 0n
lllany
of Origen 's works, these thoughts of his per
. rneatcd
VII. Inspiration and the Truth of
. . .
centuncs of Latin trad1t1on (Augustine Gregor
. · • y the
the Bible in the Context of Divine
Great. Bern �rd of Cla1rvaux), empha izing tha
. � t "the
human flesh -the assumpta caro ofwh1ch the con . 1 .
Condescension . c1 1ar
text speaks-both vetls and reveals. tempers and
. . hcl p�
to transmit, t he d.1vme 1·1ght of revelation. Like a sli d
A. The Meaning of Condescension
a c or
a screen, the humanity of Christ reduces the bril liance
of
divine truth in order lo both protect the human eye an
Dei l'erbum. no. 13. refers to the analogy between d
allow human beings to perceive what shines throuch
inspiration and incarnation by using the tem1 .
Similarly, God's word cannot address humankind uni:
"condescension.,. ��
it confonns to the human capacity of perceiving and
In Sacred Scripture, therefore, while the truth and comparing revealed truth with analogous ideas, obtained
holiness of God always remains intact. the marvelous through ordinary knowledge, so that the human being
..condescension.. of the eternal Wisdom is clearly may come to an understanding of what God is sa ying.
shown. "so that we may learn God ·s unspeakable These ideas of the I patristic tradition show thal
kindness, and what measure of adaptation be applied a theology of inspiration presupposes reflection on
to hi_s speech on account of a thoughtful concern for religious epistemology in general. Tbe idea that God
our weak human nature." personally approaches the human being implies that he
initiates a kind of descent to the human level. resulting
This quotation comes from a homily by John in commonality between God and humans in a personal
Chrysostom (In Ge11. Ill. 8; Hom. 17. I [PG 53. 134)). encounter. Thus, in the context of Christian revelation.
Humani Generic> U!>l!d this tenn. quo1ing several other already at the beginning.of salvation history we detect. on
passages by the same Church Father (In Gen I, 4 [PG 53, the one band, humanity's anticipatory participation in the
col. 34-35]: /11 Gen II. 21 [ibid. col. 121): in Gen. 111, incarnate life of Jesus on earth, and, on the other hand, we
8 [ibid. col. 135]; Hom. 15 in Jn I. 18 [PG 59. 97-98)).
see in Jesus' human life (acts and words) on earth Go<l"s
The tenn ..condescension" (in Greek. synkatabasis)
incarnate presence, anticipated in the Old Testament :md
which Chrysostom used is fortuitous, because it evokes,
come to its fullness at a particular time in Jesus• individual
on the on.: hand. a key tenn of the incamational and
human nature. Only in his risen existence does Jesus mor.:
eucharistic language of John's Gospel, speak.ing of
beyond the dimension of history. In virtue of the identity
the Son of God as Bread descending from heaven into
of the divine person, Jesus' individual human nature anJ
the world (cf. John 6:51. 54, 58: see also 3:13) and
eternal divinity are fully and entirely joined. Thus again
combines it with two Greek prepositions. The fust, syn.
we see Jesus' words vindicated:
connotes association and the second, kata, indicates a
downward movement. The Latin text uses two terms Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will
to render the rich connotations, conde.scensio and
not pass away. (Matt 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 21 :33 l
adtemperatio. The first conveys the meaning that when
illis
assuming a creaturely condition God relinquishes his Remarkably, the three Synoptic Gospels prescrwtl
1( 11
transcendental superiority. and the second refers to an saying in a verbatim identical form and in u cm/1/1 '.
th s
accommodation of God's speech to the human capacity context of the eschatological discourse. W..: see in '.
oJ �
to hear and understand. For the sake of emphasis, the sentence, as in a• synthesis , the pennanence "f G_
·
word ··human" is used within the last sentence of no. J 3 word that addresses humankind not Just as 1
\ fl(h:'rl

(with homo resp. l111ma11us) four times: "God speaking ving :uid
or printed word but also as a word thnt is "li
to humankind assimilates his word to i, 11111011 language
effective" (Heb 14:2).
 Vil. lrup,ratiun and thtr Truth of tht! Bible in thtr Context of Divine, Conducen.flon 1981

B, The Imperfections of lnerrancy stating that polygamous relationships in royal courts

were
politic s of
considered nonnal and pan of the international
Since revela tion is historical and progressive, it constitutes Testam ent. from
the times. In any case. throughout the Old
God's tru thf�I word . Yet its truth becomes only gradually bis
Abraham to Moses. God shapes a nation according to
comprehensible and thus, at any given point in time it pagani sm. Neither
standard as it gradually emerges from
is always imperfectly and incompletely understood. T�is in
the morality of the Ten Commandments. as interpreted
could have been a good reason for Dei Verbum to abstain concep ts of monot heism
today's church. nor present-day
from using the perfectionist lenninology of inerrancy
should be retrojected as fully understood and enforced in
without rejecting it altogether in a theological sense. By
the decades that followed the Exodus. Speculating about
induding the term "without error." the council expressed
the revelation of the Decalogue in tenns of a natural­
its continued commitment lo the concept of errorless
law morality is correct and needed. but presupposing
Scriptures. But the rest of lhe conciliar discussions
that such considerations were common in early Israel is
continued to ignore the need for further nuancing this
anachronistic. A fully developed fonnulation and practice
concept. The idea of an "errorless" documentation of
of the Mosaic law, with a moral code of purity. must not
revelation is compatible with imperfections and with
be postulat.ed for Israel"s wanderings in thedesen.
the "chronic" incompleteness of the truth in any humaJ\
More serious ore those issues connected with the
literary production.
biblical accounts of the occupation oflhe Promised Land.
Several understandings of the word "truth" surface
especially when a divine command of complete destruction
in this connection. For example, geographic or historical
is given in order that the Israelites would not take over
terms are usually not "erroneous" unless the literary
pagan cult and culture. specifically the Canaanites'
or narrative context requires a high level of precision.
idolatrous practices. This precept is repeatedly formulated
Mor eover, the gospel narratives must be respected for.
in terms of absolute intolerance, forbidding any mercy or
their literary genre when transmitting popular accounts
sparing of survivors.
of historical events. Herod Antipas is called "king� in
Mark 6: 14-26 although his title was only ''ethnarch" When Yahweh your God has brought you into the
( ethnic ruler). In Mark's text the story of the Baptist's country which you are going to make your own. many
execution must not be expected to be more historically nations will fall before you: Hittites, Girgashites.
precise than most popular narratives circulating as oral Amorites.. Canaanites. Perizzites. Hivites and
tradition in Galilee among the disciples of John and Jebusites.. seven nations greater and stronger than
Jesus. Matthew 27:9 cites Jeremiah but attributes the yourselves. Yahweh your God will put them at your
quotation to Zechariah; however. in Matthew's text. mercy and you will conquer them. You must put
Zechariah 11:12-13 is fused with Jeremiah 18:1--4 and them under the curse of destruction (kherem). You
the text ·also evokes Jeremiah 32:6-9, so mentioning must not make any treaty with them o.r show them
only one prophetic name-the one who was probably any pity.
better known-must not raise eyebrows. How such fusion You must not intermarry with them; you must not
of texts fits into the context of Matthew's well-known give a daughter of yours to a son of theirs, or take
theme of the fulfillment of prophetic texts is another a daughter of theirs for a son of yours. for your son
question which may remain under dispute. But Matthew would be seduced from following me into serving
is not "in error" naming Jeremiah instead of Zechariah other gods; the wrath of Yahweh would blaze out
but is simply using a literary procedure. These kinds or against you and he would instantly destroy you.
"imputed biblical errors" do not constitute serious issues Instead, treat them like this: tear down their
with regard to ''inerrancy" or ''biblical truth" except for altars, smash their standing-stones, cut down their
the literalist or the scrupulous. sacred poles and bum their idols.
A much more important set of problems is constituted For you are a people consecrated to Yahweh
by texts which seemingly attribute to God immoral your God; of all the peoples on earth, you have been
actions or describe such actions laking place with implied chosen by Yahweh your God to be his own people.
divine approval. For exampk. many authors mention (Deut 7:1-6)
polygamy, presented in Genesis as an apparently "nom1ar•
arrangement in the lives of the patriarchs. A customary The Hebrew tcrrn kherem. often translated by the
solution is to refer to the idea of ..divine pedagogy" by Septuagint as a,wthcma (Lev 27:28; Num 21 :3; Deut

-
' I 982 The B,b/1! as S11cn?d Scripllln?: Revelation. Inspiration, Cano11
,

13: 18; Josh 6: 17-18; 7:22-23; Judg I; 17). means the

obligation to fully destroy all sacred objects of a given
foreign cult and the refusal to take any booty during
throughout history on both sides of vi
contlicts.
an .mev11a
.
Such practices and ment ality were
.
. blc part o t· thc h 1stor y Wllhm . .
olen1

\"I .
� 1Ic h
cu1 .
aPParcnunI0

G 0d
Y
I
a military operation in the course of a "holy war." To /\ approached the Israel. Th e intent wa s t o fo rm a
ereat extent. texts like the one quoted above deal with a of his own. practicing . . merc1'ful toI erance tow Peopl�
ard th
God had generally addressed humanity in var em, as
;rimitive concept of fighting for survival on behalf and . ious Slagel
.
of its fallen con d 111011.
under the protection of a national or tribal deity. This
concept is reflected also in the Bible for conveying a Human ..imperfection" must not be und
•
ersto0d
,
teaching about the Israel's privileged destiny and the idea in temporal terms. A second dimension surface Only
s When
that their monotheistic religion admits no compromise. we realize that God accommodates himself to hu
. rn an,1y\
However. the references to kherem in the Bible must not be finite nan1re by teach mg men and women partial tru
. . tl1Sand
translated into our present-day understanding as a system incomplete notions. Here we deal with human onto!
"imperfection. . ,, the altoge . . og1ca1
of divinely sanctioned genocide. Recent archaeological ther hmJted underslandin
_ g nf
finds confinned that this biblical command was hardly a spiritual and divine truth.
practice followed during the occupations of the Promised
Land. bur a retrospective idea. introduced into the texts C. Faithful, Firm, and Inerrant Truth in
by the editors of the Pentateuch during the exile. They the Bible
wanted to show how Israel bad lost its original heritage
It may be helpful to further examine what the thrt't'
by assimilation to a pagan lifestyle. Consequently, texts
expressions in no. 12 of Dei Verbum mean when applied 10
about kherem hardly reflect a divine instruction received
the truth in the Bible:fideliter (faithful/y),fir111iter (fim,�r).
as revelarioo by God to Moses. These texts about kherem
express a principle of cultic and religious separation rather and sine errore (without error). While Lbe idea that tht'
than a command 10 practice merciless religious warfare. Bible speaks about a multiplicity of "truths" is hard 10
In Deuteronomy. Joshua. Judges. and I Samuel (15:2 J ), avoid in the context of inerrancy, that kind of an approach 15
usually misleading. More correct wouJd be the affi nnauon
kherem appears in 1enns of a reproach condemning greed
that God's living word communicates the truth. i.e., the
and selfishness as well as the Israelites' inclination to
living Christ, like a river overflowing with abundant water.
dispossess and exploit the nations they conquered while
taking over their culture and wealth: cities, temples, transmitting its abundance to all who hear and rece11t'
customs. agricultural practices. and religious beliefs.
it with faith. A distributive meaning of "the truth" as a
The biblical tex1s 1ha1 involve the command of kherem multiplicity of truthful sentences would project the idea
rerrojecr an ideological position of religious isolationism, of God speaking in broken human sentences as if he were
in line with the ··deureronomistic'' revision of the historical no greater than his messengers. Here we again recall the
bo0ks for the sake of explaining how the Israelites sinned patristic tradition on Psalm 62: 12 (Vulgate 61: 12). already
quoted, once in its compact formulation by Saint Bernard:
against their monotheistic ancestral faith by dispossessing
the Gentiles our of greed while being unfaithful to the
Semel loculus est Deus. Semel utique q11i1.1
Mosaic law. Instead. they married the wives and daughters
semper. Una enim et non interpolala sed co11ti11110 et
of their previous enemies. kept their captives as slaves,
perpetua loculio est. (J. Leclercq and H. M. Rocha1s
learned to use magic incantations, began worshipping
(eds.), Sancli Bernardi Opera Omnia, VI- I [Romt':
astral deities and other polytheistic cults, perfonned
Editiones Cistercienses, 1970], 99.)
various forms of ft'r1ility rituals. including the sacrifices
[In English: "God spoke only once," once because
of children. The latter was considered to be an abominable
always; for he is one single, uninterrupted and
practice throughout the Bible, although detectable in the
eternal speech." Bernard borrows this id�a from
religions of most agricultural societies including those
Saint Augustine.]
of the ancient Middle East (See Thomas A. Heath. . but one · ,speec I1-<ac1"·· tht'
. 0n God ,s s1'de there 1s
Jeremy Evans, and Paul Copan (eds.). Holy War in tire �)·
Eternal Word. God accompanies hu mankind's joum
Bible: Christian Morality and an Old Testament Problem
·u .
. . w1 1 creation and continued by • co nd �,sc L
begmrnng . ·nd 1�
11
(Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013.J) y
and accommodating" throughout human his1ur .
Divine condescension means God's willingness to Post',,
As the theology of Revelation of Dei Vt!rh11111 pro
approach his people in spite of their moral and cultural . . . i:i)'bt'M
inspiration transmits God's word so that humans 11
deficiencies. The command of klrerem appears to be •111on11
and comprehend it. God's speech-act tak es a wn•r11:
a regrettable facet of the "sacred warfare" practiced . . . , iblc ,n
in tl1e Scripture to constitute a text that 1s accLss
 ne Condesce11Sion 1983
VII. Inspiration and the Tnith ofthe Bible in the Context ofDivi

ons. A well-educated
a sta ble manner. This\ is one of the meanings of fjnniter 10 our limited capabilities and noti
is always finite ru:1d.
(firmly). But Jirmiter together with fide/iter (faithfully) person realizes that our knowledge
ignorance remains
ultimately re ers to an eternal. never changing truth, no matter bow far we progress. our
f

authors, then the

expressed in Hebrews 13:8, ..Jesus Chris( is" the same infinite. lf the human authors are true
ely Christ. without
yesterday, today, and forever." The truth of Scripture biblical text transmits the truth. nam
literary products of
consists in the way it signifies Christ, but not just in a error. but not through perfect human
s in knowledge
narrow, narrative sense by preserving human memories omn iscient minds. Even if someone grow
. at no point in
about the "historical Jesus." The gospel narratives do and understanding of his world and his past
.KnowJedge that
more than just "faithfully and truthfully" (according time does his cognition reach perfection.
is perfectible is necessarily imperfect.
to contemporary usage, "objectively") tell what Jesus
older
act ually did and taught. The gospel texts do not come from Some of the oldest, patristic sources, much
nsion"
unengaged and unbiased reporters but from disciples, than John Chrysostom. spoke of God's "condesce
ple is the follow ing
who, though experiencing doubts, failures, enlightening as a divine pedagogy. A good exam
quotation from the late second century by lrenae us.
events, and crashing defeat, were ultimately confirmed
in their faith by the Holy Spirit. In these writings, which
Thus it was, too, that God formed man at the first.
came about in the closest vicinity to the lncamat� Word.
because of His munificence; but chose the patriarchs
the truth of the Scriptures cannot be reduced to unbiased
for the sake of their salvation; and prepared a people
and detached witnessing by people who, like the Roman
beforehand. teaching the headstrong to follow God;
historian Tacitus, pretended to have narrated with no
and raised up prophets upon earth. accustoming
emotion or bias all that they had witnessed. The truth
man to bear His Spirit [within him], and to hold
of the gospels is the truth of the apostolic faith. The
communion with God: He Himself. indeed, having
evangelists were certai.nly believers and in that sense
need of nothing, b�t granting communion with
"biased" because they loved and suffered for Jesus.
Himself to those who stood in need of it. and
whose 'story they narrated or wrote. They worked against
sketching out, like an architect, the plan of salvation
considerable odds to reproduce in an understandable
to ,those that pleased Him. And He did H1msel°r
and, in some sense, comprehensive way what the church
fu,mish guidance to those who beheld Him not in
had to hear about Jesus, not merely satisfying humanly
Egypt, while to those who became unruly in the
needs but obeying divine commands from the risen
desert He promulgated a law very suitable [to their
Christ. Paul saw the truth of his message as based on hls
condition]. Then, on the people who entered into
encounter with Christ. which he called revelation: ''I did
the good land He bestowed a noble inheritance;
not receive it from a human being, nor was I taught it,
and He killed the fatted calf for those conve.rted to
but it came' through a revelation of Jesus Christ" (Gal
, , the Father. and presented them with the finest robe.
I: 12). The apostolic church read and held as her own
(Cf.1he Parable of the P;odigaLSon: Lk 15:22-23).
the Hebrew Scriptures because it believed that they were
Thus. in a.variety of ways, He adjusted the human
inspired by the same Spirit, who spoke from Christ. The
race to an agreement with salvation. On this account
truth ofilie Scriptures is not the truth ofwell-info'nned
also does John declare in the Apocalypse, ··And His
historians or moralists of good judgment or religious
voice as the sound of many watel'lt_., For the Spirit [of
writers of authentic genius but the truth of the revelation
God] is truly [like) many waters, since the Father is
they transmit. The writers of the Scripture were, in an
both rich and greqt. And the Word.,passing through
extended sense. ''prophets and apostles," participating in
all those [men], did liberally confer benefits upon His
the prophetic and apostolic charisms of being enlightened
subjects, by drawing up in writing a law adapted and
and guided by the same Spirit.
apflicable to every class [among' them]. (Adversu;
The human process by which revelation becomes
haereses IV. 14. 2 [English translation o( Robens­
written word is accommodated to human nature, culture;
Donaldson, p. 204).)
and history. This is so. not because we need an ex�use for
all the evidences of human crudeness, cruelty, ignorance, This concept about God adapting his speech to our
lack of literary skills. and time-bow1d conceptual limitations must be combined with what Divino Ajjlante
understanding (or lac� of understanding) appearing Splrit11 says about God letting his word be shaped
in the Bible, but because God could not effectively _
according to literary genres so that it becomes accessible
communicate with us unless he addressed us according for his human audiences:

�
,,, 1984 The Bible as Sacrr:d Scripture: Rt!vclation. lmpiration. Canon

Nevenhcless no one. who has a correct idea of D. Authorial Intent and Truth
biblical inspiration. will be surprised to find. even Jn the majority or publications, biblical scholars
in the Sacred Writers. as in other ancient authors. hj P Irie,
to establish what the human author(s) or a le t
certain fixed ways of expounding and narrating. . . .x 1lad .1 n
mind when crenttng a particular text. As \Ve 5
cenain definite idioms. especially of a kind peculiar uggest
Divinv Aj]lante Spir itu had promoted this t • ' cd,
to the Semitic tongues, so-called approximations. . Cll(k'l) cy
. . . the primacy of the literal
by emphas1zmg
and certain hyperbolical modes of expression. nay. n1canin
a meaning intended by the human author. p g,
at times. even paradoxical. which even help to . . crhaps
"yesterday . ( ng I 11 a1ter
r: th e counc1
· 1) tI1e exegete .
impress the ideas more deeply on the mind. For of the Sl1 1 I fcl 1
equipped to establish the intent of the human
modes of expression which. among ancient peoples, aurhor.
However, many exegctes today take a more c
and especially those of the East, human language au11ous
approach. Consequently, a theology of in,p·
used to express its thought. none is excluded from . . . 1rat1on
can be convmcmg when 1t states that authori•I •
the Sacred Books. provided the way of speaking . " 1n1cn1
never exhausts the meanmg of the text. Revcl·ii
adopted in no wise contradicts the holiness and , ·ion 11
truth of God. as, with his customary wisdom. the God's pedagogical enterprise. God's condcscncion an�
accommodaton teach humanity to listen to hirn in Onn 1
Angelic Doctor already observed in these words:
to understa�d the meaning of his words, both past all
.. ,n Scripture divine things are presented to us in d
present. Scripture is a written document, crentcd s, 1 11.
the manner which is in common use amongst men.. ·' ldl

(Commentary to Hebrews. chapter I. 4). For as the men and women may recall their history and see buih
how humans' own sinful failures have marred the pa&t and
substantial Word of God became like to men in all
hof God provided hope for th� future. Even in the human
things, ··except sin:· (Heb 4: 15) so the words of
history of Jesus there is a pedag�gical process. Both h b
God. expressed in human language. are made like
call to repen. tance and his unspeakable condescension
to human speech in every respect. except error. In
this consists that "condescension·· of the God of to the abyss, of human suffering and death unfold 111
providence. which St. John Chrysostom extolled progression. The progression of sacred history ma�es
with the highest praise and repeatedly declared to later learning elevate and clarify earlier learning. Yet
be found in the Sacred Books. (Cf. In Gen. I, 4 [PG later insights do not qestroy the imponnnce and val i dity
53. col. 34-35]: II. 21 [ib. col. 121]: Ill. 8 [ib. col. of earlier utterances, because humanity's progress11�
135]: Hom. 15 in Joannem, ad. I. 18 [PG 59. col. Je�ming is reproduced anew in every age and in ewry
97 -98].) personal journey. Both individually and collcctiH:ly,
human beings are a work in progress. If Scripture is a
In other words. the truth which the Spirit deposited documentation of the human journey with God, then ii
into inspired writings for the sake of salvation does not shows the drama of redemption in terms of both success
bdong to a special kind of truth discernible in Scripture and failure. De Lubac's Exegese medievale rm1lls th�
b) the exegete who then separates it from other kinds patristic principle that in the course of salvation history.
of' truth� because of his diagnosis that it falls under the lhe Bible speaks at once of our collective and individual
prolt:ctive umbrella of inspiration and is, in this sense. story. Ancient authors say that what "once had bc�n
free of error: sine errore. Nor are we dealing with the truth accomplished for the sake of us all" continues to 1a��.
in such a way that it can be exegetically verified (through place repeatedly in our personal histories "ever) da� ..
ib litaary genre) to penain to the human author's (See Medieval Exegesis: vol. 2, 134-43.) This is the basis
intent and thereby automatically ascribed to the primary of an ongoing readjng of th.e Bible in the liturgy and in
Di\'ine author. The truth of the inspired text is what the one's own personal life.
community of salvation has learned, continues to learn.
and. under the guidance of the Spirit. recognizes as taught
E. The Transcendence of the Divine
from that Spirit who does nut cease forming God's holy
people. This is \\ hy Dei l'erbum, no. 13, is at pains to keep
Truth
the ekmcnts of "inspired authors" and "inspired texts,"
.
· condescendence can never go as far
D1vrne . as ton ti 11 ,that °
. q uc5tion
as \\ ell as "inspired church. (and in that sense "inspired God's word would either lie or deceive. But the
,c;bui�
readership"). linked together. remains: Can God's word be compati ble with a n
 VII. Inspiration and the Tnt1h of1he Bible in the Conlexl ofDivi111! Condescension 1985

l· nce or of lack of understanding?• Wh

o f gnora en becommg nd I.hem
available to our senses ( visibilia) and what is beyo ·
rna n God chose to be born an infant ,· e
a • • · •• speech.i'ess and (lnvisibilia) owe their origin to God.
a in
app r ently (and human terms truly) ignorant Otherwise There an, many similar examples which illustrate
Jesus could not have grown in knowledge and wisdom that God speaks to us on the level of our capabilities
. yet
(Luke 2:52). ht fact;hc grew in knowledge as he learned to suoh examples leave many questions unanswere
d. God
speak. memorized texts like the Psalms. realized rational successfully speaks to the human being and the
truth of
links between concepts. collected information. obtained his statements is reliable, though they do not elimi
nate
train ing in discursive thought, and was validly corrected all of our false notions. Through unexpected turns
in
when mispronouncing words, forgot names, or failed to salvation history God surprises us and much of what he
al
understand foreign words. says leaves behind unexplained loose ends. In the biblic
It is most apparent that in the Incarnate Son that, by narratives, we encounter features of popular storyt elling
his conliescension, God adjusted himself lo our level of more frequently than not. This fact indicate., that the
knowledge and participated in the ways human beings literary genres of most historical texts presume a simple
know and feel, even by experiencing various instances audience. Gaps and seemingly contradictory details can
and forms of human ignorance. This does• not reduce or be found time and again, indicating lack of precision in
deny in the least Jesus' full divinity in both nature and the way a narrator aimed to tell his story. In some sense.
person but rather manifests his katabascr or "descent" there arc notorious !'errors"' in terms of grammar and
into the realm of a human mode of knowledge. Classical composition. Ln·spite of all the efforts of textual criticism
theology always affirmed this when speaking of Jesus' we often cannot tell which errocs had been committed by
vulnerable aod mortal humanity. susceptible to. physical the author and which by a copyist. Similarl y, the seemingly
and psychological suffering. lncamation logically unusual grammaticaL structure in the Hebrew, Greek, and
implies the experience of ignorance with a corresponding Aramaic texts may not always come from error because
gradual growth of human knowledge and the experience the original texts might have been copied. read. stored,
of a discursive mode of thinking by forming concepts and transmitted through many centuries. during which the
and learning to proceed by logical steps. Lf this is what language in questiorr(in most cases Hebrew) went through
Incarnation and human development (from embryo to significant changes: Scribes not onl)I copied the ancient
maturity) means for Jesus, the prime exemplar of an texts but introduced efforts to .. update" many texts so that
inspired (Spirit-filled) revealer on behalf of the Father. they may appear less obsolete or obscure: There are in
then all other prophets, hagiographers,, and apostolic the Bible many cuJtural peculiarities: popular or contrived
witnesses must be seen as fulJy human and, thus persons etymologies• which modem linguists reject. but which
who are only panly knowledgeable while remaining usually carry some theological reference, or geographic
partly ignorant. names obscur.ed by lack_ of standardized spelling ( or
In cosmology we cannot conclusively prove the .. Big simply because the place has vanished and archaeologists
Bang Theory" and, therefore. it re�ains a scientific have not yet found them). Since ancient authors delighted
hypothesis. Its exact meaning may be unclear not only to in the use of gymboJism there is a long list of biblical
one who is not trained in physics but also to scientists witq passages which historians may reject but. in I.he eyes of
no philosophical training. In comparison with scientific theologians. these passages have important significance
theories, the statement "Al the beginning God created while also reflecting prescientific thinking about natural
heaven and earth" (Gen I: I) is more accessible; all people phenomena. There are also gaps in the stories, lack of
who know the commonplace meaning of "beginning" plausible motives for actions, mistaken identifications.
and the dictionary definition of the word ..God'' also and awkward cross-re°ferences. One could go on listing
realize that "heaven and earth" expresses a '·two-stage" other kinds of imperfections, for they are numerous. God
universe-that is, both the habitat of the human race condescends to writers of the various historical periods
with its surroundings and the rest of reality beyond our and adjusts his speech ro both worldly topics and religious
direct perception. Although there are an endless number or moral messages, yet God remains the speaker. By the
of questions we can ask about Genesis 1: I . it successfully way God speaks, his holiness and truth, though veiled in
conveys the simple truth that no existence. physical or some sense. become revealed without being compromised
spiritual, antedates God. In other words. both what is (Dei Verbum no. 13).
,,, 1986 The Bible ar Sacred Scripture: Revelation, hispiration, Canon

versus pointing out mistakes and misund I

The Pontifical Biblical Commission's document. The . . erstand·1
which entered the text•durmg its tra nsmission hgs
Inspiration and the Tnith of Sacred Scripture. fills its .
If it might be said that the truth of Script
entire third section (pp. I 23-56) with the interpretation . . Ure is lh
most important consequence of inspirati on e
ofparts of Scripture that challenge the Bible's inspiration , such
and truth. It first surveys ..contradictions, historical does not mean chiefly the correctnes s of pro . _lnith
. . . Pos111on
inaccuracies, implausible narratives" in historical truths contame d m 1so I ated passages nnd applied _a I
to fi
physical beings or events. Many sente nces can b hitc
texts (which mostly involve mira'culous events of both e Selectcd
. .
Testaments). then "social and ethical challenges•· in the and quoted outside of their context so th at their
. . tFllth ca
. .
be leg1t1matcly quest1one d . Suc h a reading n
manifestations of the divine will (in the way they seem of the b. .
. . iblJcaJ
10 condone or order polygamy, or tolerate prostitution, texts might lea d to absur d cone I us1ons, as the fo
llOWing
the oppression of minorities or women. etc.). The Church examples (many,ofthem "classical") show.
Fathers. especially those who were involved in apologetic In the Bible God is believed to be a physicqf b
debates with pagans facing controversres such as bishops ''The man and his wife heard the sound of Yah eing:
. wJ
. e, Cnci
overseeing their flock, repeatedly dealt with many of them walking m the garden m the cool of the day" (Gen
3.8
centuries ago. (See in Farkasfalvy. Denis. Inspiration God commands child sacrifice: "God said :./
• rake
and Interpretation. A Theological Introduction to Sacred your son, your only son, your beloved Isaac • an d
. go to
Scripture [Washington, DC: Catholic University of the land of Monah, where you are to offer him as,, b
111111
America Press. 2013]. 120--39. An update of Henri de offering on one of the mountains which I sha ll point o
ut
Lubac's teaching on patristic and medieval exegesis is to you'" (Gen 22:2).
found in Peter Casarella 's introduction to de Lubac's God creates evil: "l form the light and I creare the
Scripture in the adition [New York: Cross Road, 2000],
Tr darkn ess, I •make well-being, and / create disaster, I
.
xi-xxii.) Yahweh, do all these things" (Isa 45:7).
Psalm 1.2:6 ('The words of the LORD are pure, like God acts with hatred: "I shall bless those who bless
silver tried in a furnace of earth. purified seven times.") you, and shall curse those who curse you" (Gen 12:3)
.
apparently expresses a certain maximalist ideal of God commands genocide: "So, devour all the peoples
God's inspired words. yet the metallurgical metaphor is whom Yahweh your God puts at your mercy, show them
remarkable. The Hebrew text uses here the dual fonn of no pity'? (Deut 7: 16).
the word se,·en. in order to indicate an ongoing process The Biblical Commission's document of 2013 has a
of purifying silver as the New living Bible skillfully much larger selection of difficult passages but the list of
pu1s iL ·•fike silver refined in a furnace, purified seven possible examples is still limited. Such items need 10 be
times 01•er:· Traditional Jewish and Christian exegesis is resolved in the context of a "canonical interpretation:' It
based on a deep awareness that human words are never is to the question of canonicity that we now tum.
pure enough to express worthily the word of God; they
always sound tainted by our sinful humanity. We do not
understand authentically what God reveals unless our
Part Three: The Biblical Canon
faculties are cleansed by fire, as Isaiah learned at his call:
I. Inspiration Is Linked to the
Thea I said, ··11 ·s all over! I am doomed, for I am Canon in Luke-Acts
a sinful man. I have filthy lips. and I live among a
people with jilrlty lips. Yet I have seen I.he King, The Greek word canon (kanon) means ··norni" or
the LORD of Heaven's Armies." Then one of the "measure." Both the word and the concept are presen t in
seraphim flew to me with a burning coal he had Paul's letters, signifying a norm of conduct or a limii 10
taken from the altar with a pair of tongs. He touched behavior (2 Cor 10:13, 15, 16; in Gal 6:16, a doctrin3l
my lips wiLh it and said, "See, this coal has touched norm concerning circumcision). In biblical or t'Jrl)
your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins Christian usage "canon" did not signify a list of nonn:iuve
not
are forgiven." (Isa 6:5-7) books. However, in Christianity the concep t (althoug h
m ,he
the finalized list) of ''sacred books" was present fro
Proving absence of error from the inspired word means
beginning as a part of its Jewish heritage.
much more than inLerpreting the human author's original b I Je,lll
The first Gentile Christians who learned a ou.
intent according to the literary genre or the cultural context ism, )d
and believed in him did not have co con vert to Juda
......

/. Inspiration Is linked to the Canon in Luke-Acts 1987

des in
they knew about the inspired Scriptures of Judaism since preaching (The Acts of the Apostles). Luke provi
ration and
Jesus lived, taught, died, and rose to life "according to this way the oldest documentation of how inspi
show n
ihe scriptures" ( I Cor 15:3-4)( For non-Hebrew speakers canon are linked. The Holy Spirit is consistently
e .as
the Scriptures were accessible in the Greek translation of as present throughout a process we might characteriz
y to
the Sept uagi nt (LXX). This was a collection somewhat a process "from revelation to inspiration and finall
sized in a
wider than what the Jewish canon (finalized only after canon." The Spirit's active presence is empha
the First Jewish War c. 70 AD) contained. However. all sequence of theologically weighty Lucan passages:
books of the LXX had a Jewish background, even if a (I) Jesus· infancy stories take place under the influence
few of them were originally written in Greek. Jesus' of the Holy Spirit in order to fulfill the Scriptures (Luke
preaching and message laid emphasis on the "fulfillment 1:15, 17,35,41,47.67,80:2:25-27).
of the scriptures" (ct: Mark 12:10; 14:49; Matt 5:17; (2) Jesus' ministry is prompted by the Holy Spirit
Luke 24:44). He referred to the Scriptures as "the Law (Luke 3: 16, 22; 4:I, 14-21).
and the Prophets'' (Matt 7:12; 22:40; Luke 16:16). The (3) The apostolic group's universal mission is launched
term "Scriptures" are frequently mentioned in earliest by the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:5, 8, J6; 2:4-33).
Christian writings, but in the first two centuries did they (4) Wben comparing the'prologue of Luke's Gospel
not designate a precise set of books. (I: 1--4) with the opening sentences of Acts. we see Lhat
Thus in the early church, the proclamation of Jesus' the author considers bis first volume to be a written
death, burial, and resurrection implied the acceptance narration of Jesus' deeds and words (Acts I :1 ). continued
of a set of Jewish holy books and the apostoLic church by a similar documentation about "the apostles," whom
attributed to them revelation and inspiration as lasting Jesus c�ose to carry the same message in the power of
deposits of God's word. Nevertheless, in post-Maccabean the Holy Spirit from Jerusalem "to th� ends of the earth"
Judaism, there appeared the sense of a ·'cessation of (Acts I :8: 13:47; see Isa 48:20).
prophecy'' (cf. I Mace 9:27) and a consciousness that While Luke clearly sees a temporal shift between the
placed the "inspired scriptures" in a distant past. Jesus' two Testaments (the first written before he writes and the
words in Luke reflect something similar: "The law and second initially expressed by oral delivery), he is also
the prophets were in effect until John came; since then mindful of the sequence offulfillment from the Old to
the good news of the kingdom of God is proclaimed.. and the New. The Old Testament, now possessed in written
everyone tries to enter it by force" (Luke 16, 16). records {Greek: biblia), comes to fulfillment through
According to Luke, who also composed Acts, when Jesus' acts and words, channeled into oral preaching by
the disciples of Jesus began to announce their faith in the the apostles and finally deposited in writing. Luke's text
risen Christ as well as his words and deeds, a consequential presents this model in four movements, which structure
structure surfaced: his two-volume work with cross-references:
(I) the prophecy of Isaiah, transmitted in his book
He said to them. •'These are my words that I spoke (bib/ion). cf. Luke 4: 17-18;
to you while I wm still with you-that everything (2) this book is read aloud by Jes11S, who then declares
written about me in the Law of Moses. the Prophets, the words of Isaiah fulfilled, cf. Luke 4: 19:
and the Psalms must be fulfilled." Then he opened (3) his words and deeds are preached orally by the
their minds to understand the scriptures. (Luke apostles throughout the world, cf. Acts 1 :8;
24:44-45) (4) and transmitted in written form by eye witnc:sses
Indeed, the early church, when explqining its teaching, and ministers of the word, cf. Luke I :2; Acts l: 1-2.
argued from two sources: the Jewish Scriptures and the This structure of Luke-Acts is I.inked together by a
dominical tradition, that is, words and deeds of the Lord. theological theme. beginning with the Incarnation of the
transmitted th.rough Jesus' disciples according to th.eir Word in Mary's womb through the Spirit (Luke I :35) all
understanding which the Holy Spirit provided. In Luke's the way to the narrative of the descent of the Spirit upon
reconstruction of the church's beginnings, inspiration the reconstructed group of the Twelve apostles (Acts 2:4).
co nstitutes a living co11ti111111m of God's speech transmitted As a, result the same Spirit determines the beginnings of
through writings called ·'the Law and the Prophets," Jesus' hwnan existence, his ministry, and the ministry of the
coming to fulfillment through the Incarnate Son's words apostles. From Jesus' first preaching in the synagogue of
and deeds (Luke's first volume) and then enlightened Nazareth (Luke 4: 18) through to the descent of the same
by faith in Jesus' resurrection witnessed to by apostolic Spirit as the fulfillment of a "promise from above" (24:49;
 l lJ8S TIie B,blc as Sacred Scripture: Revclatinn, Inspiration, Canon

Second. Paul's apostolic ranking and

Acts I :8) endowing the disciples with the gift of speech (Acts his a 1
2:4). references to the Holy Spirit fill Luke's two volumes. presuppose that his brnnd of Christianity w � � 0rity
a
ensuring theological continuity and expressing one of the linked 10 the Palestinian Christian movement s ·'"11ialfy
W h 1ch p a
most significant theological contributions ofhis work. Luke had at first persecuted (cf. I Cor 15:9; Phil J:6) uI
b tl
joined and remained loyal to. Even if Poul U ater
provides a tool for understanding the literary genre of the . rep eat d
contested the practices of the first Christian c o c ly
gospels as a presentation of·words and deeds"' with which . .
w11h regard to the Mosaic law, he fully reco . it'1� rnrnun
Jesus began his ministry (Acts I: I) and incorporates it into g n,zed th
one comprehensive vision of Jesus' ministry. Even more authenticity of Cephas and those "who were e
3 P05 llcs
significant is that Luke ·s two volumes constitute a prophetic before" him (Gal I: 17). Paul refers lo Peter and th
e T WcJ
( I Cor 15:5) with whom he compares his "ap vc
anticipation of the New Testament canon. o stofate,,
(Gal 2:8), in its title and message (c f. I Cor 9·2·
. , R orn -5
l
I Cor 15:9). Marcion's contention that Paul wa
1
s CSU· s;'
II. Other Early Canonical only authent1c' d'1sc1p. Ie contrad"1cts these sources
. a " d was
· 1M
enllre . •s mvent1on.
y arc,on ·
Formulations of the New Third, the "apostolic" character of the CJ -
1ris11an
Testament message, expressed in both the title of Marc·
IOn S
Apostolikon and the role o( Peter and the Twelvc1·1
I I 1IC
A. Luke versus Marcion earliest gospel texts, is a presupposition which Ma
rcion
and his opponents (in particular, the church of Ro
In recent years claims have been made for Marcion 's mcJ
shared. As Harry Gamble has shown, Marcion's cen
priority over Luke. Even a "critical edition•· ofMarcion's tral
Bible was attempted with the suggestion that his Euagge/ion thesis was not a closed canon but an assertion of Paul's
and .4postolikon constitute the earliest Christian Bible. exclusive apostolicity. (See Harry Y. Gamble. Booh and
Reader in the Early Church: History of Ear�, Cl1risticm
The rediscovery of Marcion as the first inventor of a
Christian canon began with Adolf von Hamack's effort Texts [New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995/.)
to revive Marcion as a hero of early Christian history What linked the two parts ofMarcion's canon was a false
(.\farcion: Das El'angelium l'OIII fremde11 Goll. Eine assumption; he believed that his Euaggelion (an archaic
or strongly edited form of Luke's Gospel) was a gospel
Afo11ographie =ur Gcschichte 1111d Gnmdlegung der
coming from Paul, while the other gospels circulating
katholischen Kirche [Leipzig: J. C. Heinrichs, 1924). See
the critical remarks of David Balas, ·'Marcion Revisited" in the church (most importantly Matthew and Mar�)
in W. Eugene March (ed.). Texts and Testa111e111s [San supported Peter and the Twelve who had betraye d Jesus
Antonio: Trinity University Press. 1980]. 95-!08). Hans and his message_ This supposition contradicts e1cn
von Campenhausen was the first to attribute toMarcion the Marcion's own version of the Euaggelion.
creation of a "Christian Bible.·· (See Die Entstehung der The church's New Testament canon continues and
christlichen Bibel [Tilbingen: Mohr, 1968.]) These efforts completes Luke's vision as it bases the future ofChri�11Jn
,,·ere in paralld with the thesis that the four-gospel canon theology on the unity of the two Testaments by asser1ing
was produced in reaction to Marcion's pioneer position the prophetic character of the Old and the apostolicity of
of a "gospel canon.'' his £11aggelio11 portrayed as the fi rst the New Testament.
and only authentic narration of Jesus' life and teaching. At
the same time. accusations were heaped on Terrullian as
B. Pseudepigraphy Used for Closing
the biased falsifier of history. who mixed fact and fiction
by creating a distoned image of Marcion as an arch­
Collections of Apostolic Letters
of
heretic. But Marci on 's rehabilitation took place on false Most scholars consider both the Pastoral Lc11ers
be
premist:s. The following arguments must be mentioned. Paul (J and 2 Timothy and Titus) and 2 Peter Ill
d 10
First, the early Christian teaching about the unity of pseudepigraphic. This may be true, since there is no nee
h:t1e
the two Testaments. linking "Prophets and Apostles." think that an assumed or secondary authorship would
at: - 11
antedatesMarcion: it can be traced back to Paul's authentic been employed for the sake of deception. To the contr
Ill lh(
letters , which antedate the composition of the earliest seems that originally adding the three Pastoral Letters
t:ollJ
gospels. The letters of the apostle Paul are interspersed first collection of ten Pauline epistles and linking a 5e
kr.H111g
with references to the Scriptures ofold and to Jesus whose letter to I Peter has happened for the sake or ai.:ce
first disciples were models for Paul. the closure of tJ1e canon of the apostolic let ter s.
 II. 01her £ar�v Canonical FonnuloJlons of1he New Testament 1989

Tradition always considered 2 Timothy When we told you about the power and the coming
3: 16 and
p
2 eter. I :21 to b. e the most impor tant passages on of our Lord Jesus Christ, we were not slavishly
inspira ti on. reflecting the same perspective we saw in repeating: cleverly invented myths; no. we had seen
Luke 's Gospel and Acts. Another pass age, 2 peter 3..• ·
2 1s his majesty > with our own eyes. He was honored and
equally important for it refers lo the two Testaments as glorified by God the Father, when a voice came to
•·prophets and apostles" and places Christ between them: him from the transcendent Glory. •'This is my Son,
the Beloved; he enjoys my favor." We o urselves
Remember what was said in the
past by the holy heard this voice from heaven, when we were with
Prophets and the command of the Lord and Savior him on the holy mountain. So we have confirmation
given by your Apostles. of the· words of the prophets (2 Pet I: 16-19).

Al though this verse is attributed to Peter. the same The reference made here to the prophets of the Old
d cument als o speaks of a collection uj Pauline writings
o Testament as well as to the transfiguration anchors 2 Peter
and calls them Scriptures: not only with ··Prophets and Apostles'' but als o with the
Gospels (the words and deeds of the Lord). The episode
And consider the patience of our Lord as salvation.
of the Transfiguration is aptly chosen since it is reported
as our beloved brother Paul. according to the wisdom
by each Synoptic Gospel, so that in 2 Pet I: 18 by speaking
given to him, also wrote to you. speaking of these
of "us" (those who were with Jesus on the "mountain")
things as he does in all his letters. In them there are
is meant the Twelve as the original apostolic community
some things hard to understand that the ign orant and
(or at least-Peter with the sons of Zebedee), privileged to
unstable distort to their own destruction. just as they
witness a divine revelaiion c oming from the Father.
do the other scriptures (2 Pet J: 15-16).
L ook.ing ar the Pastorals. we detect a similar canonical
Usually dated to the first quaner of the second century, function that brings closure to the Pauline letters. This is
the passage connects canon with apostolicity, assuming th at best seen in 2 Timothy, a letter in which ( l} the apostle's
2 Peter's first readers thought about Paul's letters in the same approachlng death is foretold (2 Tun 4:6-8); (2) continued
way. In earlier Christian writings the word "Scriptures'' reliance on the "holy scriptures" (2 Tim 3: 15-17) and
meant the Old Testament, but here they are extended to perseverance is urged in received prophetic and apostolic
include a collection of Paul's letters. teachings ( I Tim I: 18); and (3) warning is issued against
Second Peter also purposely refers to I Peter making doctrinal aberrations, connected with a request to
the point that hereby the apostle Peter sends a letter to his persevere in the tradition received from Paul the "herald,
addressees for a second time (2 Pet 3: I). The identity of apostle and teacher" ( I Tim 2:7; I Tim I: 11).
these addressees is clear from I Pet I: I, which enumerates Thus, both 2 Peter and the Pastorals pseudepi graphy
five provinces in Asia Minor whose Christians Peter is guarantee that, due to the purported authors' imminent
allegedly addressing in both letters. Funhermore, right deaths. no additional letters should be expected.
at its beginning, the purported author of 2 Peter mentions
that he wrote this second letter after the proximity of his C. "Prophets and Apostles" as Proto­
approaching death had been revealed to him: Canon in the Early Second Century
I think it right, as long as I am in this "tent,'.' to stir From the early second century on, a tripanite division of
you up by a reminder, since L know that I will soon God's word is omnipresent in Christi•anity. The "apostolic
have t o put it aside, as indeed our Lord Jesus Christ fathers," dated to the first balf ofthe second century, defend
has sho)vn me. (2 Pet I: 13-14) and promote Christian teaching with frequent and regular
references t o the "Scriptures" as writings by "pro phets and
Finally, the alleged Petrine author refers to the apostles." Tbese Scriptures were read and inteq>reted in
Transfig uration, describing it as some sort of a "mystical close connection with teachings received from and about
experience" and thus, similar to 2 Corinthians (2 Cor Jesus through his disciples, at times globally referred
11: 16-12:5), enhancing the parallelism between Peter and t o as "the apostles.'' The apostles are rarely portrayed
Paul. This reference is equivalent to a demand t o read the individually; most frequent are the references to Peter or
writings o f the two apostles in continuity with each other Paul and occasionally to John. (Cf. Clement of Rome nos
and with the prophetic Scriptures: 5, 42, 45; Ignatius o f Antioch [Magn 9:2, 13: I , Phi lad 5:2,
8:3], P olycarp of Smyrna [Phil 6:3], Didache (II :3-4], the
 l11s,,11·t1ti1111. (. 'u11on
Tl� B,hle ,u .
"' 1c rt',I S.-r11 •run• · R,·,�·lotinn.
f 1/'1(1
P:ipi as was O youn ger contempora ry of Murciun
].) From . . . . «n d
9J. &·co nd Clement [ 14::2 • (>(iry gm ( As1a M 1n m ). a
111
Leu� ofBamnbas [ 5 : � must also n bishop nf I l icrapol l � . ch ,11 -1
suh-apostolic period we s1a11s (4: 1 3 ). O nly l ra g m cm� ui·
a "ery early phit,e of1he rn c1 ·
\ll um.'<i in (. 'olm, i,,,
r:ip('lis in Asia. although th _ . . ·
e
men1i 11n Papi as. b 1�hop ofHic wn 110"",,s surv · ived throu gh E useb1us. . Pa p 1 u s � n e w
Ik l 1, 11
fr:tg me nts is und er dis pute . o l whi. ch Matthc,, .
in1erprc1a1ion of his c:\t:mt uhc w onJ II� • ch un:h used sever al gospels
10 the :1po s1le , Ma . �
cl.'.rtnin ly mo k.es rcfcn:nces Mark h e e xplici tly knew. Pnp1as als� �lut e� 1ha1 11 h,il 'ic
rk as Peter's disc iple . He
Pet er and 10 the e, ang cli!>1 Ma transmitted abou t thl'SC gl}�pd trnd111011 s came hi 1 11 01
ann ine trad itio n as wd l
also auests ac4u:1intoncc with Joh from "nn ancient presbyter.'' meaning a chtn ch rn,,, 1 ,,,
:is w ith the Boo k of Rc\ 'clat ion. the prc\'ious generation. {Cf. Bo Re i c kc. T/i, · Rvnti 111 , ·,,
1cr sharpe ning or
Al tJ1c end of the second ccn111�. :i fortJ S\'1 /nptic Gospels [ Philodd phia: Fortresc;. I Cl81J \ . I )0 . l � .
Testame nts appc:irs i n
the ::iwarcne-ss of1hc unit y 11f 1hc two 6.) Pu pias :-tales thnt nccor<ling to hi s sou rcc, l\ l . 1 11hrn ,1 1 ,
n. w ho s,•,:s stri� I
10:,ts �uch a s 1hc quo tation from Tcrt ullia
udin g Mo�cs) and origi n n lly written i n Hebrew and thus hacl In he lran 1.,1 .,J
p:ir:il lefo:m bclWC\.'11 1hc prophets ( incl
defin ed the into Gri:ck. The ri:sulting variations in the tran ,1.1 1m1, ,
the npos 1lcs of Jesus. His compact Larin text
h for ccntu ri,·s: raised doubts about the re l iability of the Grcv k k\l ,1110_
1heological language C'lf thc western churc
al l egedly. promoted interest i n Mark's Gospel. l'ap 1:1, ,ih,,
r. 1111 ,.,,;,,, apo., 10/11, .1/u_nl'S 11110111 aposto/i states that due to its brevity, Mark's Go�pcl II a , c, p,i-�u
ptvplil'tu, •. a,•,111,111da ffti m1ctortf1Lf 11trii., q11C' <?1/icii to criticism . but Papias defends M ark's Gospl'I, t,cc ,111,� 1
ah 111w <'llil,·m d1111111to apostolorum ,·t pmplwrarum. reflects the oral preaching or the apostle Pcti:r. 11 110 1 11 � l .nl
[ For �o is �loses an np,1st lc :1s 1.hc apostle s are accompani�d as his herme11e11tc (translator or intl'.1 p1 �,�rl.
prophm: thl' provenien ce of both offices being from Papi;is' in formation cannot be dismi �sc<l ru, 1:i,
thl' 11ne anJ the sarnl' Lord Clf apostles :ind prophets.] invention. for i t comes from a more anc i-:n t S\1111 L�. a
Cv111r11 ,\ /c 1rt·w11em I V. :i➔, 8-9 (CCL I. 609) . "presbyter'' whom some identify with the apostle fohn
Eusebius makes the point of Papias· person.ii prcr�rcncc
The ll'rrn "11pn,1k·· U!oCd in this context is certainly not
for oral tradition over written sources. Papias' position i,
lhl' product or ")uslllriZ:.Uion" or thl' proJucl or a kgcnd:
an outcome of the increasing number of gospds. In ll,1,
ra1h,-r 11 1� :i conceptual \ c hicle. baseJ on historical notions
context, Marcion. trying to eliminate the heritage of 111c
,1111plificd by d1 fflTl'III au1.hors \\ hilc remaining a valid
ILlul and hi:lnnsmg 10 the oltb1 Christian vocabulary O ld Testamt:nt and compromise the authority of P�ter anti
,11' rl'\ i:IJt wn and its lrJ11!om1ssion. The strongest tc:xtu:il the Twelve. is c le;irly the • innovator. opposing II hJI 1-i�
c, llknct' for lhl' l'l,·.tr concept of"aposlCllicity" (with no use contemporaries {Clement of Rome, I gnatius of t\mioch.
l,r u,,· ll·rn1 "apo,tk") appl'ai, in ksus· scnll'nci: "whoever or Justin and his disciple Tatian) believed.
11 ck'\ 111,·s me. 11 dronw� thi: one who scot me," which is
1 , Justin Martyr was one of Marcion ·s most commiw:J
1 1:pi:at,:J nl':1rly r,.,-fiutim in thl' triple :.)'110ptic tradition opponents. Ht: might have even met Marcion 111 R,1111c
t � 1J11 I O:➔O: � l:irk 9:.- P: Lu�e 9:➔8). TI1esc passages arc personally. He certainly wrote a treatise against � l:irrnm.
,·qui, alen t lCl 1 h,· .luh:inninl' "d1:1111 uf sending'' of the which is unfortunate l y no longer extant. J 11�1 111 � 1,�11
J 1sc1rb by the Son. 11 ho in tum hacl bcl.'11 Sl'llt by the father the Synoptic Gospds and quotes each of them . Ju,1111
.:r
t fohn 20:2 1 ) and b) whom. 11 hl'n he is risen. the Spirit is provides the oldest Christian source of informat i1111 .,bou
\
I
�cm from thl' r.u.l1cr ( tf. folm 1 5:6: 1 6:7). Th,·sc facts lc:iJ to a parallel use of Old and N ew Testament Scriptu 1 l·� (h1nn�
the conc lu:.ion tlu1t rrom l!Jrlic� t timl'S "apostolic ty" is the the eucharistic celebrations i n the first hal f or the scn111J
i
nwm cmrnun of Clms tiID :iuthc nticity. It pred:itcs all
I
o ther century. In his Fint Apolog;· (67.3 ) he n:ports 1l1.1t al thl'"'
.
1i.,nn .ll critcri:i ,, h1ch may he considered as "fore celebration Christians habitually read from "the pro phl'h.
runners"
ur Jnhx'l:Je11 l� to a l'\l'\\' Ti:�1,t 1nl'nl cano n. and the so-cal led ''reminiscen ces" or "1111.:nHlir�" 1'1 th: I
apostle s . There is no doubt that this wus the R P1 11·' '
\
practic e he.fore Marci on 's arriva l i n the c i ty. .l u�'. i ll 1� 1
I l l . Th e Or igi n o f th e Fo u r-G os '•
pe l the earliest extant w i tness about a plural u ::-,· or till' 11 ,H .'
Ca no n "go � p e l " te1 1w1ggelia) {Dia logue with T,�'J•liu 1 0: 1
4
meanin g ,\e1·eral books . l le must have '-11,1wn � l .lt t' l'"

II
A. Pa pi as , Po lyc ar p, J us tin
l\1 arty r, an d M ark, and Luke even i f in a somew hat earl i er li• rm. SLi ni.:
the Dia tes saron aut!1ors bel icvl! that he used a ''Gos pel Ha mum ) . . ,,, ' 1'111•
Thl' f i 1 ,1 hJl r ul' the col h:ctio n of excerpts from the Syno tics b ut tL , i ,· 1 '
�econ tl n:ntury " itn l·sscd p
the no hard evidence to prove it. th ·11
.1ppe::ira11 l l' ut' a p l u ral i t
) of go� pd acco un ts All lhat can be :-,1 1 ,I 1 '
,/ion 11m ,· hl'ca ml' a criti whi d1 in a J uslin tends to fuse the quota th. 11
cal ,,� uc for the c h un.:h tions he c i tes. :i l\.'llllc n 1· �
. might simpl y reflec t a pract ic 1· '
e o r lhc 1:urly se c1 1 11 d l' ,'11 "
 Ill The OriJ(in of 1he 1-"011r-GMpel Canon 1991

mixing orul ond written sources. Possibly, the content cannot be dated earlier than the later purt of the second
of tbe "opostolic memory" wos ,till in flux and its new century.
trnnsposition into literary comp0sitions was not equally It should be noted that the apocryphal gospels differ
a�ccptcd everywhere. in their literary charncteristics from each of the four
Tatitm, a prominent disciple of Justin. was of Syriac canonical Gospels. Matthew. Mark, nnd Luke and
ori gin. He left Rome around 160 AD, afler his teacher's
! basically even John correspond to what Acts I: I says
martyrdom. Tatinn proposed a "solution" to tho problem about Luke's first volume: they transmit traditions ubout
of the multiplicity of the gospel11 by authoring a composite Jesus' "deeds and words," while the apocryphal gospels
folTII of the four Gospel1,1 which he called1 Diuteswron, generally lack narratives about Jesus' de�. The Gospel
meaning a single narration, combining four (nnmely of Thomas is nothing but a list or sayings of the Lord.
Matthew, Mark. Luke, and John) fnto one single account while most other apocryphal gospels lack a passion
of Jesus' words and deeds. This work obtained unusual narrative and hove no birth stories. Most importantly the
success in Tatian's native Syria where it remained in apocryphal gospels manifest Gnostic tendencies, denying
official use until the fifth century· when it was forced Jesus' true human birth and death. This ulso applies to the
out of ecclesial use under papal and impe.rinl pressure. Gospel of Peter, the only apocryphal gospel that could be
Its fragmentary survival took place due to the sennons dated to the first century AD.
of Ephrem who based his preaching on the Diatenaron.
(Cf. Ephrem's de Nisibis. Commentaire de l'Evangile
conc01tlant 011 Diatessaron, translated from. Syriac and
C. Polycarp •s Trip to Rome and the
Annenian with introduction ,(tr. and ed. by Louis Leloir] Origin of the Fourfold Gospel Canon
in So11rces chretienne..,, v6lume 121 [Paris: Cerf. 1966].) The "canonical crisis" in the second century that led lo
In short, the problem of tho plurality of the gospels a proliferation of apocryphal gospels was resolved at the
was known in the church nt large in, the fi�t decades of the end of the century by the adoption of a closed, four-gospel
second century. (Cf. Helmut Merkel, Die Pluralittit der canon. This much is evident and well known from the
Evcmge/ien als theologische.f und e.xegetische., Problem works of lrenaeus and Tertullian, but there is no scholarly
in der a/ten Kirche [The' Multiplicity of the Gospels as a consensus about exact dates, the details of lhe process, or
theological and exegetical problem in the ancient Church] the value of its outcome. We present here the reconstruction
[Frankfurt: Peter Lang, I 978].) While Papias and :Justin of the process that brought about the four-gospel canon as
Martyr combined the use of Matthew, Mark, nnd Luke,
it is presented in an explicit way in lrenaeus' Advcr.rn.1·
Tatian and Mnrcion triedJ to eliminate tho plurality of lwereses, dated to about 185 AD. The basic events can
the gospels nnd adhere to one single gospel but by us.ing be narrated with a high degree of probability and il is of
opposite methodologies. The title ofTatian's work clearly
capilll importance for understanding the fonnation of the
declares his belief thnt a fully authentic report on Jesus
New Testament canon.
is necessarily based on a plurality of sources. yet not just
A central event is the historic voyage undertaken by
some or many but exactly four sources. Only Marcion had
Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, lo meet Pope Anicetus of
the audacity of radically eliminating the plurality of the
Rome. It ended in a glorious and tragic way: shortly after
gospels and replaced them by one, that of'Luke.
his return home, Polycarp was executed. First we need to
assess the historical context of Polycarp's journey.
B. Gnostic and Apocryphal Gospels Around the time of 150-153 AD, five imporlllnt
Christian personalities sojourned in Rome: their stny there
The picture depicted above about "the plurality of the probably overlapped so that at least some of them could
gospels" is far from being complete. From the late second or even must have met. By the time of Polycarp's arrival
century on, a growing number of -gospds" began to to meet Anicetus, Marc ion, in all probability. still had tics
circulate among Christians, producing a growing number with the Christians of Rome and exercised a disaslrous
of so-called "apocryphal gospels." The importance of influence on them. Valentinus, a famous intellectual, had
these must not be overstated; none of these is proven to just moved to Rome from Alexandria, promoting the
be earlier than the Synoptics 111 the canon gospels, nor can spread of what was later called the Valentinian brand of
John's Gospel be regarded as belonging to them. ln spite Gnosticism. He had arrived shortly before Polycarp djd.
nf many claims to the contrary, the Gospel of Thumas accomp�nied by several disciples. In Rome he began a
 1992 Tht! 811,/e as Sacred Script11n': Revelauon, Jmpiratin11. Canon

minisLry of preaching and leaching and hoped lo become while being take n to his martyrdom in Rome
. . . .
w·
h
the bishop of Rome. but the election fell lo Anicetus facts still m living memory, L 11e 84-year-old· .H· thcs c
6 ISh
Smyrna stood out among his Christ ian conlern Op I
°
instead. The fitlh influential Chris1ian was Justin Martyr poranc,
•
I mg. aposto 1 tc
who. before his martyrdom (usually dated to 155-160 as a sign ol. an ab'd' presence and
a 1 in
under Marcus Aurelius). ran a philosophical school in witness of Christ's apos ties. Polycarp's mis,- • ·' 011 rl�
1 · g
. •_ ,Hied
Rome. Even a six1h person of importru1ce could have 10 gam Roman support lor the Quarto dec ima11 tr·,l d.lhun
.
been 1herc. namely lrenaeus. He was lrnown 10 Polycarp Both An1cetus and Polycarp declared that they coul
d 1n1
,
from his childhood in Asia Minor and, at the time of . own aposto 1.1c trad'.
abandon t I1e1r tltons . Anicet
u� 11 a\
Polycarp ·s arrival, was a young deacon of 1he church bound by the traditions of Peter and Paul. portrayccl
· . th�
,IS
of Lyons, a community of migraJ1ls 10 Gaul from Asia Roman church's "founders" and enshrined in lhc Syn
op11c
Minor. lrenaeus, accompanied by others from the East. Gospels and their apostolic letters, while P olycarp had
10
probably made a trip lo Rome. if for no other reason to see adhere to the traditions coming from John, the ··ni�ci
pl�
Polycarp, a leader ofenormous prestige among Chris1ians of the Lord resting on the Lord's breast" (John I 3:2JJ
.
across the empire. Either side's position was impossible lo assail or 10
Among 1hcse men 1he plurali1y of gospel accounts was abandon. The meeting between1 Polycarp and Ani cetui
a burning issue. Valentinus was open 10 a multitude of ended in a stand-off. but on amicable terms. Anicetus nnd
.
··gospels. : some suspect lhat he au1hored "the Gospel of Polycarp celebrated a shared Eucharist and thus the unit)
Truth .. (aboul which lrenaeus made indignanl comments), of the church was preserved.
bul certainly he had a keen interest in John ·s Gospel, Shortly after his return to Asia, Polycarp was burned
especially ils prologue. The first known commenlalOr of at the stake in Smyrna. (Cf. H. A. Musurillo. The Acts of
John's Gospel. Heracleon. was in Valenlinus· entourage. the Christian Martyrs [Oxford: Clarendon, 1972].) While
Polycarp ·s vis ii had a specific purpose: he came to settle the Quartodeciman dispule continued for half a century.
wi1h tl1c bishop of Rome some dispu1es about apparently around 185 AD lrenaeus' Adversus haereses' third volume
conflicting apos1olic traditions. In Asia Minor, Christians documents a pact of unity reached about the four apos1ol,c
adhered 10 the so-called Quartodcciman discipline of gospels of the church, with the clear and undispu1abl�
Lenten obser v
ance (that is, the celebration of the Lord's reception ofJohn's Gospel _and·added to those or Mauh�w.
Supper on the 14th day ofNisan), for which they claimed Mark, and Luke. This text· by lrenaeus .is the ol(bl
legnimacy with reference 10 the apostle John, who, "canonical statement" about the four Gospels. Its correc t
according 10 Asian tradition, had lived 10 an old age in interpretation is of capital significance; it also shows 1h01
Ephesus. Thi:: conflicting chronologies concerning the Last it originated from the historic encounter or Anicetus and
Supper in John and the Synoptics reflect indeed diverse Polycarp. The text says:
liturgical customs bet\\ cen the Q11ar1udeci111an tradition
and the Synoplic background of Roman Christianily, Thus Matthew, among the Jews in their own language.
reflecLing Petrine and Pauline origins. Al 1he time of published the scripture of the gospel while �
Polycarp 's trip, 1his diversity threalened Lo disrupl the and Paul. in Rome, evangeliz.ed and founded tile
uni1y of the church. Unfonunately, on bot11 sides, led by Church.Then after their departure, Mark, a discipk and
Polycarp and Anicetus. respeclivcly. the Quartodeciman inlerpreter of Peter, be too transmitted to us in writing
d1:.pllfe (linked to the date of Easter) involved non­ those things which had been proclaimed by ff!.IT.
negotiable principles, with the aposlolic authenticity of And then Lukas, the follower of Paul. 1he gvspd
the rcspecti, e church commw1ities being at slake. which was preached by him [Paul) he has incl uded
As Euscbius of Caesarea reports, Polycarp's personal in a book.
Atlerwards John. the �isciple of the Lord.
111111
presi::nce in Rome and his immense au1hori1y provided
d th�
much help toAnicetus. as his preaching brough1 back many has also on his chest, reclined he too publishe
"heretics" (Marcionites and Valcntinians) to the pope ·s gospel while staying in Ephesus of Asia.
fold. As lrenaeus' Letter to Florinus 1cs1ifies (see 1/isturia
.. . ·�"� founJ
eccle1ial'flcu IV, 14; cf. also AH Ill. 3.4). Polycarp was A textua I cnt1c has sunmse d th at t 11·1s pas�..::: •
· tJ J /rerJyj
seen as a living link with apostolic limes. Allegedly, from m the first chapter of the third book of 1c _. '
l�l1
his youth Polycarp personally knew the apostle John. In haereses, was not a composition of lrenaeus hut cop 1
. i;hUfC t
addi1ion. �,ill as a young bishop he was the recipient of from another document possibl y from I I 1�
,
one of lhe famous fellers from lgna1ius of Antioch wriuen . . d I e Fl1ur·
arch1ws m Rome. (T. C. Skeal, ·•Jrenaeus an l I
 /II. The Origin ofthe Four-Gospel Canon I 993

Gospel Canon" in: NoV11m Teslamentum 34 (1992), in the plural and with a definite article. as the Twelve
194-9.) IL probably documents the spectacular success of presented in Acts with Matthias replacing Judas (Acts
Polyc arp'sjoumeycto Rome. resulting in a joint statement 1:16-26).
about a fourfold apostolic gospel canon. This conclusion Now wesee clearly why the four sentences quoted above
is strongly supported by its literary discontinuity with the from AH m. 1.1 stand out because there lrenaeus goes
context in which it is found embedded. into .specifrcs, disrupting: this generic message about "Lhe
The, discontinuities appear with both Lhe text that apostles'' by using a plethora of proper names, while never
precedes it (preface of the Third Book) and with the using the word "apostle." Instead, Lhe eleven proper nouns
one that follows. The preface reveals lrenaeus' intention he employs include six personal names, three to designate
to 'go beyond Lhe scope of his first two books in order geographic regions and two in reference to languages. The
to demonstrate ''from the Scriptures'' Lhe falsehood six persons are Matthew, Peter. Mark. Pao I. Luke, and John;
of the heretical teachings which he there described. three geographic designations refer to local churches: 'lhe
Subsequently, lrenaeus begins to speak about "the Jews•'·(meaning Pal�tine). then Rome and Ephesus. and
apostolic gospels!' Here be first uses this term in a generic two languages are referred to by mentioning translations of
sense in referring to the apostolic preaching based on Hebrew (or Aramaic) to Greek. But an additional indicator
the apostles' "power over the gospel." The apostles did consists ofjust one word: the pronoun humin (nobis or for
not start their (oral) ministry without first, being granted us). This word is inserted into the sentence about Mark's
a supernatural understanding of the gospel message. Gospel. ft functions as· the '.'smoking gun" of the passage.
Lrenaeus clearly,initiates"here a "'theology ofinspiration" providing conclusive evidence. For lrenaeus says here that
by placing the apostles' collective preparation for their after Peter's -departure'' (i.e .• death), the preaching he did
ministry at Pentecost. Only after that did the process begin in Rome' was written down .. for us."1This word cannot
to enshrine their preaching into written compositions. come from Irenaeus, who never referred to the Roman
It is at this point that the continuity of lrenaeus • text is community as "us'' since be belonged to the church of
interrupted by the passage quoted above about Lhe four Lyons and not ofRome.
Gospels, After that quotation. he continues by · returning Nor was Mark ever said to have served Peter's ministry
to the theological topic about the Scriptures as revelation elsewhere than in Rome, either in its oral transmission or
of the Triune God. channeled into writing in the gospels by writing it down. (The tr3di!ion ab.out liis J9tivities in
by continuing the theology of revelation and inspiration, Alexandria is of later origin and less reliable and certainly
basing the apostolic preaching on empowerment by the cannot include,lrenaeus.) So the phrase "for us.'' firmly
Spirit. ,, embedded in the text, is an indicator of Lhe Roman
provenance ofthe four semcnces, a textual block wriuen
These have all declared to us that there is one God. in a laconic sty!e about the apostolic•origins of the four
Creator of heaven and earth. announced by the raw Gospels. This paragraph testifies in specific terms about
and the prophets: and' one Christ the Son of God. the apostolic origin of the four canonical Gospels and
If anyone do not agree to these truths, he despises must have been ready�made before lrenaeus composed
the companions of the lord; nay, more. he despises bis third book ofAdversus haereses in 185, Most probably
Christ Himself the lord; yea. he despises the Father it was ficst written sometime around the middle of the
also, and stands self-condemned, resisting and second century in Rome and was preserved verbatim
opposing his own salvation. as is the case with all until lrenaeus inserted it into his book-by-book apologetic
heretics. (AH HI. i) presentation about the four •·apostolic gospels.''
This reconstruction of the meeting between Polycarp
After this passage lrenaeus pursues his traditional and Anicetus ultimately also tells os bow the centerpiece
position that is both anti-Marcionite and nnti-Valentinian of the New Testament canon was born. It was not th.e
by defending the "gospels of the apostles" (AH Ill. 4.9).
result of an evolving development but was rather the fruit
(The latter expression closely follows Justin's tenn of a responsible decision by two church leaders. each
"Memoir of the Apostles.'') However. l.renaeus uses µie representing tl1e apostolic tradition of their communities.
term "apostles" here in a collective sense. The extant T�e � decision took. place in fidelity to their apostolic
Greek fragments of l.reoaeus · original text show that
ongms as well as to their commitment to fight both
lreoaeus speaks of "the gospels" and "the apostles" both
Marcion and Valentinus, of whom the fi rst was pressing
 199" The Bible ar SacN!d Sa1pt11re: Ren!lotion. Inspiration. Camm

letter of the s<Kalled "Council of t he A�u ..

for a single-gospel canon and the second was ready to es %·1
was to be circulated in all churches about the d -. , _ ch
embrace a vinually unlimited number of gospels with . . 1s10
concern mg the Gent1·1es • 1·recdom ,:.. II om Mosaic cc o
.
various origins and pedigrees. When the four apostolic I aw(A
15:23-29). And from a much carlier,time . the "E . ct,
Gospels were accepted by both the Church of Rome and the . . . . Plslle of
Jeremiah.. 1s mcluded m Ihe Septuagm . t These instn.i
locaJ churches of Asia Minor. the most important decision .. h . llleni.,
of an "aposto I.1c " or. by ana I ogy, prop ellc" presen
of the second century took place which determined the ccwerc
New Testament canon for 1he rest of the church ·s history. "apostolic'" lellers composed to extend Person al p
resence
and thereby show that such communications we re
lrenaeus · affumation of four Gospels has been ridiculed . . . . not an
innovation. But the comparatively nch ep1stol:i~ out
for quite some time for having been based on the fourfold ~J PUlof
gospel canon on an arbitrary reasoning about the four the apostle Paul, the early efforts to collect his epistles (cf
2
winds and the four zones of the sky ( Ill. 11 ). Whatever Pet 3: 15), and the length of some of his lette rs (Ro
mans
way we look at that text, the constitutive principle of the I Corinthians) began to be seen as mean s of extend 1ng
gospel canon is for lrenaeus their aposlolicity. lrenaeus' not just over space but over time the, pers onal prese
nee
text is vitally important because it mentions the names of of those chosen by Jesus and established in their offic
Matthew. Mark, Luke, and John, but also because it refers by the Holy Spirit. The apostolic 'letters made their v e
01cc
each canonical Gospel to persons of apostolic dignity and reach everywhere and throughout the church's history.
charisma: Matthew or Peter or Paul or John. The history of There is every reason to suppose that Pa ul himself
tJ1e canon legitimately asks about the historical accuracy kept copies of his letters and, that the local churches he
of these traditions. But ii is equally important to see that addressed also kept those letters and event ually shared
in the middle of the second century the canonical Gospels them with other communities, An •earlY' collection of ten
were derived from three persons (Matthew, Peter, and letters destined to seven local' churches (Roma ns, 1-2
John) who belonged to the Twelve and a founh on account Corinthians, 1-2 Thessalonians; Galatians, Philippians.
of his links with Paul. whose ideas and claim about bis Ephesians, Colossians) and a tenth sent to an individual.
apostolicity are documented in his authentic writings. Philemon, is today assumed, to be the earliest collection.
(Cf. John J. CJabeaux. A lost Edition ;of the Leuers of
Paul, A Reassessment of the Text ojjthe Rau line Corpus
IV. The Apostolic Letters A/tested by Marcion: The Catholic Biblical Quarter(,
Series 21 [Washington: The Catholic Biblical Association
In the first decades of the second century. a scattered of America, 1989].) , •;
mentioning of the apostles as decisive authorities in How the first Pauline collection of letters came about
matters of faith may appear still very generic. As is known remains unclear. Currently four types of explanations
from tlie New TestamenL an apostJe might speak in the are in use: ( L) ·•snowball thepries" claiming a process of
name of Christ or in his own name. PauJ might say. 1'1 accretion; (2) a first period of dis4se of the Pauline lc11�rs
received from the Lord what I also handed on to you•· ( I followed by a "renaissance•: o.( Paul; (3) the theory of an
Cor 11:23) or ··1 have no commandment from the Lord, individual collector or editor; or,(�) a :•Pauline School""
but I give my opinion as one who by the Lord"s mercy consisting of Paul's disciples �honna.intained hi s legacy.
is trustworthy.. ( I Cor 7:25). However. in the fonnula (Cf. Y. Gamble, The New 'festament Canon: Its Muking
··prophet.s and apostles" as used by the earliest patristic and Meaning [Eugene, .OR: Wipf and Stock, 2002J.) Tho:
sources. it is clear tJiat tJiere are basically two classes of curious survival ofthe Letter to Philemo" cons titutes a cas�
divinely chosen and inspired transmitters of reveJation; in different from the rest of the letters. This.letter is certain!)
this nomenclature, any writer (""hagiographer'") of the Old authentic and thus its preservation needs an explanation.
Testament belongs to "the prophets,'" while ·'the apostles" Four of the ten letters (Ephesians,' Colossians. PhilippiJns.
are eitJier witnesses of what they saw and h eard from the and Philemon), testifying that tlieir author was im pris on�d
earthly Jesus and functioned as his ··ambassadors" (2 Cor while writing them, perplexed many researc hers. Th�r� is
5:20). meaning authorized delegates or possibly close no consensus whether or not they came fro m 1h1: same
associates to such persons. imprisonment. Paul is known to have been in prison for
The transition from ..inspired'' preaching aod teaching to an extended time in Ephesus, Caesarea, and Rome. While
writing i� usually attributed to the apostle PauJ, who turned the three so-called "Pastoral Letters" (Titus, 1-2 Ti111oiby)
.
were not part of the first collectfon of the Pau I in e I c
to letter writing for multiplying his personal presence in 11.:rs
Lhe churches which he had founded. Luke refers to the they might have been written by some of his disi:ip ks
 V. The Nnv Testame/11 Conon as Doctrinal Norm in the Church I 1195

during Paul's last imprison ment in Rome. Bui the Pauline the other "three pillars"' of the church. James, Peter. and
origin and authenticity of the Pastoral Lellecs are often John as well as the book of "their Acts.'' Realizing the
doubted and such is also the case with Ephesians and. t� a ties between Luke's Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles
lesser degree, Colossians. (a second-century title) and with an awareness !hat the
Research about the coll�clion of the Pauline leuers was Book of Revelation opens with seven letlerS to ..seven
done in isolation from the fonnation of the canon. Galatians churches'' addressed by a prophetic ..seer named John:·
2:9, a verse from an unquestionably authentic Pauline a meaningful. although not purely historically motivated .
letter from around the year 50 AD, represents an additional pattern emerges. Even if the majority of critics disagree
puzzle. 11 is a curious snapshot of the "'leadership.. team about the authorship of the Book of Revelation by the
of the Jerusalem church, consisting of Peter. James. John , apostle John. the fact remains that this book bas been
and, Paul, whose writing forms the context and warns attnbuted to•the apostle John as early as the middle of the
against unwarranted speculations. Of these four apostolic second century by Justin Martyr (Dialogue with T.rypho
figures, two belong to Jesus· chosen Twelve and one is the 84.2). Later canonical uncertainties about the Book of
leading member of Jesus' post-resurrection family. Paul Revelation were not based on the earliest form of the New
counts himself virtually as part of this learn as he declares Testament canon but emerged in connection with disputes
that the church's "'piJ lars·· made a pact of fellowship with with the Milennarists and then lhe Montanist heresy. both
him. At least for a second-century reader of the Pauline movements that auempted to prove lhcir teaching from
lellers, Galatians 2:9 suggests that in apostolic limes the Book of Revelation, thereby motivating some Church
these men were functioning as four pillars supporting the Fathers to deny its inspired character and apostolic origin.
edifice of the chu�ch. II is hardly coincidental that these
four names to which Jude, the brother of James, should
be auached correspond lo the fourfold provenance of V. The New Testament Canon as
the apostolic letlers in the canon. (Cf. David Trobisch.
Die Endredaktion des Neuen Testaments [Freiburg,
Doctrinal Norm in the Church
Switzerland: Universi1a1sverlag, 1996 ]. 9 I ;-2.) A simil ar There are two important issues at stake: the first concerns
picture emerges from the Acts of the Apostles where. after the actual construction and closure of a list of twenty-seven
the martyrdom of James, Zebedee's younger son in 44 AD, books which constitute the New Testament; the second
(well before Galatians was written), the same four men concerns its recognition by the church as normative in
emerge as "pillars." Most of Acts refers 10 the activities of matters of Christian identity.
Peter and later Paul, attributing some importance to John The first issue was a process of reflection and
and. afier Peter ·s departure .. to another place,·· also James, maturation. At its origins we find the Twelve whose
the Lord's brother as the leader of the Jerusalem church historicity cannot be seriously challenged. The ways
(cf. Acts 12:17). Thus, even though in Acts Paul never "the Twelve" are dealt with in the Synoptics and John.
appears to be ··a writer,.. what Galatians tells about the and referenced by Paul and Acts, as well as through the
"pillars" is in agreement with the way the leaders of the exalted image of twelve foundation stones and gates to the
apostolic church are identified in Acts. Thus. the authors heavenly Jerusalem, identified as the "'twelve apostles of
of the New Testament's apostolic letters cannot be said the Lamb" in Revelation 21: 14. may remain debated for
10 have been selected at random as the al_X)cryphal le�ers
interpretation but are factual in the canon. The etymology
were, but are linked to a historical tradition, even if this
ofthe word apostolos ( or its Hebrew/ Aramaic background)
tradition appears to be blurred. I
is not fully resolved. neither are its varying meanings in the
Thus. neither the Gospels nor the apostolic leuers
Synoptics or Paul's insistence on his own "'apostolic rank."
of the New Testament canon came about by historical
Yet. apostolos is the most ancient "theological concept"
happenstance or by fictitious attributions 10 randomly
with decisive importance used in all controversies about
selected apostolic figures. Rather, they were selected
•·orthodoxy versus heresy" in the first two Christian
through a conscious process of canonizing two sets
centuries. Apostolicity is a key concept in lrenaeus and
of "apostolic books." Gospds and epistles. Both were
Origen. whose oiblical vocabulary dominated theological
assumed to be apostolic in their origin. Already Lrenaeus
discussions for the subsequent millennium. The time
called the church's canonical Gospels "apostolic" as well
between the composition of the first gospels (between 60
as the Pauline Leuers to which were added letters by
and 80 AD) and the reception of the "four-gospel canon"
 Canon
1996 The Bible• as Sucn·d Scripture: Rl.'\·clution. hispira11on.

(around 140---160 AD) is about one-hundred years. easily VI. The Place and Role of the Ol
d
included within the living memory of two generations. Testament in the Christian Canon
There is hardly any scholarly debate that before the end of
the second century. apostolic proven ance had become the Much can be said about similarities anti dissim•i
• • . I antic �
main criterion of orthodoxy for any doctrine or any book. in the cano111zat1on process between the two T1:�t
. . . . . a1n�n1s
From around the year 200 AD. there are extant fragments Then: were obvious structural s1m1lant1cs fr om anr1 .
4U1t�··
of papyrus codices which contain all and only the four the l.aw (the Pentateuch) was compa red to the G
"'Pel
canonical Gospds. Similarly. extant codices demonstrate (four Gospels). There are also parallel theot
. . • O!,!tc�I
al the same time the existence ofcodices with the Pauline schemes between rev elalton anti m sptration ·1
n ll·c
letters as scriptural collections. The separation of Luke's two Testaments . suggesting that the New Te,o 1�ulll�nt
second volume from the first (ifthey had ever been edited canon wa s imitatin g that of the Old. The�e thc .. lo�Ir
. . . 11
together), and becoming named the Acts of the Apostles differ ences greatly ltm1t the paralleltsms Jvc1 u11.,U\:f
, 1 111 •
and then copied into common codex with the letters of the o neness of the Revealer, the only metliator li ct,,· �c,1
Peter. John, James. and Jude. happened around the tum of God and humans in the two Testaments (Tit 2:5: lk
u
Lbe second a nd third centuries . 8:6; 9:15; 12:24). The ultimate Christia n concept of
The Book of Revelation is the only New Testament divin e r evelation results in the outline: "pruphcts­
\\'Tiling that presents itself ..prophetic" (22:6. 7, 8, I 8. I 9) Christ-apostles ,'' defin ing a theological dis(;nurse ah,,,11
and therefore insistently warns against any cha nge of its in spiration by introducin g two sets of "trans1nit1�rs"
wording (cf. Rev 21: 18-19). a sign that it is considered (prophets an d apostles) with Jesus in the center, 1,
by its author as a holy writing. Its Johannine authorship the risen Christ in his "trans -historical," exal ted, Jnd
may not be dependent on its apostolic origin in a strict glorious person.
sense. if the prophetic person calling himself John and The process ofcanoniiation remains still unexph,1,•d
declaring the inspired origin of his book is not the son and is easily misrepresented. The thesis that Christia 11111-
of Zebedee but a second-generation Christian '·prophet." took over the sacred book s of Judaism is a half-truth.
I low the Pastoral LetteIS, Hebrews. as well as 2 Peter Nascent Christianity could not have been born withvu1
and 3 John \\ ere included or excluded in various lists the concept of Jesus "fulfilling" the Scriptures and
of the canon is not fully known because of insufficient was, therefore, leading all who believed in him 10 .1
sources and other issues like pseudepigraphy .or the reassessment ofthe revelation and inspiration th:11 matl�
�hifting vocabularies about caoonicity and inspiration. the Hebrew Scriptures com e about. This new validati1.•n
YeL 10 these de\ clopments, apostolicir y was a general
of the Old Testament implied much more than jmt
and decisive criterion used by the church for settling the
taking over a set of books from Judaism as inspired hi
rc:maining issues of caoooicity. The attribution or the
the Holy Spirit. The first century of Christian hist or:, i,
Pastorals 10 Paul is explicit; Hebrews implicitly suggests
full of theological-not just ethnic or cultural-tlisputes
some sort of a Pauline origin by transmitting news about
expre ssing a deep yearning for 1111ily with JudJism.
Timothy. The attribution of 2 and 3 John to the apostl�
parallel to a profound awareness that the painful process
John may not be accurate but the naming of the author as
of separation between Israel and the church was an
..the Presbyter'' is a sign that he belonged to some circle
irreversible event. Under the banner of Paul's Jc\\is!i
of discipks with authority deriYed from the apostle John.
and Christian identity, the church kept adhering ll1 th,
The factual apostolic provenance of each book is
Pauline verse: "whatever wa s written previou�ly IIJ>
an important issue which is to be treated in critic�!
writ ten for our instruction" (Rom 15:4). whik JuJ.u,in
in1.roductions book-by-book. However, canonization was
claimed in much similarity an exclusive own.:r�h,p
ba�ed on a tradition which might have been formed even
of the same writings. The two posit ion s app..::.m:J
ifthe author was a disciple ofan apostle in the sense Luke
mutually exclusive for centuries, yet in light 1>1' J niN.:
i� called "an apostoli<.: man" by Tertullian and by other ur.:)
ecumenical ecclesiology, Vatican II made ne w O\ crt
Church Fathers. Since each biblical book is the result
to Judaism and began to see in our shared Scrip tur ,;
of an extended period of time in which it was written
a fruitful paradox rather than a contradi<.:tion. (:--e.:
then redacted and edited, the actual reconstruc tion of th� . / /t i
t he PBC 's 2002 document The Jell'ish Peu/1 ,o! 11 J1•
authorship and provenance of biblical books must be dealt
.
Scnptures . I I1e Chr1stian
. . I c 11 111111.:nts
. cn. uca
with individually. III Bible with
 VJ. The Place arrd Role ofthe Old Testamerrt in the Christian Canorr 1997

Formation of the Biblical Canon'' in: Craig A. Evans and

in Communio XXJJ( (2002), 735-7.) Paul's comments
tha l Israel's election is "a mystery " (Rom l I :24) canno t Emmanuel Tov (ed.) Exploring the Origins of the Bible
[Grand Rapids. Ml: Baker Academics 2008], 129-46.)
be reduced lo an "either/or" choice between the church's
election and the universality of God's· salvation plan. A definitive and decisive Hebrew canon was established
The inspired Scriptures are the gift of the Holy Spirit, in the course of the second century. at a time and in a way
who continues to move hearts and inspire minds lo parallel to the development of the New Testament canon.
believe the fullness of the Scripture's meaning. W hether this process peaked at the so-called "Council of
Paul is unambiguous about lw6 cl�im;. On' the one Jamnia" (Jabneh or Jabniah) is more and more doubted
hand, he received the gospel directly from God the by contemporary scholars. Yet. it is true that aft.er the
Father who revealed to him Christ as his Son (Gal I: two Jewish wars, Pharisaic Judaism became nonnative
16). On the other hand, he says that this same Christ had among the Jews in the second century� As it _s.ettled the
been foretold through Moses �d the prophets. Yet PauJ canon of the Scriptures, it excluded a set of hooks from
further explains that the full meaning of Jesus' sonship among those which are part of the LXX: Sfrach. Judith,
remains veiled unless one is illumined as Paul was by Esther� Tobit, 1-2 Maccabees, certain parts of Daniel
the Spirit of the risen Christ (cf. 2 Cor 3:13-18). While and Jeremiah. The argument that Judaism accepted by
such an illumination is a divine gift which fully depends principle all and only books of the LXX with an extant
on the "good pleasure., of the Father (cf. Gal 1: 15), it is Greek original text is not accurate, since, for example,
indispensable for lhe believer to be able to see that the S-irach was translated from Hebiew and several other
revelation of Christ is the center and the ultimate meaning texts were originally in Aramaic. However, beginning in
of the Scriptures. the third Christian century. the Jews and Christians had
The. adoption of"the Scriptures," therefore, happened well-defined Scriptures. Their canons overlapped but
as a constitutive act at the church's own birth, as the were not identical. Some Church Fathers took notice of
church. began propagating its original belief in Christ and these discrepancies between the Christian and Jewish
referencing its own beginnings to the Exodus and even canons. A distinction between_ a ·'longer" and ·'shorter"
to the Patriarchs. For lhe apostolic church. consisting of Old Testament canon was also introduced in Christianily:.
Jews and Gentiles, this happened when the first Christians The books contained only in the "longer canon" began to
endorsed 'the Septuagint, recognizing it as authentic be referred to as "deuterocanonical."
inspired Scriptures but in translation. Both facts are Two Church Fathers greatly influenced Ch.ristian
important: that the Greek translation of the LXX was views on lhe canon. Origen of Alexandria. who had
originally the Hebrew Scriptures and that they were immense authority in bibLicaL matters in both the East
also offered for use to the Gentiles in the Hellenist1c and the West, exercised a twofold influence. He freely
world to which Jesus sent his apostles after they were quoted, all the books of the Septuagint but, at times.
enlightened by the power of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. was inclined to grant only a second-rank status to, the
This constitutive , act implied rejecting literalism and deuterocanonical books. The Vulgate, which became the
abstaining from adherence to the letter of an "original'' official Bible of Latin Christianity, originated mostly with
(Hebrew) text. To the contrary, the church embraced the Saint Jerome. who had similar influence in the West but
"Jewish Scriptures" with a sense of freedom. 1t explored followed a di.Iferent path. Jerome forcefully promoted the
the full meaning of the text by paying attention to its priority o(the Hebrew, text as Hebraica verita.s ("Hebrew
understanding on the part of its Hellenist!C translators, truth"), a term that raised doubts about deuterocanonicaJ
who were also performing a pioneer• work by translating texts. Yet the Vulgate, relying on the authority of Jerome,
Hebrew concepts to Greek idioms while saving many eventually became the Christian canon of the West, and at
variant readings and revealing many interpretive the Council of Trent, the model for a universal canon for
approximations in their translation. The acceptance of the church, including all the deuterocanonica1 books.
the LXX is not equivalent to believing in the historicity The Church Fathers using the LXX or the Vulgate
of the miracle story of the seventy (or seventy-two) were aware that the Septuagint was not the original text
translators, narrated in the Leiter of Aristeas. This legend but only a translation. They knew that. except for the
was universally transmitted by Christians and Jews and deuterocanonical books, the authority of lhe biblical text
was practically accepted by whoever used the LXX. (Cf . derived from a Hebrew original. Regardless of particular
R. Glenn Wooden, ''The Role of th� 'Septuagint' in the exegetical disputes, the textual variants received attention
, 1998 The Bible as Sacred Scripture: Re1•elatio11. Inspiration. Canon

Catholics and Protestants haye continued but i

and were respected as witnesses to different exegetical . n niodcIll
traditions. No excommunications took place on the basis times greatly quieted down. A ne w ecume n
ism need
be born 1.. n 'order to reestablish . agreement a o" 1
of discrepancies between the Hebrew and the Greek b "t I1 le
Testament canon. , •, Old
(or Latin) texts. However. while Origen and Jerome
promoted the srudy of Hebrew. the majority of the Church
, I
Fathers (and their local churches) remained monolingual,
reading their Bible in translation and rarely able to study
the original Hebrew.
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