Computer network notes unit-1

What is computer network-

A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent
computers in order to share information (data) and resources.

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems

that are linked together. A network connection can be established
using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used
to connect computers and tools in any network.

Criteria of good network:

1. Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit
time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required
for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time
is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of the network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of medium & hardware
2. Reliability: In the addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from failure, and the
network’s robustness in catastrophe.
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data loss.

A performance of computer network should be best it should be reliable(non-

failure) and the network should be secured. That network is called a good
network.

Goal Of Networking:
 Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of
resource and load sharing.
 Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives,
and other peripherals.
 Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
 Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
 Social Networking
 Resource sharing-the main goal of the computer is resource
sharing.it is to create all the programs,data and hardware
accessible to anyone on the network.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER NETWORK-

Security
Security is one of the most essential characteristics of a computer network.
Most businesses nowadays rely on computers, which are accessed through
networking. As a result, if computer network technology is not robust and
secure, unauthorized access to the company's critical data might be possible.
However, nowadays, computer networking tools primarily provide the highest
level of security and prevent any unauthorized access.

Reliability
Computer networks are very reliable tools, and users can easily interconnect
their devices with their help. Computer networks have alternative sources of
supply to provide high reliability. Their networking experience remains
consistent even if users need to print, check messages, attend a meeting, or
access data from another computer.

Scalability
Scalability refers to the ability to scale up in response to changing needs
while maintaining high performance. The internet is the best example of
scalability; many new users connect via the internet and communicate with
other devices, but our network still works properly.

Flow of Data
Users can access and transmit data such as files, documents, and other types
of information with the help of computer networking. It is a crucial feature of a
computer network as it allows data to flow from one device to another.
High performance
The performance is evaluated using the time required by a command. If it
requires less time to transfer the data and the response is quick, it is a
significant advantage for the users to transfer data and use multiple
resources. The performance can be increased using multiple processors.

Fault tolerance
Fault tolerance is also a great feature offered by computer networks. Let’s
suppose two devices are connected with both wired and wireless mediums. If
the sender’s device sends the information, and the receiver’s device has a
blockage at its wireless medium. It will find the other best alternative medium
to send the information to the receiver’s device, which is a wired medium in
this case. Using this, they can continue to work even if the networking is down
or damaged. This is how fault tolerance works.
.

Compatible With Hardware and Software Components

Another great feature of computer networking is allowing multiple connected
devices to access the same software. It entails that the same software can be
used on various devices. It improves compatibility, allowing this work to be
completed. As a result, computer networks make it easier to use software and
make the best use of physical components.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK-

 Increased storage capacity: by the networking of computers we can store
more data and can use the data of the other connected computers.

 Higher information security: As a result of granting authorization to

computers, computer networks can provide a sense of security. Most of the
time, authorization is done using a user ID and password. Thus, it ensures that
someone can only log in if their information matches details in the database.

 Easy sharing of files: The data you store on other devices can be shared with
other users easily.

 Faster resources sharing: You can also save money by using networked
resources like printers, scanners, copiers, etc. or by sharing software among
multiple users.
  Enhanced data reliability: There is no question that the information contained
in the central server is more reliable. It is also possible to access similar kinds
of data by using another computer if the information on one PC happens to be
lost for any reason. Thus, there are no disruptions in the office environment,
leading to a smooth operation.

 Improved communication: Customers, suppliers and the staff can easily share
information and contact one another via email, chat or calls made over the
network.

 Better collaboration: Collaboration in the business world is made easier with

the use of computers and a computer network. All these tasks can be performed
comfortably, whether it’s connecting teams, arranging social gatherings, or
acquiring personal responses.

 Higher connectivity: It allows individuals to stay connected no matter where

they are. With the advent of video calling apps and Google documents, we can
see live examples of how we can connect with our friends and colleagues in
these testing times.

 Enhanced flexibility: Computer networks are flexible for several reasons.

They provide users with the opportunity to explore anything they need to know.

 Reliability: Computer networking ensures information backup for

uninterrupted functioning. So, you need not worry about device and equipment
crash anymore.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK-

 Network Setup Costs: Setting up the network requires hardware like routers, hubs and
switches and cabling that can cost significantly. The cost further varies based on the number of
systems to be added to the network.

 Issues with Independent Usage: Because everything is centralized, the network lacks
independence. As a result, individual users cannot use the computer as they wish.

 Malware Infection: Viruses or Malware can propagate easily between the connected
computers in a network. It is quite likely that malware will spread to the remaining computers if
one of the systems gets infected. However, this can be prevented by running regular malware
scans.

 Expert Assistance is Required: Networks must be monitored continuously to ensure their

performance and functionality. Therefore, if you want to maintain your computer network, you
need a team of experts.
 Security of Computer Networks is a Concern: From viruses to hackers, there are many
ways in which computer networks can be disrupted. DDoS attacks, viruses, data corruption, and
internet outages are just a few examples of disruptions you might see on a day to day basis.
Regardless of whether a network is running online or offline, it will not be 100% secure.

 Health Issues: Since computer networks provide access to a variety of content such as
entertainment, games, and movies, this leads to an addictive dependence on the services and
overuse. The excessive amount of screen time can cause fatigue, eye strain, and body pain as
well as make you feel lethargic.

 Poor Internet Accessibility: Despite the fact that most computers nowadays offer free access,
some countries still have connectivity issues. Connectivity challenges are particularly severe in
countries that are developing. It is impossible to guarantee a truly global network until these
challenges are overcome.

 Not robust enough: In case a systems’ central linking server or bridging device fails, or if its
principal server detaches, the whole network is affected. However, you can use a large system as
a document server to resolve this issue.

Types of Networks

Division based on the communication medium

 Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical
medium made up of cables. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic
cables are all options. A wired network employs wires to link
devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or
desktop PCs.
 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is
made up of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves.
Antennas or sensors will be present on all wireless devices. Cellular
phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite disc receivers, and
laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices. For
data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio
frequency waves rather than wires.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORK-

1. RESOURCE SHARING
2. INFORMATION SHARING
3. COMMUNICATION
4. BUSSINESS APPLICATION
5. HOME APPLICATIONS.
6. MOBILE APPLICATIONS
7. SOCIAL MEDIA
8. ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY

RESOURCE SHARING-resource sharing meansyou can share one

hardware and software among multiple users.
Hardware- printer ,disks ,fax machines etc
Software-android studio,vm virtul box

INFORMATION SHARING -by the use of computer network we can

share the information form one device to another device over network.it
provides search capabilities such as www.a single information can be
shared among the many users over the network/over the internet.

COMMUNICATION-by the network we can communicate with multiple

users. communication includes e-mail , calls , messages broadcast ,
electronic funds transfer system etc.

BUSSINESS APPLICATION- the result of business application is

resource sharing, we can say companies can share their resource,all
the data, plans and tools can be shared by the network.
Most companies are doing business electronically with other
companies and clients worldwide with help of computer network.

HOME APPLICATIONS-there are many common uses of the computer

network are as home applications.
For example-user to user communications,entertainment,managing
bank accounts, transferring money to some other banks paying bills.

MOBILE APPLICATIONS-this is the rapidly growing sector in computer

applications like notebook computers,PDA’s(personal disital assistants)
Here mobile devices are portable devices.
The computer network is widely used un new-age technology like
smartwatches,wearable devices,tablets,online transictions,purchasing
or selling products online etc.
SOCIAL MEDIA-
It helps users to share and receive data /information related to
political,ethical and social issues.

ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY-we can use computer network in

entertainment industries like video on demand, multi-person simulation
games,movie/TV programs etc.

Topology in computer network-

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.

POINT TO POINT TOPOLOGY(P2P)-

Point to point topology is the easiest of all network topologies,in this
method a direct link between two computers in this topology each and
every computer is connected to each other.

ADVANTAGES OF P2P TOPOLOGY-

1. This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since
there is a direct connection.

2. No need for a network operating system.

3. Does not need any expensive server.

DIS-ADVANTAGES OF P2P TOPOLOGY-

1. The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small area where
computers are in close proximity.

2. You can not backup files and folders centrally.

3. There is no security besides the permission.

Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will
receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to
other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.

Advantages of Bus topology:

 o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the
cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used
in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and
hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.
o Famour for LAN: Famous for LAN networks because they are
inexpensive and easy to install. And widely used in small simple or
temporary.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a

lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously,
then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication
issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
o HUB FAIL: if the common cable fails ,then the entire system will crash
down.
Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token
passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is
passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the

network without bringing the network down.
 o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore,
the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would
slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology
 o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star

topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager
has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations
are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star
topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools
are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added
to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
 o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then
all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each
other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star

topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to

provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long
distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a
tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it

becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.
Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers

are interconnected with each other through various redundant
connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology
 o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is
connected to all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices

such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult
to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then
the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.
Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is
termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with
each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist
a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in
Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according
to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such
a way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of
the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the

design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive
as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Types of area networks – LAN, MAN

and WAN
Following are the popular types of Computer Network:
 Types of Computer Networks
Some of the most popular computer network types are:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

Let’s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a
person. It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital
assistant. PAN can be used for establishing communication among
these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited

area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the
surrounding of a single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and
Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same

radio bands.
 Distance limits.

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral
devices which are connected in a limited area such as school,
laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network for
sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application.
The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a
printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be used as
one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of
less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never

controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other
WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like
token ring and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can

share local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of
hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of
purchasing the licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of
the server computer.
  You can easily transfer data and messages over networked
computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes
data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer

resources, but the initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is
quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user,
so it does not offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in
case LAN admin is not able to secure centralized data
repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as
there are issues related to software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network
that which is spread across a large geographical area. WAN network
system could be a connection of a LAN which connects with other
LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an
enterprise or an organization.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore,
all can access to the latest files.
  Any organization can form its global integrated network using
WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore

business offices situated at longer distances can easily
communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers,
gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers
built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled
technicians and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage
and the use of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the
involvement of multiple wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in
computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer
network across an entire city, college campus, or a small region. This
type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of
network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of
miles.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber

optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and
greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data
in both directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire
city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one

place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from
hackers

Broadcast networks: These have a single communication

channel which all the computers on the network share
In broadcast mode large number of receiver are linked to
a single transmitter.
A large number of receiver is involved.
Radio is example of such system.

Point-to-point networks: These networks have many

connections between the source and the destination
computers.
Only one receiver is involved here.
It is the communication over a link between a single
transmitter and a receiver.

OSI MODEL-
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization‘,
in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively
to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

Characteristics of OSI Model

Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:

 A layer should only be created where the definite levels of

abstraction are needed.
  The function of each layer should be selected as per the
internationally standardized protocols.
 The number of layers should be large so that separate functions
should not be put in the same layer. At the same time, it should
be small enough so that architecture doesn’t become very
complicated.
 In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform primitive functions. Every level should able to provide
services to the next higher layer
 Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other
lavers.

Why of OSI Model?

 Helps you to understand communication over a network
 Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into different
network layers.
 Helps you to understand new technologies as they are
developed.
 Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on
various network layers.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert
it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together.
The functions of the physical layer are as follows:
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or
mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which
the data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
5. * Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network adapters,

ethernet, repeaters, networking hubs, etc.
What are the protocols used in physical layer?
Examples of protocols that use physical layers include:
 Digital Subscriber Line.
 Integrated Services Digital Network.
 Infrared Data Association.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB.)
 Bluetooth.
 Controller Area Network.
 Ethernet

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card).
DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

The functions of the Data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on
internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

Protocol of network layer- IPv4,IPv6,IPX,APPLE TALK,ICMP,IPsec

and IGMP.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is
referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery
of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow &
Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default
or manually. For example, when a web application makes a request to
a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message
from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it.
The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the
message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the
correct process, the transport layer header includes a type of
address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.

PROTOCOLS OF TRANSPORT LAYER-

TCP(TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL),UDP(USER
DATAGRAM PROTOCOL),SCTP(STREAM CONTROL TRANSMISSION
PROTOCOL).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication, and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :

1. Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a
connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
which are considered synchronization points into the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

PROTOCOLS OF SESSION LAYER-

ADSP(apple talk data stream protocol)
ASP(apple talk session protocol)
H.245-call control protocol for multimedia communication
isNs-internet storage name service.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Protocols of presentation layer-http/html,SMTP,FTP.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
PROTOCOLS OF APPLICATION LAYER-
DNS-DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM.
SMTP-SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL
FTP-FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL
TFTP-TRIVAL FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the

Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used is
the TCP/IP model.
OSI model in a nutshell
 OSI model summarized (table form)

TCP/IP Model
the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department of
Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands
for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP
model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as
follows :

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

1. Network Access Layer –

This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and

Physical Layer of the OSI model. It looks out for hardware addressing
and the protocols present in this layer allows for the physical
transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is
a conflict about declaring it as a protocol of Internet Layer or Network
access layer. It is described as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated
by layer 2 protocols.

2. Internet Layer –

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data over
the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are :
1. IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at
the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using
currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses are
limited in number when compared to the number of users.
2. ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
3. ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and
Inverse ARP.

3. Host-to-Host Layer(transport layer) –

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is

responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of
data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of
data. The two main protocols present in this layer are :
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide
reliable and error-free communication between end systems. It
performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has
acknowledgment feature and controls the flow of the data through
flow control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot
of overhead due to such features. Increased overhead leads to
increased cost.
At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.

At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP) –

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify
the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been
damaged.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
4. Application Layer –

This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model:
Application, Presentation and Session Layer. It is responsible for node-
to-node communication and controls user-interface specifications.
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

Some of the protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP,
TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X
Window, LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some
information about these protocols. Protocols other than those present
in the linked article are :
1. HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It
is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications
between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-
Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out
forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
2. SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is more preferred is
because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets
up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
3. NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time
source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume
the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30
PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash
very badly if it’s out of sync.
 o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to
identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people
prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that
maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a
way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP AND UDP

Transmission control protocol User datagram

Basis (TCP) protocol (UDP)

Type of Service TCP is a connection-oriented UDP is the Datagram-

protocol. Connection-orientation oriented protocol. This
means that the communicating is because there is no
devices should establish a overhead for opening a
connection before transmitting data connection,
and should close the connection maintaining a
after transmitting the data. connection, and
terminating a
connection. UDP is
efficient for broadcast
and multicast types of
 Transmission control protocol User datagram
Basis (TCP) protocol (UDP)

network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees the The delivery of data to

delivery of data to the destination the destination cannot
Reliability router. be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error- UDP has only the basic

checking mechanisms. It is error checking
Error checking because it provides flow control mechanism using
mechanism and acknowledgment of data. checksums.

An acknowledgment segment is No acknowledgment

Acknowledgment present. segment.

There is no sequencing
Sequencing of data is a feature of of data in UDP. If the
Transmission Control Protocol order is required, it has
(TCP). this means that packets to be managed by the
Sequence arrive in order at the receiver. application layer.

UDP is faster, simpler,

TCP is comparatively slower than and more efficient than
Speed UDP. TCP.

Retransmission Retransmission of lost packets is There is no

possible in TCP, but not in UDP. retransmission of lost
packets in the User
Datagram Protocol
 Transmission control protocol User datagram
Basis (TCP) protocol (UDP)

(UDP).

TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable UDP has an 8 bytes

Header Length length header. fixed-length header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

It’s a connectionless
Handshaking Uses handshakes such as SYN, protocol i.e. No
Techniques ACK, SYN-ACK handshake

UDP supports
Broadcasting TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. Broadcasting.

UDP is used
by DNS, DHCP,
TCP is used by HTTP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP,
Protocols HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet. and VoIP.

The TCP connection is a byte UDP connection is

Stream Type stream. message stream.

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model:
TCP/IP OSI
TCP refers to Transmission OSI refers to Open Systems
Control Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP has 4 layers. OSI has 7 layers.

TCP/IP is more reliable OSI is less reliable

TCP/IP does not have very

strict boundaries. OSI has strict boundaries

TCP/IP follow a horizontal

approach. OSI follows a vertical approach.

TCP/IP uses both session and

presentation layer in the OSI uses different session and
application layer itself. presentation layers.

TCP/IP developed protocols

then model. OSI developed model then protocol.

Transport layer in TCP/IP does

not provide assurance delivery In OSI model, transport layer provides
of packets. assurance delivery of packets.

TCP/IP model network layer Connection less and connection

only provides connection less oriented both services are provided by
services. network layer in OSI model.

While in OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced better covered and is easy to replace
easily in TCP/IP model. with the change in technology.