WIND LOADING

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1. Introduction
Wind forces can have a significant impact on the stability and capacity of formwork and
falsework and where appropriate must be allowed for in the design.
The basic data for the calculation of wind forces applied to buildings in Europe is contained in
EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Wind actions.
Specific wind design data applicable to each member county is then provided in national
annexes.
EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 is concerned with the calculation of wind forces on buildings and is
not directly applicable to temporary works. The three main documents that give guidance on
how EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 should be applied to temporary works are: BS5975:2019,
Code of Practice for Temporary Work Procedures and the Permissible Stress Design of
Falsework, TG20:08 Guide to Good Practice for Scaffolding with Tube and Fittings and
Formwork a Guide to Good Practice.
The use of EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 is not straightforward as both the main document and
the National Annex have to be referred to. All three of the above guidance documents use a
simplified method that is acceptable for temporary works. In addition, Masterseries, the frame
design software used by RMD Kwikform, has a wind module that calculates wind forces to EN
1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 (Refer to TI sheet 13/05). In all but the most exceptional of cases the
designer will use the simplified method or Masterseries and will not have to refer to EN 1991-1-
4:2005+A1:2010.
This sheet gives guidance on how RMD Kwikform applies the above sources of information and
should be read in conjunction with them. The information given in BS5975:2019 is particularly
thorough and is a good source of reference. See section 17.5.1, Annex L and Annex M.
2. Background
Over recent years there have been three different standards for calculating wind forces in the
UK; CP3: Chapter V: Part 2:1972, BS 6399-2:1997 and EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 each
superseding the previous standard. They all use a similar method for calculating the wind force
albeit with increasing degrees of complexity.
The calculation of the wind force applied to a structure is given by the expression:
F  CsCd qp Cf  Aref 

Where:
F is the total wind force (N) Cf is the net force coefficient
CsCd Is product of size and dynamic factors Aref is the effective face area
qp is the peak velocity pressure (N/m²) η is the shielding factor


Note CsCd is normally taken as 1.0 see BS5975 17.5.1.11

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 1

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.
WIND LOADING
I N T R O D U C T I O N

3. Peak Velocity Pressure

The pressure applied by the wind is related to its speed. Wind speed and direction at any point
are never constant but are constantly changing. Turbulence is caused as the wind passes over
and around obstructions and gives rise to what people generally recognize as gusts. To
calculate the maximum force on a structure you first need to calculate the maximum gust speed.
This is done by taking a basic wind speed and multiplying it by a series of factors to get a
specific site wind speed. This is then converted into a pressure and then further factors applied
to give the peak (gust) pressure, termed peak velocity pressure in EN 1991-1-4:2005.
The basic wind speed in EN 1991-1-4:2005 is the maximum 10 minute mean wind velocity at
10m above flat open country that is expected in a 50 year period. BS 6399-2:1997 used an
hourly mean and CP3: Chapter V: Part 2:1972 a 3 second gust. The basic values are therefore
not interchangeable between the standards.
4. Direction Factor
The direction can be taken into account but for the majority of formwork and falsework
applications the worst case will be used. See BS5975 L.3.4. Wind direction is given by the
direction from where it comes. So you will feel the wind on your face from a north wind if you are
facing north. See BS5975 L.3.3
5. Seasonal Factor
The seasonal factor Cseason may be used for structures which are exposed for known fixed
durations of less than a year. However this can only be done if there is no possibility that the
period of use can be changed or extended. See BS5975 L.3.4
6. Probability Factor
Because formwork and falsework is erected for durations less than the standard return period
of 50 years that basic wind speed is based on, BS 5975 allows you to take the probability of the
maximum wind not occurring to be taken into account. The suggested method is to multiply the
value of peak velocity pressure by a probability reduction factor. It is also possible to apply the
Cprob factor directly to the calculation of qp. If this is done the reduction factor should not also be
used. See BS5975 17.5.1.3 & L.3.5
In BS 5975:2019 the probability reduction factor is given as 0.7 however this is at odds with
BS EN 1991-1-6:2005 and a value of 0.81 should be used instead. This recommendation has
been issued by the BSI committee responsible for BS 5975 and will be incorporated into the
next revision of BS5975.
Designers should assess the risks and consequences of failure of a structure and only apply the
reduction factor if appropriate. For example the factor could be applied for a wall form on an
isolated site but not for a form next to a railway line. It should not be used for Façade retentions
or Ascent Screens. Its use (or not) should be stated on the drawing.
The calculated values of cprob and return periods for different durations for structures exposed
during their construction are given in BS EN 1991-1-6:2005 and Table 1. (Below)

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 2

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.
WIND LOADING
I N T R O D U C T I O N

Values of probability factor, cprob for return periods adapted from Table 1
Duration Return period cprob Reduction Factor *
≤ 3 days 2 years 0.78 0.61
≤ 3 months (but > 3 days) 5 years 0.85 0.72
≤ 1 year (but > 3 months) 10 years 0.90 (recommended) 0.81
> 1 year 50 years 1.00 1.0

* Note table adjusted and column 4 added by RMDK for clarity

7. Orography (Topography) Factor

The ground topography can affect the site wind speed if the site is near the top of steeply
sloping ground. If the average slope is less than 1:20 or the site is less than halfway up the hill
then the affect can be ignored. The affect is easy to calculate for clearly defined features but
the majority of sites that are encountered occur on undulating terrain and it is difficult to assess
the average slope or the position relative to the summit. For the majority of sites topography
can be ignored but the designer should check the terrain to ensure that this is appropriate. See
BS5975 L.3.6
When the surrounding ground is not nominally flat then the procedure in BS5975 17.5.1.5
should be used. Masterseries can
be used but generally gives
conservative results.
To check the slope a 1:50,000 map
should be viewed, the contour lines
are at 10m intervals and the gridlines
are at 1000m interval so if there are
more than 5 evenly spaced contours
in a square and the site is near the
hill summit then topography should
be taken into account. An electronic
OS map can be viewed using
www.bing.com/maps and selecting
‘Ordinance Survey Map’.
Deciding on whether topography is
significant takes a degree of
judgment. BS5975 L.3.6 suggests
that the topography is considered up
to 8km from the site with the slope
taken as the local value.

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 3

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.
WIND LOADING
I N T R O D U C T I O N

8. Height
The height used for calculation of the peak velocity pressure should be taken as the height to
the top of the formwork/falsework above the surrounding ground level, and not as the height of
the individual item of formwork/falsework.
9. Varying Wind Profile
The wind speed at any location increases with height as the friction effect of the ground
diminishes. A large structure will tend to deflect the wind from higher up bringing it down and
increasing the wind speed at lower levels. Because of this effect the wind load on formwork
should be based on the wind speed at the top of the shutter.
In an un-sheeted falsework the wind will pass through the structure and will not be deflected
downwards so the wind speed will vary though the height of the falsework. The varying wind
profile can be taken into account in stability calculations on Falsework if required. See last
paragraph of BS5975 17.5.1.3
10. Force Coefficients
The force applied to a structure by a given peak velocity wind pressure depends on the shape of
the structure and how the wind is constrained to flow around it. Depending on the shape the
wind speed will increase and decrease in different regions giving areas of higher and lower
pressure and therefore force. These differences are taken into account using Force
Coefficients (Cf) and Pressure Coefficients (Cp). The Coefficients are interchangeable between
the temporary works documents. There have been limited changes to the factors between BS
6399-2 and EN 1991-1-4:2005 and they are consequently interchangeable between codes.
When considering building structures the internal and external pressure coefficients are
normally considered separately and then added together for a particular wall or element.
Structures where the two sides of an element or the internal and external space are not isolated
from each other use net pressure coefficients. All the coefficients in the temporary works
documents are given in terms of net coefficients.
The pressure coefficients for free standing walls are given in section 7.4.1 of EN 1991-1-4. The
pressure coefficients for wall formwork given in Formwork a Guide to Good Practice are based
on this information and average out the effect of the zones. For all standard wall formwork the
information in Formwork a Guide to Good Practice should be used.
When calculating the coefficients for free standing walls the dimensions are the full
length/height that creates a continuous barrier to the wind and not just the section of
wall/formwork being considered.

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 4

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.
WIND LOADING
I N T R O D U C T I O N

Table 7.9 from EN 1991-1-4

Recommended net pressure coefficients for free-standing walls and parapets

Solidity Zone A B C D

l/h ≤ 3 2.3 1.4 1.2 1.2

Without return
l/h = 5 2.9 1.8 1.4 1.2
corners
l/h ≥ 10 3.4 2.1 1.7 1.2

φ=1 With return corners of

2.1 1.8 1.4 1.2
length ≥ h *1
l/h < 3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2
With return
corners of l/h = 5 1.8 1.6 1.2 1.2
length ≥ h *2
l/h > 10 2.1 1.8 1.4 1.2
φ = 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
*1 Linear interpolation may be used for return corners lengths between 0 and h
*2 EN 1991-1-4 does not give varying values against l/h for walls with return corners. RMDK
consider that the same variation will apply to walls with and without corners and recommend the
values shown in italic.

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 5

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.
WIND LOADING
I N T R O D U C T I O N

11. Shelter
EN 1991-1-4 has two concepts of shelter which can be used in the design of temporary works,
both must be applied with caution.
The first considers general obstructions upwind of the structure. The obstructions push the
wind profile upwards so that slower moving air that was at ground level is raised. This is taken
into account using displacement height, see BS 5975 cl. 17.5.1.7. The effect reduces quickly
once the obstructions stop and in most cases it won’t be applied to the design of temporary
works.
The second considers specific obstructions upwind of the structure that block the path of the
wind. These are not considered in the design of permanent works due to the risk of them being
removed during the lifetime of the structure but can be used for temporary works. The shelter
factor graph given in EN 1991-1-4 is repeated as figure 11 of BS 5975. This can be used for all
temporary works and not just for edge formwork. The shelter factor can only be used if the
structure being considered is completely shielded by a fixed obstruction that is equal or taller
than it.

TI Sheet 13/04 Date: 24/06/2022 Issue: B Sheet 6

The information contained within these data sheets remain the property of RMD Kwikform and is not to be altered or reproduced without permission.
RMD Kwikform reserves the right to change any specification without giving prior notice.