Linear Measurement ‘After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to * understand the basic principles of design of linear measuring | instruments | + explain the use of ‘datum planes’ in dimensional | ‘measurement | appreciate the advantages offered by scaled instruments | in contrast to a simple steel rule, and discuss the various I applications and limitations of their variants | “elucidate the vemier family of instruments for linear measurement anc! read verier instruments | * describe how Abbe's law applies to micrometer measurement | * explain how the micrometer principle has developed into 2 | family of verse Istuments } * utilize the digital electronic instruments in linear measurement | ‘+ explain the use of slip gauges, and thelr manufacture and | calibration 44 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 2, the methods by which engineering standards of length are established wet discussed. Both direct and indirect linear measuring instruments conform (o these established rds of length and provide convenient means for making accurate and precise linear «We rier calliper and vernier micrometer are the most widely used linear asuring instruments in machine shops and tool rooms,)Measuring instruments are designed either for line measurements (et. steel rule or vernier calliper) or for end measurements in _order to measure the distanee between two surfaces ts nstrument (e.g., serew FCallipers-and dividers, which are also linear measurement devices, are basically dimension transfer instruments) They will not directly provide the measurement of length on a scale. Quality of measurement not only depends on thi for application f eertain Spe principles to be followed during measurements Hustrations are given throughout this chapter, especially on the latter issue, to highlight that eare shoutd be exercised for the propenuse of linac measuring instruments, SMost people's first contact with liiear measurement is with a steel rule oF a tape measte] Howeveraedays gineer hasa_choite of a wide range of instruments—from purely "SS a Sa lige). accuracy of these instruments, but also calls, @ scanned with OKEN Scannermechanically operated instruments to digital electronics instruments. One has to consider only the nature of application and cost of measurement to decide which instrument is the best for an application. This chapter covers a broad range of linear measurement instruments, from a simple steel rule to digital callipers and micrometers. However, many of these instruments, such as depth gauge and height gauge, need to be used with a datum to ensure accuracy of measurements. The foundation for all dimensional measurements is the ‘datum plane’, the most important ones being the surface plate and the V-block. Constructions of the surface plate and V-block are also explained with illustrations. 4.2 DESIGN OF LINEAR MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS. The modern industry demands manufacture of components and products to a high degree of dimensional accuracy and surface quality{Linear measurement instruments have to be designed to meet stringent demands of accuracy and precision. At the same time, the instruments should be simple to operate and low priced to make economic sense for the user.) Proper attachments need to be provided to make the instrument versatile to capture dimensions from a wide range of components, irrespective of the variations in cross-sections and shapes {The following points highlight important considerations that have to be addressed in the design of finear measurement instrument 1. The medSuring accuracy of line-graduated instruments depends on the original accuracy of fe line graduations. Excessive thickness or poor definition of graduated lines affects the ac- curacy of readings captured from the instrument. 2. Any instrument incorporating a scale is a suspect unless it provides compensation against can enhance the versatility of instruments, However, every attachment used along with an instrument, unless properly deployed, may contribute to accumulated error. Wear and tear of attachments can also contribute to errors. Use attachments when their pre: ence improves reliability more than their-added chance for errors decreasing it. 4.,Tnstruments such as callipers depend on the feel of the user for their precision. Good quality f the instrument promotes reliability. but it is ultimately the skill of the user that ensures accuracy. Therefore, itis needless to say that proper training should be imparted to the user ensure accurate measurements, s{re principle of alignment states that the line of measurement and the line of dimension be- ing measured should be coincident. This principle is fundamental to good design and ensures accuracy and reliability of measurements”) 6. Dial versions of instruments add convenience to reading. Electronic versions provide digital readouts that are even easier to read. However, neither of these guarantees accuracy and reli- ability of measurements unless basic principles are adhered to. 7. One important element of reliability of an instrument is its readability. For instance, the smallest division on a micrometer is several times lafger than that on a steel rule of say 0.1 mm resolution, which is difficult to read. However, the micrometer provides better least count, say up to 0.01 mm, compared to the same steel rule, Therefore, all other things being equal, a micrometer is more reliable than even a vernier scale. However, micrometers have a lesser range than verniers. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner8. If cost is not an issue, digital instruments may be preferred. The chief advantage of the elec- tronic method is the ease of signal processing. Readings may be directly expressed in the re- quired form without additional arithmetic. For example, they may be expressed in either metric or British units, and can also be stored on a memory device for further use and analysis, 9, Whenever a contact between the instrument and the surface of the job being measured is in- evitable, the contact force should be optimum to avoid distortion. The designer cannot leave the fate of the instrument on the skill of the . A proper device like a ratchet stop can limit the contact force applied on the job during measurements, thereby avoiding stress on the instrument as well as distortion of the job. CS AURFACE PLATE In Section 4.2, we understood that every linear measurement starts at a reference point and ends at a measured point. This is true when our basic interest is in measuring a single dimension, Tength in this case. However, the foundation for all dimensional measurements is the ‘datum plane’, the most important one being the surface plate, A. surface plate is a hard, solid, and horizontal flat plate, which is. used as the reference plané Tor precision inspection, marking Gut, amd precision tooling set-up (Fig. 4.1). Since a surface plate is used as the datum for all measurements on a job, it should be finished to a high degree of accuracy. It should also be robust to withstand repeated contacts with metallic workpieces and not be vulnerable to wear and tear. The history of surface plates can be traced to the early 19th century when Richard Robert invented the planer in 1817, which was presumably the first machine tool that used a flat surface. He showed a way of duplicating flat surfaces with a high degree of accuracy, and the world of. sliding motions and flat surfaces was born. However, the surface plates used by Roberts were of quite low accuracy compared to today’s standards. One should credit the contribution of Sir Joseph Whitworth, a leading name in metrology, who recognized the lack of understanding of the concept of flatness at that fi -d a methodology in the year 1840 for generating This method is being used even today to manufacture ugh better and modern methods of fabricating surface plates are becomi increasingly popular. In this method, three cast iron plates with ribbed cc (for rigidity) are rough machined along their edges and top surfaces. The plates are kept in the open for normalizing for about a year. Natural changes in temperature relieve the internal stresses. The are then finish-machined to a high degree of uracy and are marked #1, #2, and #3, and applied with a coating of Prussian blue. In a six-step process, the surfaces of two of the plates are placed in contact in a particular order and the blued portions are scraped. The pairing of the plates is varied in a pre~ planned sequence, which ensures that all three surfaces match to a high degree, thereby ensuring accurate flat surfaces, @ scanned with OKEN ScannerEss Surface Plates Glas ative material for surface plates, It was used during World War II when material and manufactu ity were in short supply. Glass can be ground suitably and has the benefit that it chips rather than raising a burr, which is a problem in cast iron surface plates. eC VeBLOCKS. ‘V-blocks are extensively used for inspection of jobs with a circular cross section. The major Purpose of a V-block is to hold cylindrical workpieces to enable measurement. The cylindrical surface rests firmly on the sides of the “V’, and the axis of the job will be parallel to both the base and the sides of the V-block. Generally, the angle of the V is 90°, though an angle of 120° is preferred in some cases.\[t is made of high-grade steel, hardened above. 60 Re, and ground to a high degree of precisfon. V-blocks are manufactured in Various sizes ranging from 50 to 200sam- The accuracy of flatness, squareness, and parallelism is within 0.005 mm for V-blocks ‘of up to 150mm length, and 0.01 mm for those of length between 150 and 200mm (Fig. 44). — ‘V-blocks are classified into two grades, grade A and grade B, according to IS; 2949-1964, based on accuracy. Grade A V-blocks have minimum departure from flatness (up to 5m for 150mm length) compared to grade B V-blocks. There are many variants of V-blocks, such as V-blocks with clamp, magnetic V-block, and cast ifn V-block. Figure 4.5 illustrates a V-block with a stirrup clamp. It is convenient for clamping the job onto the V-block, so that measurements can be made accurately. Another popular type of V-block is the magnetic V-block, shown in Fig. 4.6. The magnetic base sits on a flat surface, preferably on a surface plate. The base and two sides are energized for gripping onto a flat surface and a ‘vee’slot enables the device to grip the job firmly with a circular cross section. A push-button control turns the permanent magnetic field on and off, thereby enabling the attachment or detachment of the V-block to a flat surface. All three magnetic surfaces are carefully ground and, when switched on, all three magnetic surfaces are activated wultaneously. Magnetic V-blocks are used in tool rooms for drilling and grinding yound jobs. 4.5 GRADUATED SCALES We often use the words ‘rule’ and ‘scale’ to mean the simple devices that we have been since primary-school geom However, there is a clear difference in the actual mea of these two familiar words A ale is graduated in proportion to a unit of length. For example, Veblock Switch Fig. 44 vs Ee ea Fig. 45 lock th sirup damp Fig. 4.6 Magnetic V-block Fordsilling-a- Grly tural 22% @ scanned with OKEN Scanner7, represent feet and inches, while the the divisions in an architect's scale, illustrated in Fig. 4 fh. The divisions of a plumber’s scale would have divisions in terms of 1/32th or 164th of i bal a ee rule, on the other hand, are the unit of length, its divisions, and its multiples. yp! Hand ia. with which we are familiar have graduations (in centimetres, millimetres, or inc! decimal divisions throughout the length. foot T Millimetres Feet [reer Toobeetotat Steel rule Architect's scale Fig. 4.7 _lustration of the difference between a rule and a scale Steel rules are most popular in metrology applications since they are more accurate and durable compared to rules made from other materials such as wood or plastic. While rigid rules can be used for laying out lines on a job, flexible steel rules can also be used to measure surfaces with circular profiles, Steel rules are either stamped or cut from a rolll of spring steel. The graduations are photo-engraved and tempered with satin chrome finish for good readability. The ruler can be 150, 300, 500, or 1000mm long; 19 or 25mm wide; and 1. mm thick. The finer sub-divisions may be marked either throughout the length of the scale or in only a part of its length. The use of steel rule requires consideration of the relationship between the reference point and the measured point. Figure 4.8 illustrates the preferred way of choosing the reference point for making a meas .A graduated line m oe ae dae of the FI9¢48 Mustaton of reference and measured points rule, is selected as the reference point. This method improves the accuracy of measurement considerably, even though alittle efforts required to align carefully, the reference and measured points. Its recommended not to use the edge ofthe rule as the reference point, as the edge is subjected to wear and tear and worn-out comers may contribute to error in measurements, Sometimes an attachment such as a hook or a knee is used to facilitate measurement, as shown in Fig. 4.9. Reference point Measured point v Knee Reference point Hook Fig 4.9 Correct ways of using a rule with attachments 4454 Errors in Measurements Steel rules are often used on the manufacturing shop floors for making measurements. Even though the least count of rules is limited to I mm or at the most to 0.5mm, the user should @ scanned with OKEN Scanner‘The head movement of the depth micro- Inter-changeable to an inside meter is usually 25mm, measuring rods, similar micrometer discussed in the previous se provide the required measuring range for the instrument. Measuring rods of up to 250mm standard s length are used in 4.8.7 Floating Carriage Micrometer A floating carriage micrometer, sometimes referred to as an effective diameter measuring micrometer, is an instrument that is used for accurate measurement of ‘thread plug gauges’, Gauge dimensions such as outside diameter, pitch diameter, and root diameter are measured with the help of this instrument. All these dimensions have a vital role in thread plug gauges, since the accuracy Ratchet stop ‘Thimble ‘Thimble Le seale bE jk} Barrel Base seale Reference plane <— Measuring rod Measured fine Fig, 4.40 Depth micrometer and interchangeability of the component depend on the gauges used. To reduce the effect of slight errors in the ‘a comparator, Figure 4.41 illustrate: The carriage has a micrometer with a fixed spindle on one side and a movable spindle with the micrometer on the other side, The carriage moves on a finely ground *V" guide way or an antifriction guide way to facilitate movement in a direction parallel to the a of the plug gauge mounted between the centres. The micrometer has a non-rotary spindle with a least count of up to 0.001 or 0.002mm, The instrument is very useful for thread plug gauge manufacturers, in gauge calibration laboratories (established under NABL accreditation), and in standard rooms where in-house gauge calibration is carried out. 49 SLIP GAUGES. Hitherto we have seen instruments such as vernier c fate Measurement to a fairly hi s involve line standards, The aci which ca measurem: fac icrometer screws and measuring faces, this a floating carriage micrometer. s micrometer is basically used as Fig. 4.41 Floating carriage micrometer Hiper, depth gauge, and micrometer, h degree of accuracy and precision. All these racy of these instruments depends on the accuracy of the wor ‘ mice workmanship involved in their manufacture. Any minor misalignment or error rors in measurement. Repetitive use of a screw or joint results in rapid @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMeasured finish plane Which can lead to accumulation of errors in measurement bhp “hon time 1uge blocks, can counter some of these-limitations and provide a high slip gauges are a direct link between the measurer th The origin of gauge blocks can be (Faced to the 18th century Sweden, where “gat were known to have been used in machine shops. However, the modern-day slip sages or Bauige blocks owe their existence (o the pioneering work done by C.E. Johansson, a Swedis armoury inspector: Therefore, gauge blocks are also aor Lohan OT Bape He devised a set of ges manufactured to specific heights with a very high degree of accuracy and hurface finish. He also proposed the method of ‘wringing’ slip gauges to the required height to facilitate measurements. He also emphasized that the resulting slip gauges, to be of universal value, must be calibrated to the international standard, Johansson was granted a patent for his invention in the year 1901 and formed the Swedish company CE Johansson AB in the year 1917. He started manufacturing and marketing his gauge blocks to the industry, and found major success in distant America, One of his customers was Henry Ford with whom he signed 8 Cooperative agreement to establish a gauge making shop at his Cadillac automobile company. ‘The development of *GO" and *NO-GO" gauges also took place during this time. { (Eaure 4.42 illustrates the Functional features of a slip gauge. It is made_of hardened alloy Nice having-230 mm x 10mm eross section, Steel isthe preferred material since it is economical and has the same coefficient of thermal expansion as a majority of steel components used in production. Hardening is required to make the slip gauge resistant to wear) Hardening is followed by stabilizing at a sub-zero temperature to relieve stresses develOREd during heat freatment. This is followed by finishing the measuring faces to a high degree of accuracy, fatness, and surface finish.[The height of a slip gauge is engraved on one of the rectangular Faces, which also features a sYmbol to indicate the two measured planes. The length between the measuring surfaces, lanes and surface conditions of measuring faces are the most important requirements of slip gauge: Carbide gauge blocks aré ised for their superior wear resistance and longer life. They also have low coefficient of thermal expansion. However, they are quite expensive and used whes rapid wear of gauges is to be avoided. Several slip gauges are combined together temporarily to provide the end standard of a Specific length. A set of slip gauges should enable the user to stack them together to provide an accuracy of up to one-thousandth of a millimetre or better.)in order to achieve this, individual gauges must be available in dimensions needed to achieve any combination within the ava le number of gauges. The surfaces of neighbouring slip gauges should stick so close together there should not be any scope for even a layer of air to be trapped between them, which can add error to the final reading, For this to happen, there should be absolute symbalp) control over the form, flatness, parallelism, surface finish, om Fd dimensional stability of material, and homogeneity of ion WSR gauging surfaces. While building slip gauges to the Fig.442 Functional features of asip gauge required height, the surfaces of slip gauges are pressed rd ( i so called gree of accuracy as end standards. bn sticks? igh surface Orientation, @ scanned with OKEN Scannerower Angular Measurement ‘After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to * understand the basic requirements of angular measurement in the industry and the variety of instruments available at our disposal * elucidate the basic principle of a protractor and its extension as the universal bevel protractor, which is an indispensable part of a metrology laboratory ‘+ measure angles using the sine principle and explain the use of ‘sine bar, sine block, sine plate, and sine centre * use angle gauges to set them accurately to the required angle * appreciate the importance of ‘bubble instruments’ such as the conventional spirit level and clinometers in angular measurement * explain the principles of optical measurement. instruments, the most popular ones being the autocolimator and the angle | dekkor f 5.4 INTRODUCTION reat Length standards such as foot and metre are arbitrary inventions of man. This has necessitated the Use of wavelength of light as a reference standard of length because of the difficulty in accurately replicating the earlier standards (On the other hand, the standard for angle, which is fade but exists in nature. One may call it degree or ing abou one of ha relation to a circle, which is an envelope of a line Patkof an electron around ve Panet one defines a circle asthe circumference of a planet or Tle ces eee nucleus of an atom, its parts always bear a unique relationship. We need to measure aeles is an important requirement in workshops and tool mene, inBles of interchangeable parts, gears, jigs, fixtures, etc. Some angle i by a sealing suas of ee flank angle and included angle of a gear, 'g with respect to a reference surface, and taper angle of a jibSometi ia 5 times, the primar is may"Soun 1p, cbiective of angle measurement is not to measure angles rather strange, but this is the cage i 5 a Pams, Measurement of stainty the assessment of alignment of machine TSS. Parallelism, and flatness of machine parts requires highly @ scanned with OKEN Scanneri uch an instrument jg sensitive instruments like autocollimators. The angle reading from st ment is measure of the error of alignment. : : ea ‘There are a wide range of instruments, starting from simple scaled instruments to sophisticateg The basic types are simple improvisations of s that use laser interferometry technique : esta but with better Uiseriminaton (least count), for example, a pest Protractor These instruments are provided with a mechanical support or a simple mechanism to position them accurately against the given workpiece and lock the reading. A spirit level has universal applications, not only in mechanical engineering but also in civil engineering construction for aligning structural members such as beams and columns. Instruments employing the basic principle of a spirit level but with higher resolution, such as conventional or electronic clinometers, are popular in metrology applications. By far, the most precise instruments are collimators and angle dekkors, which belong to the family of instruments referred to as optical ‘ooling. This chapter deals with some of the popular angle measurement devices that are widely used in the industry. <_ SP PROTRACTOR AX imple protractor is a basic device used for measuring angles. At best, it can provide a leas Count of 1° for smaller protractors and %° for large ones. However, simple though it may be, the user should follow the basic principles ofits usage to measure angles accurately. For instance, the surface of the i with care to avoid parallax error. Similar to steel rule, a simple protractor has limited usage in engineering ‘metrology. However, 8 few additions and a simple mechanism, which can hold a main scale, a vernier © ale, and a rotatable blade, can make it very versatile, A universal bevel protractor is one such instrument that has a mechanism that enables easy measurement and retention of a reading. A vemice scale improves the least count substantially. Additional attachments enable the measurement ct acute and obtuse angles with ease and thereby justify its name as the universal bevel protractor. In can measure the angle enclosed by bevelled surfaces with ease and hence the name. In fact, if one traces the history of development of angle-measuring. devices, the bevel Protractor preceded the universal bevel protractor. The earliest bevel protractor had a simple mechanism that facilitated rotaion of measuring blades and locked them in place. Tt hal « scale graduated in degrees on which the measurements could be directly read, However, these instruments have largely been replaced by universal bevel protractors and the olde, types are not being used in metrology applications now. Therefore, we shall directly go to a discussion on the universal bevel protractor. 524 Universal Bevel Protractor ‘The universal bevel protractor with a 5' accuracy is commonly found in all tool rooms and metrology laboratories. Figure 5.1 illustrates the construction of a universal bevel protractor thas a base plate or stock whose surface has a high degree of flatness and surface finish, The stock is placed on the workpiece whose angle is to be measured, An adjustable blade attached @ scanned with OKEN Scannerto a circular dial is made to coincide the angular surface. It can be swivelled to the required angle and locked into position to facilitate accurate reading of the circular scale that is mounted on the dial. The main scale on the dial is Base plate graduated in degrees and rotates with the rotation of the adjustable blade. A stationary vernier scale mounted close to the dial, as shown in Fig. 5.1, enables Fig. 5.1 Universal bevel protractor measurements to a least count of 5' or less. An acute angle attachment is provided for the measurement of acute angles. ‘The main scale on the dial is divided into four quadrants, each measuring 90°. Each division on this scale reads 1°. The degrees are numbered from 0 to 90 on either side of the zeroth division. The ‘Vernier scale (in minutes) Fig. 5.3 Reading the vernier scale has 24 divisions, which Fig. 5.2 Divisions on the vernier scale vernier scale correspond to 46 divisions on the main scale. However, the divisions on the vvernier scale are numbered from 0 to 60 on either side of the zeroth division, as shown in Fig, Adjustable blade ‘Acute angle attachment Main scale (in degrees) Calculation of Least Count Value of one main scale di 24 vernier divisions correspond to 46 main scale divisions. From Fig. 5.2, it is clear that one vernier division equals 1/12th of 23°, Let us assume that the zeroth division on both the main and the vernier scales are lined up to coincide with each other. Now, as the dial rotates, a vernier division, starting from the fifth minute up to the 60th minute, progressively coincides with a main scale division until the zeroth division on the vernier scale moves over the main scale by 2°, ‘Therefore, the least count ions, which is 1/12° or 5° ion = 1° s the difference between one vernier division and two main scale di Reading Vernier Scales Consider the situa TO tea te situation shown in Fig 8.3. The zeroth division ofthe vernier scale is just past the Yon on the main scale, The seventh division, marked as the 35' division, on the left- hand side of the te Vernier scale coincides with a on the ale. fore, the readin; in this ease is 10°35" with a division on the main seale. There! ig Sometimes, confusion arises 1 This confusion may on the right side of Seale (dial scale). Tn n in which the vernier has to be read Crop up for the aforementioned example also. It is possible that a division Zero on the vernier scale may be coinciding with a division on the main order to eliminate this confusion, we follow a simple rule. Always read the rarding the direct @ scanned with OKEN Scannervernier from zero in the same direction that you read the dial scale. In the given example, the 10th division on the dial, which is close to the zeroth division on the vernier, isto the left of the zeroth division SaoctWord te a bevel protractor (a) Acute angle other words, the dial Fig. 5.4 Measurement of angles using bevel pr : scale is being read in attachment (b) Inside bevelled face angle measuremen / the leftward or anticlockwise direction. Therefore, the vernier should also be read towards the left of the vernier zero division. Figure 5.4 illustrates the use of a bevel protractor for measurement of angles. While Fig. 5.4(a) illustrates the use of acute angle attachment, Fig. 5.A(b) shows how the angle of an inside bevelled face can be measured. Angles and their Supplements Since a universal bevel protractor can measure both acute and obtuse angles, care should be exercised to clearly differentiate between the angle being indicated on the scale and its supplement, The dial gauge is graduated from 0° to 90° in four quadrants, as shown in Fig, 5.5. Figure 5.5(a) illustrates the orientation of the blade with respect to the base when the protractor is set to 90°. The zeroth division on the vernier coincides with the 90° division on the dial scale TW Quadrant “] T Quadrant Supplement _—| Blade O Supplement Aor Base 99° >f4-7 90" Supplement wigle, MI Quadrant ~ 1V Quadrant AM8le Supplement nek (a) (b) C) Fig. 5.5 Angles and ther supplements (a) Blade oriented with base (b) Blade turned clockwise (6) Blade turned counterclockwise Suppose the blade is tiined clockwise, as in Fig. 5.5(b), the angles read ditectly are those that are formed from the blade to the base counterclockwise, Thus. if the angles of « work Part are being measured in quadrant Lo IL, the angles can be read directly from the scale. On the other hand, ifthe angles of a work part are being measured in quadrant IT or IV, the actony stats fiven bY their supplements. tn other words, the value ofthe angle is obtained by subtracting the angle indicated by the scale from 180°. Both these angles, obvie wn obtuse angl : 7 are @ scanned with OKEN Scannerdirectly read through the eyepiece. In vernier protractor, the eyepiece is attached on top of the vernier scale itself, which together move as a'single unit over the stationary dial scale, ‘The eyepiece provides a magnified view of the reading for the convenience of the user. Most of the universal protractors in use are of this type. An acute angle attachment is provided to facilitate measurement of acute angles on work parts. A clamp is provided to lock i e o convenient position by the user. the reading, so that it can be read and recorded at a convenient position by 523 SINE BAR ‘ \ Ga sine bar is used to measure angles based on the siné principle. Its upper surface forms the hypotenuse of a triangle formed by a steel bar terminating in a cylinder near each end. When one of the cylinders, called a roller, is resting on a flat surface, the bar can be set at any desired angle by simply raising the second cylinder] The required angle is obtained when the difference in height between the two rollérs is equal to the sine of the angle multiplied by the distance between the centres of the rollers. Figure 5.7 illustrates the construction details of asine bar. 1 1 (Sine bars are made of corrosion-resistant steel, and are hardened, ground, and stabilized. “The size is specified by the distance between the centres of the cylinders, which is 100, 200, or 300mm, |The upper surface has a high degree of flatness of up to 0.001 mm for a 100mm length and tS Perfectly parallel to the axis joining the centres of the two cylindefs. The parallelism of upper surface with the datum line is of the ofder of 0.001 mm for a 100mm length. Relief hales are sometimes provided to reduce the weight of the sine bar. This by itself is not a complete measuring instrument, Accessories such as @ surface plate and slip gauges are needed to perform the measurement process. Figure 5.8 illustrates the application of a sine rule for angle measurement. ‘ io sine of angle @ formed between|the upper surface of a sine bar and the surface plate (Gaitim) is given by \ \) Sin(0)=hiL —— \ Vag ‘ where h is the height difference between the two rollers and L is the distance betwee the cenife® of the rollers. Tr ol ‘Therefore, h = L Sin (8) fl Upper Relief holes shrface End face. canis He pi bo baum ff Fig.5.7 Sine bar Ve VY Fig. 58 Sine rule _ i Diy : rl Re, , } Gy 8 SF : | ie a. le @ scanned with OKEN Scanner3.5 CO-ORDINATE MEASUREMENT MACHINES (CMM) The term measuring machine generally refers to a single-axis measuring / instrument. Such an instrument is capable of measuring one linear dimension at a time. The term coordinate measuring machine refers to the instrument/machine that is capable . of measuring in all three orthogonal axes, Such a machine is popularly ab CMM. breviated as A CMM enables the location of point coordinates in a three-dimensional (3D) space. It simultaneously captures both dimensions and orthogonal relationships. Another its integration with a computer. The computer provides remarkable feature of a CMM is additional power to generate 3D objects as well as to carry out complex mathematical calculations. Complex objects can be dimensionally evaluated with precision and speed. wor? Fig. 3.31 COORDINATE MEASUREMENT MACHINE Q + htbas/fwwuny ibdeshare.t [Source bitps//aw slideshare.net/dhararimech/emm-32irom action=save] The first batch of CMM prototypes appeared in the United States in the early s car 1960s. However, the modern version of CMM began appearing in the 1980s, th: Is, thanks to the rapid developments in computer technology (The pri primary application of CMM is for inspection, Since its functions are driven by an on-by oard computer, it can easily be > ily . Ce _ | ute com ' wae Dar 2) Probe - x Moh ite do wt for pummivg oH: aie ‘MriP_ Navin Jass, AP/MECH # 8501 METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS ne Safwan» Zeins lip @ scanned with OKEN Scannerintegrated into a compute-integrated manufacturing (CIM) environment. Its potent, i i ing conditions: a sophisticated measuring machine can be exploited under the following ns Multiple features The more the number of features (both dimensional ang geometric) that are to be controlled, the greater the value of CMM. woe It offers flexibility in measurement, without the necessity to use accessories such as jigs and fixtures, Automated inspection Whenever inspection needs to be carried out in a fully automated environment, CMM can meet the requirements quite easily. High unit cost If rework or scrapping is costly, the reduced risk resulting from the use of a CMM becomes a significant factor, 3.5.1 Introduction >» Coordinate metrology is concemed with the measurement of the actual shape and dimensions of an object and comparing these with the desired shape and dimensions. > In this connection, coordinate metrology consists of the evaluation orientation, dimensions, and geometry of the part or object, * A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an n of the location, electrome hanical system designed to perform coordinate metrology. 3.5.2 Types of Measuring Machines * Length bar measuring machine, * Newell measuring machine. * Universal measuring machine, © Cox ordinate measuring machine, Computer controlled co-ordinate measuring machine. 3.5.3 Structure The basic version of a CMM has three axes, along three mutually perpendicular directions. Thus, the work volume is cuboidal. A carriage is provided for each axis, which @ scanned with OKEN Scannerws jsdriven by a separate motor. While the straight-line motion of the second axis is guided by the first axis, the third axis in tum is guided by the second axis. Each axis is fitted with a precision measuring system, which continuously records the displacement of the carriage from a fixed reference. The third axis carries a probe. When the probe makes contact with the workpiece, the computer captures the displacement of all the three axes. Depending on the geometry of the workpiece being measured, the user can choose any one among the five popular physical configurations. Figure illustrates the five basic configuration types: cantilever, bridge, column, horizontal arm and gantry. A. Moving bridge B. Trigger probe C. Stage 5 D. Controller Fig. 3.32 Co-Ordinate Measurement Machines (CMM) [source: https://www.keyence.com/ss/ ro /measure-sys/measurement-selection/type/3d.isp] i ‘3.5.4 TYPES OF CO-ORDINATE MEASUREMENT MACHINES (CMM) 3.5.4.1 Cantilever type CMM ’ i rr ac od ‘The vertically positioned probe is camed by a cantilevered arm. The probe moves up and down along the Z-axis, whereas theeantilever arm moves in and out along the Y- axis (Jateral movement). The longitudinal ao is provided by the X-axis, which is basically the work table, This configuration provides easy access to the workpiece and a relatively large work volume for a small floor space. P . @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFig. 3.33 Cantilever type CMM [source: https://www stideshare:net/dharanimech/cmm-3?from action=save] 3.5.4.2 Bridge type CMM A bridge-type configuration is a good choice if better rigidity in the structure is Fequired. The probe unit is mounted on a horizontal moving bridge, whose supports rest on the machine table. a) Moving Bridge type CMM Fig. 3.33 Moving Bridge type CMM [source: hutps//wwuslideshare.net/sharanimech/emm-a2trom_action:save] @ scanned with OKEN Scanner> Most widely used » Has stationary table to support work piece to be measured and a moving bridge » Disadvantage- with this design, the phenomenon of yawing (sometimes called walking) can occur- affect the accuracy > Advantage- reduce bending effect b) Fixed Bridge type CMM Fig. 3.34 Fixed Bridge type CMM https://wwnw.slideshare.net/dharanimech/emm-32from_action=save] [source: > In the fixed bridge configuration, the bridge is rigidly attached to the machine bed > This design eliminates the phenomenon of walking and provides high rigidity 3.5.4.3 Column type CMM This configuration provides exceptional rigidity and accuracy. It is quite similar in construction to a jig boring machine. Machines with such a configuration are often referred to as universal measuring machines, @ scanned with OKEN Scanner“SS Fig. 3.35 Column type CMM [source: https://www.slideshare.net/dharanimech/cmm-3?from _action=save_ 3.5.4.4 Horizontal arm type CMM In this type of configuration, the probe is carried by the horizontal axis. The probe assembly can also move up and down along a vertical axis. It can be used for gauging _Targer workpieces since it has a large work volume. Its often referred t0 as a layout. Fig. 3.36 Horizontal arm type CMM. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner5 Gantry type CMM In this configuration, the support of the workpiece is independent of the X- and Ye axis. Both these axes are overhead and supported by four vertical columns from the floor. The operator can walk along with the probe, which is lesirable for large workpieces, Some of the machines may have rotary tables or probe spindles, which will enhance the versatility of the machines. The work Space that is bounded by the limits of travel in all the axes is known as the work envelop. Laser interferometers are provided for each of the axes if'a very precise measurement is necessary. 4 Fig. 3.37 cif CMM {source: https://www. slideshare.net/AUSTINMO§ ES/probing-systems-seminar?fron® action=save] 3.5.5 Modes of Operation Modes of operation are quite varied in terms of automation, Accordingly, CMMs can be classified int on their modes of operation: type of construction and degree of to the following three types based 1. Manual 2. Semi-automated } 3. Computer controlled @ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe manual CMM | has a free-f : machine s tre as © ae directs the probe to the data collection points. comparison of the distance revere to the Positioning the probe relative t @ part can be accomplished in several ways ging from manual operation to d Omputer control. e much like CNC machine tools, and these lor the measurement process using a CMM. mputer control. A computer offers a high ol of the computer. A user-friendly software The software comprises the following three probe to the data collection points @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner ae 10001 uv soypiodo tp yoryan ‘Snopeas | ‘sjuouaunsvout ‘Oy p109as ee stsse-sayndwi0o Isse-sayndwiog YIM SAUp [enue ‘7 “SALIp [enue *] ssoLoSaye0 NEU INO} OU Paryissejo aq ued $10.30) WIAD L'S't | joo} feonsHelg “L Jo}ULeIp pur axyUa0 yor9-I] Aqua souesejo} pue peur Sumposar pue uonoaya: Su 4 PIE) Woy ‘swuaysks ayeUp10003.Formatting commands, w slate the data into the form desired for displ or printout, ? Machine Programming ut using readily available subroutines. The juency with which certain measurement tasks The program automatically calculates the centre point and the diameter, of the best- fit circle. A cylinder is slightly more complex, requiring five points. The program Situations concerning the relationship between planes are common. Very often, we come across planes that need to be perfectly pallc! or perpendicular to each other: A cay hwo planes is being inspected, Using a Progam calculates the angle between the two f this angle, In order to assess the situation’ where the perpendicularity b minimum of two points on each line, lines, Perpendicularty i is defined as th langent of m calculates the angle between the two planes. parallelism between two planes, the Parallelism is defined as the tangent ingle. ies to the user, ds to offer a number of ut Mg have a measurement function library. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerA ystick or similar device is used as _ wr-driven CMMs are generally equip "3.5.8 DCC CMM Programming . There are two principle methods of programi operator leads the CMM probe through spection sequence, indicating the points and be measured and fecording these into the control memory: the CMM @onttollor plays back the program to execute goles operation. | > Dame ea the mspectio™ 2 Offtine seen n procedure, i is a0 conplidhied jn the manner ‘of computersassisted NC. fajrureit aft ting biwed ant the part drawi sing, TH . pert peomeaened Tilt li) exvvullt oy the then downloaded © @ scanned with OKEN Scanner