INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry for food and non-
food products.[1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby
farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. While humans
started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500
years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were
independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the twentieth century, industrial agriculture based
on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

Today, small farms produce about a third of the world's food, but large farms are prevalent.[2] The largest one
percent of farms in the world are greater than 50 hectares and operate more than 70 percent of the world's
farmland.[2] Nearly 40 percent of agricultural land is found on farms larger than 1,000 hectares. [2] However, five of
every six farms in the world consist of less than two hectares and take up only around 12 percent of all
agricultural land.[2] Farms and farming greatly influence rural economics and greatly shape rural society, effecting
both the direct agricultural workforce and broader businesses that support the farms and farming populations.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials (such
as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, cooking oils, meat, milk, eggs, and fungi.
Global agricultural production amounts to approximately 11 billion tonnes of food,[3] 32 million tonnes of natural
fibres[4] and 4 billion m3 of wood.[5] However, around 14 percent of the world's food is lost from production before
reaching the retail level.[6]

Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological
developments have sharply increased crop yields, but also contributed to ecological and environmental
damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of
meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues
include contributions to climate change, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and other
agricultural pollution. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such
as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation, and climate change, all of which can cause decreases in
crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some countries ban them.

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be
sustained by hunting and gathering.[16] Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,[17] and
included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centers of origin.[14] Wild grains were collected and eaten
from at least 105,000 years ago.[18] In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000 years ago, cereals cultivation
of emmer, barley, and oats has been observed near the sea of Galilee.[19][20] Rice was domesticated in
China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,[21] followed
by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years
ago.[22] Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some
10,500 years ago.[23] Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,
[24]
where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[25] In the Andes of South America, the potato
was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea
pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years
ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in
Peru by 5,600 years ago,[26] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was
bred into maize (corn) from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago.[27][28][29] The horse was domesticated in the Eurasian
Steppes around 3500 BC.[30] Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of
agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of
intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese
Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually
came to be domesticated

1
Types
Reindeer herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.
Harvesting wheat with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer
Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are
moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid
and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.
Spreading manure by hand in Zambia
In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is
used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned.
Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in
areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India,
Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.[91]

Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport
elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. An estimated 2.5 billion
subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land.

Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs
(water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.

2
 FESTIVAL
A festival is an extraordinary event celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or
aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela,
or eid. A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture
interrelationship.[1] Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource
that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good
harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere
and Easter in the southern.

Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to
the gods, goddesses or saints: they are called patronal festivals. They may also provide entertainment, which
was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment. Festivals
that focus on cultural or ethnic topics also seek to inform community members of their traditions; the involvement
of elders sharing stories and experience provides a means for unity among families.[2] Attendants of festivals are
often motivated by a desire for escapism, socialization and camaraderie; the practice has been seen as a
means of creating geographical connection, belonging and adaptability.

Festivals of India have a very Huge list. The culturally rich land of India has various festivals on its soil. Because
their essences are so unique, experiencing each of them is like living a hundred lifetimes in one. Nonetheless,
these celebrations highlight India’s beauty.

India is a country that is divided by religions but united by festivals. Every festival is celebrated by people
belonging to different religions. Diwali is such a festival that is celebrated in the whole country, even some
Muslims celebrate Diwali. In this article, we will discuss the different festivals of India. Stay tuned and read the
entire article to know the Festivals of India and their importance.

Festivals
Festivals are cultural, religious, or social events that are celebrated by communities, groups, or societies to mark
specific occasions, commemorate historical or religious events, or simply to bring people together for fun and
entertainment. Festivals vary widely in their nature, purpose, and traditions, and they can be found in virtually
every culture around the world. Here are some common types of festivals:

Religious Festivals: These festivals are observed by religious communities to commemorate significant events
or figures in their faith. Examples include Christmas for Christians, Eid for Muslims, Diwali for Hindus, and
Hanukkah for Jews.

Cultural Festivals: Cultural festivals celebrate the heritage, traditions, and arts of a particular culture or ethnic
group. Examples include Chinese New Year, Oktoberfest in Germany, and Mardi Gras in New Orleans.

Music Festivals: These festivals focus on music performances and often feature multiple artists or bands across
various genres. Examples include Coachella in the United States, Glastonbury in the UK, and Tomorrowland in
Belgium.

Film Festivals: Film festivals showcase films from various genres and origins, allowing filmmakers to present
their work to a wider audience. Examples include the Cannes Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival, and
Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF).

Food Festivals: These festivals celebrate the culinary traditions of a region or culture. They often feature food
tastings, cooking demonstrations, and competitions. Examples include the Taste of Chicago and the San
Francisco Street Food Festival.
3
Seasonal Festivals: Many festivals are tied to the changing of seasons, such as the Spring Festival in China,
Carnival in Brazil, and Thanksgiving in the United States.

Art Festivals: These festivals focus on visual arts, such as painting, sculpture, and crafts. They often provide a
platform for local artists to showcase their work. Examples include Art Basel in Miami and the Venice Biennale.

Historical and Commemorative Festivals: These festivals commemorate historical events, figures, or milestones.
For example, Independence Day celebrations in various countries mark their independence from colonial rule.

Sporting Events and Tournaments: While not always considered traditional festivals, major sporting events like
the Olympics, FIFA World Cup, and Super Bowl are celebrated by millions of people worldwide.

Environmental and Green Festivals: These festivals promote environmental awareness and sustainability
practices. Examples include Earth Day celebrations and green expos.

Festivals typically involve various activities, including music, dance, parades, rituals, food, and the exchange of
gifts or offerings. They often serve as a means of preserving cultural traditions, fostering a sense of community,
and promoting tourism. Different festivals have their own unique customs and significance, making them an
important part of the world’s cultural tapestry.

How many festivals are there in India?

India is a big country with many religions, resulting in a distinct local festival culture. Throughout the year, India
is claimed to host over a thousand festivals. Every festival in India is greeted with great fanfare and, at times,
cultural harmony. Diwali, the next major national celebration, will take place on November 12th, 2023. Indian
festivals are broadly classified into five types: Diwali and Holi are festivals that celebrate the triumph of good
over evil. Seasonal festivals such as Onam in Kerala, Makar Sankranti in the north, and Pongal in the south
commemorate new beginnings and harvest seasons. Gods’ and renowned people’s birthdays or anniversaries,
such as Krishna Janmashtami, Mahashivratri, and Ganesh Chaturthi. Raksha Bandhan and Karwa Chauth are
occasions for couples or siblings to celebrate their bond. Every year, national holidays such as Republic Day on
January 26 and Independence Day on August 15 are observed with considerable patriotic zeal....

Festivals Name
India is a diverse country with a rich cultural heritage, and it celebrates a wide variety of festivals throughout the
year. Here are some of the major festivals celebrated in India:

Diwali: Also known as Deepavali, it’s the Festival of Lights and is one of the most widely celebrated festivals in
India. It usually falls in October or November.
Holi: The festival of colors, typically celebrated in March, marks the arrival of spring.
Eid: Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha are two major Islamic festivals celebrated with great enthusiasm.
Christmas: Celebrated by Christians across India on December 25th, it marks the birth of Jesus Christ.
Navratri: A Hindu festival lasting nine nights, dedicated to the worship of the goddess Durga. It typically occurs
in September or October.
Durga Puja: Primarily celebrated in West Bengal, it’s a grand celebration of the goddess Durga’s victory over
evil.
Ganesh Chaturthi: Celebrated in honor of Lord Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, in August or September.

4
ARCHAEOLOGY IN INDIA
5
Archaeology in India is mainly done under the supervision of Archaeological Survey of India.

History
12th century Indian scholar Kalhana's writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts,
inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his
notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in c.1150 and is described as one of the first history
books of India.

Origin of modern archaeology

One of the earliest non-Indian scholars to take an interest in the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent were
Western European travelers in the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries. The earliest European written accounts
of India's ancient monuments and Hindu temples were produced by sailors and travelers in the 16th, 17th and
early 18th centuries CE. Some of these accounts included ground plans and drawings of the buildings, however
they lacked any historical discussion of their origins, with the exception of several references to Alexander the
Great, the Macedonian emperor, who tried and failed to conquer India in the fourth century BCE.

Some notable archaeological sites in India include Rakhigarhi, an archaeological site located in the state of
Haryana, India. Mohenjo-Daro[5] and Harappa are also ancient archaeological sites that were once a part of
India, but now lie within the borders of Pakistan. The Harappan civilization was also called the Indus River
Valley Civilization.

Alexander Cunningham and Archaeological Survey of India

"Archaeology in South Asia did not crystallize out of the informal archaeology of enthusiastic amateur South

Asians, but was created by elite foreigners, at the capital, by an act of state."

Thomas R. Trautmann and Carla M. Sinopoli, 2002.

Scholarly investigation into Indian archaeology was largely influenced by Alexander Cunningham, who became
the first director of the Archaeological Survey of India, which was established in 1861. Cunningham along with
various assistants visited many sites and monuments of archaeological importance

6
7
 INDIAN FOOD CULTURE
Indian food is different from rest of the world not only in taste but also in cooking methods. It reflects a
perfect blend of various cultures and ages. Just like Indian culture, food in India has also been influenced
by various civilizations, which have contributed their share in its overall development and the present form.

Foods of India are better known for its spiciness. Throughout India, be it North India or South India, spices
are used generously in food. But one must not forget that every single spice used in Indian dishes carries
some or the other nutritional as well as medicinal properties.

North Indian Food

Food in the north India, to begin with, Kashmiri cuisines reflect strong Central Asian influences. In Kashmir,
mostly all the dishes are prepared around the main course of rice found abundantly in the beautiful valley.
Another delicious item cooked here is the ‘Saag’ that is prepared with a green leafy vegetable known as
the ‘Hak’.

But on the other hand states like the Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh show high consumption of
chapatis as staple food. Again, these chapatis are prepared with a variety of flours such as wheat, rice,
maida, besan etc. Besides chapatis other closely related breads baked in these regions include Tandoori,
Rumaali and Naan etc. However in the northern region impact of Mughlai food is quite obvious.

West Indian Food

In western India, the desert cuisine is famous for its unique taste and varieties of food. Rajasthan and Gujarat
are the states that represent the dessert flavor of Indian food. Here an immense variety of dals and achars
(pickles/preserves) is used that simply substitutes the relative lack of fresh vegetables in these areas.

8
In the states like Maharashtra, the food is usually a mix of both north as well as south cooking styles. Here
people use both the rice and the wheat with same interest. Along the coastline of Mumbai a wide variety of
fishes is available. Some of the delicious preparations include dishes like the Bombay Prawn and Pompfret.

In Goa, that is further down towards south, one can notice Portuguese influence in the cooking style as well as
in the dishes. Some of the major dishes of this region are the sweet and sour Vindaloo, duck baffad, sorpotel
and egg molie etc.

East Indian Food

In the eastern India, the Bengali and Assamese styles of cooking are noticeable. The staple food of

Bengalis is the yummy combination of rice and fish. Usually the Bengalis love eating varieties of fishes. A

special way of preparing the delicacy known as ‘Hilsa’ is by wrapping it in the pumpkin leaf and then

cooking it. Another unusual ingredient that is commonly used in the Bengali cooking is the ‘Bamboo Shoot’.

Various sweets prepared in this region, by using milk include the ‘Roshogollas’, ‘Sandesh’, ‘Cham-cham’

and many more.

South Indian Food

In the southern India, the states make great use of spices, fishes and coconuts, as most of them have

coastal kitchens. In the foods of Tamil Nadu use of tamarind is frequently made in order to impart sourness

to the dishes. It simply distinguishes the Tamil Food from other cuisines.

9
The cooking style of Andhra Pradesh is supposed to make excessive use of chilies, which is obviously to

improve the taste of the dishes.

In Kerala, some of the delicious dishes are thelamb stew and appams, Malabar fried prawns, Idlis, Dosas,

fish molie and rice puttu. Another famous item of this region is the sweetened coconut milk. Yet another

dish is Puttu, which is glutinous rice powder steamed like a pudding in a bamboo shoot.

CLOTHING IN INDIA

10
Clothing in India varies with the different ethnicities, geography, climate, and cultural traditions of
the people of each region of India. Historically, clothing has evolved from simple garments like
kaupina, langota, achkan, lungi, sari, to rituals and dance performances. In urban areas, western
clothing is common and uniformly worn by people of all social levels. India also has a great
diversity[1] in terms of weaves, fibers, colors, and the material of clothing. Sometimes, color codes
are followed in clothing based on the religion and ritual concerned. The clothing in India also
encompasses a wide variety of Indian embroidery, prints, handwork, embellishments, and styles
of wearing clothes. A wide mix of Indian traditional clothing and western styles can be seen in
India.

Traditional clothing

Sari and wrapped garments

A saree or sari is a female garment in the Indian subcontinent. A sari is a strip of unstitched cloth, ranging
from four to nine meters in length, that is draped over the body in various styles. These include: Sambalpuri
Saree from East, Mysore silk and Ilkal of Karnataka and, Kanchipuram of Tamil Nadu from South, Paithani
from Maharashtra and Banarasi from North among others. The most common style is for the sari to be
wrapped around the waist, with one end then draped over the shoulder baring the midriff. The sari is
usually worn over a petticoat. Blouse may be "backless" or of a halter neck style. These are usually more
dressy with a lot of embellishments such as mirrors or embroidery and may be worn on special occasions.
Women in the armed forces, when wearing a sari uniform, don a half-sleeve shirt tucked in at the waist.
Teenage girls may wear half-sarees, a three-piece set consisting of a langa, a choli and a stole wrapped
over it like a saree. Women usually wear full sarees. Indian wedding saris are typically red or pink, a
tradition that goes back to India's pre-modern history.

11
Mekhela Sador (Assamese: মেখেলা চাদৰ) is the traditional Assamese dress worn by women. It is worn by women
of all ages.

There are three main pieces of cloth that are draped around the body.

The bottom portion, draped from the waist downwards is called the Mekhela (Assamese: মেখেলা). It is in the form
of a sarong—a very wide cylinder of cloth—that is folded into pleats to fit around the waist and tucked in. The
folds are to the right, as opposed to the pleats in the Nivi style of the saree, which are folded to the left. Strings
are never used to tie the mekhela around the waist, though an underskirt with a string is often used.

The top portion of the three-piece dress, called the Sador (Assamese: চাদৰ), is a long length of cloth that has one
end tucked into the upper portion of the Mekhela and the rest draped over and around the rest of the body. The
Sador is tucked in triangular folds. A fitted blouse is worn to cover the breasts.

The third piece is called a Riha, which is worn under the Sador. It is narrow in width. This traditional dress of the
Assamese women is very famous for their exclusive patterns on the body and the border. Women wear them
during important religious and ceremonious occasions of marriage. Riha is worn exactly like a Sador and is used
as Orni.

Panche or Lungi[edit]
A Lungi is another traditional garment of India. A Mundu is a lungi, except that it is always white It is either
tucked in, over the waist, up to knee-length, or is allowed to lie over and reach up to the ankle. It is usually
tucked in when the person is working, in fields or workshops, and left open usually as a mark of respect, in
worship places, or when the person is around dignitaries.

Lungis, generally, are of two types: the open lungi and the stitched lungi. The open lungi is a plain sheet of
cotton or silk, whereas the stitched one has both of its open ends stitched together to form a tube-like structure.

Though mostly worn by men, elderly women also prefer lungi to other garments owing to its good aeration. It is
most popular in south India, though people of Bangladesh, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Somalia

12
also can be seen in lungis, because of the heat and humidity, which create an unpleasant climate for trousers,
though trousers have now become common outside the house.

Bandhgala

A Jodhpuri or a Bandhgala is a formal evening suit from India. It originated in the Jodhpur State, and was
popularized during the British Raj in India. Also known as Jodhpuri Suit,[citation needed] it is a western style suit
product, with a coat and a trouser, at times accompanied by a vest. It brings together the western cut with Indian
hand-embroidery escorted by the Waist coat. It is suitable for occasions such as weddings and formal
gatherings.

The material can be silk or any other suiting material. Normally, the material is lined at the collar and at the
buttons with embroidery. This can be plain, jacquard, or jamewari material. Normally, the trousers match that of
the coat. There is also a trend now to wear contrasting trousers to match the coat colour. Bandhgala quickly
became a popular formal and semi-formal uniform across Rajasthan and eventually throughout India.

13
 DANCE IN INDIA

Dance of India has developed a type of dance-drama that is a form of total theater. The dancer acts out a
story almost exclusively through gestures. Most of the classical dances of India enact stories from Hindu
mythology. Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particular region or a group of people.

The criteria for being considered as classical is the style's adherence to the guidelines laid down in
Natyashastra, which explains the Indian art of acting. The Sangeet Natak Akademi currently confers
classical status on eight Indian classical dance styles: Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (North, West
and Central India), Kathakali (Kerala), Kuchipudi (Andhra), Odissi (Odisha), Manipuri (Manipur),
Mohiniyattam (Kerala), and Sattriya (Assam). All classical dances of India have roots in Hindu arts and
religious practices.

The tradition of dance has been codified in the Natyashastra and performance is considered accomplished
if it manages to evoke a rasa (emotion) among the audience by invoking a particular bhava(gesture or
facial expression). Classical dance is distinguished from folk dance because it has been regulated by the
rules of the Natyashastra and all classical dances are performed only in accordance with them.

Bharatanatyam

Dating back to 1000 BC, barathanatyam is a classical dance from the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu,
practiced predominantly in modern times by women. The dance is usually accompanied by classical
Carnatic music.Bharatnatyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated in the Hindu
temples of Tamil Nadu and neighboring regions.[ Traditionally, Bharatanatyam has been a solo dance that
was performed exclusively by women, and expressed Hindu religious themes and spiritual ideas,
particularly of Shaivism, but also of Vaishnavism and Shaktism.

Bharatanatyam and other classical dances in India were ridiculed and suppressed during the colonial
British Raj era. In the post-colonial period, it has grown to become the most popular classical Indian dance
style in India and abroad, and is considered to be synonymous with Indian dance by many foreigners
unaware of the diversity of dances and performance arts in Indian culture.

14
Kathakali

Kathakali (katha, "story"; kali, "performance") is a highly stylized classical dance-drama form, which
originated from Kerala in the 17th century. This classical dance form is another "story play" genre of art, but
one distinguished by its elaborately colorful make-up, costumes and face masks wearing actor-dancers,
who have traditionally been all males.

Kathakali primarily developed as a Hindu performance art, performing plays and mythical legends related
to Hinduism. While its origin are more recent, its roots are in temple and folk arts such as Kutiyattam and
religious drama traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE. A Kathakali performance incorporates
movements from the ancient martial arts and athletic traditions of south India.[55][56][57] While linked to
the temple dancing traditions such as Krishnanattam, Kutiyattam and others, Kathakali is different from
these because unlike the older arts where the dancer-actor also had to be the vocal artist, Kathakali
separated these roles allowing the dancer-actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal
artists focused on delivering their lines.

15
Kathak

Kathak is traditionally attributed to the traveling bards of ancient northern India, known as Kathakas or
storytellers. The term Kathak is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit word Katha meaning "story", and kathaka
in Sanskrit means "he who tells a story", or "to do with stories".[60][61] Kathak evolved during the Bhakti
movement, particularly by incorporating childhood and amorous stories of Hindu god Krishna, as well as
independently in the courts of north Indian kingdoms. It transitioned, adapted and integrated the tastes and
Persian arts influence in the Mughal courts of the 16th and 17th century, was ridiculed and declined in the
colonial British era, then was reborn as India gained independence.

Kathak is found in three distinct forms, named after the cities where the Kathak dance tradition evolved –
Jaipur, Benares and Lucknow.[65] Stylistically, the Kathak dance form emphasizes rhythmic foot
movements, adorned with small bells (Ghungroo), the movement harmonized to the music, the legs and
torso are generally straight, and the story is told through a developed vocabulary based on the gestures of
arms and upper body movement, facial expressions, stage movements, bends and turns.

Kuchipudi

Kuchipudi classical dance originated in a village of Krishna district in modern era Indian state of Andhra
Pradesh. It has roots in antiquity and developed as a religious art linked to traveling bards, temples and
spiritual beliefs, like all major classical dances of India. In its history, the Kuchipudi dancers were all males,
typically Brahmins, who would play the roles of men and women in the story after dressing appropriately.

16
 Epics of India
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called
Kavya (or Kāvya; Sanskrit: काव्य, IAST: kāvyá). The Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which
were originally composed in Sanskrit and later translated into many other Indian
languages, and the Five Great Epics of Tamil literature and Sangam literature are some of
the oldest surviving epic poems ever written

The Mahābhārata (/məˌhɑːˈbɑːrətə, ˌmɑːhə-/ mə-HAH-BAR-ə-tə, MAH-hə-;[1][2][3][4]

Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced [mɐɦaːˈbʱaːrɐt̪ ɐm]) is one of the two major
Sanskrit epics of ancient India revered in Hinduism, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa.[5] It
narrates the events and aftermath of the Kurukshetra War, a war of succession between
two groups of princely cousins, the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas.

It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four
"goals of life" or puruṣārtha (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the
Mahābhārata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, the story of Shakuntala, the
story of Pururava and Urvashi, the story of Savitri and Satyavan, the story of Kacha and
Devayani, the story of Rishyasringa and an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, often
considered as works in their own right.

Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18th–19th-century painting

Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been
many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The bulk of the
17
Mahābhārata was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century
CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[6][7] The text
probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).

The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest
poem ever written".[10][11] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over
200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At
about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad
and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa.[12][13] W. J.
Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of world
civilization to that of the Bible, the Quran, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the works
of William Shakespeare. Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the fifth Veda.

The title is translated as "Great Bharat (India)", or "the story of the great descendents of
Bharata

The Ramayana (/rɑːˈmɑːjənə/;Sanskrit: रामायणम्, romanized: Rāmāyaṇam is a Sanskrit epic from

ancient India, one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas, the other being
the Mahābhārata. The epic, traditionally ascribed to the Maharishi Valmiki, narrates the life of
Rama, a prince of Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala. The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to
the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha, on the request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi; his

18
travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana; the
kidnapping of Sita by Ravana, the king of Lanka, that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return
to Ayodhya along with Sita to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration.

The scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 7th to 4th centuries BCE,
[5][6] and later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE, although original date of composition is
unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000
verses (mostly set in the Shloka/Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into seven kāṇḍa (chapters) the first
and the seventh being later additions. It belongs to the genre of Itihasa, narratives of past events
(purāvṛtta), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life.

There are many versions of Ramayana in Indian languages, besides Buddhist, and Jain
adaptations. There are also Cambodian (Reamker), Indonesian, Filipino, Thai (Ramakien), Lao,
Burmese, Nepali, Maldivian, Cambodian, Vietnamese, Tibeto-Chinese, and Malay versions of the
Ramayana.

The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and the Hindu life and culture,
and its main characters were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations,
both Hindu and Buddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the
life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from Sanskrit: रामराज्य, romanized:
Rāmarājya, a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society.

19
 HISTORICAL PLACES IN INDIA

When it comes to historical places in India, the country is peppered with whimsical domes, soaring
minars, pristine structures that are reminiscent of the British era, and religious centres that have an
iconic heritage value. From the eternal love symbol in Agra called Taj Mahal, which is one of the
wonders of the world, to Mumbai’s icon Gateway of India, these places to visit in India are most
popular amongst domestic and international travellers. So if you’re planning a trip to India (or thinking
about traversing on a heritage trail within the country) then head to these centuries-old structures and
monuments that will leave you totally awestruck with their regal splendour, old-world charm and
historical significance.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl, ˌtɑːʒ-/; lit. 'Crown of the Palace')[4][5][6] is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the
right bank of the river Yamuna in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was commissioned in 1631 by the fifth Mughal
emperor, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the
tomb of Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes
a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.

Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643, but work continued on other phases of the
project for another 10 years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at
a cost estimated at the time to be around ₹32 million, which in 2023 would be approximately ₹35 billion.[7] The
construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad
Ahmad Lahori, the emperor's court architect. Various types of symbolism have been employed in the Taj to
reflect natural beauty and divinity.

20
The Qutb Minar, also spelled Qutub Minar and Qutab Minar, is a minaret and "victory tower" that forms part of
the Qutb complex, which lies at the site of Delhi’s oldest fortified city, Lal Kot, founded by the Tomar Rajputs. It
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi, India.[4][5] It is one of the most visited
tourist spots in the city, mostly built between 1199 and 1220.

It can be compared to the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c. 1190, which was constructed a
decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower. The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with
inscriptions and geometric patterns. The Qutb Minar has a shaft that is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing
under the balconies" at the top of each stage In general, minarets were slow to be used in India and are often
detached from the main mosque where they exist.

In recent years, the Qutub Minar has been illuminated for special occasions involving international relations. In
September 2023, the monument was lit up in the colors of the Mexican flag to celebrate Mexico's 213th
Independence Day, an event that was acknowledged and appreciated by the Embassy of Mexico in
India. Similarly, on October 30, the Qutub Minar was illuminated with the Turkish flag to commemorate the 100th
anniversary of the Republic of Turkey, an occasion that received special attention from the Turkish Embassy in
New Delhi.

21
22