Concepts on Plant Growth

and Development
1
I. Overview

This module will be tackling two important topics on plant growth and development. The first
topic will discuss the concepts and theories related to plant growth and development, organized
along the growth process of the plant from the cellular level up to the organ growth and formation
while the development aspects will focus on the initiation of the organ from the differentiation at
cellular level to the development of the tissues and organs. The second topic will highlight on the
developmental stages of the plant after germination.

II. Learning Objectives

1. Explain the concepts and theories of plant growth and development
2. Describe the stages of plant growth and development

III. Learning Motivations

Video on how plants grow and developed? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zm1YQxzHpfM

IV. Learning Content

A. Concepts on plant growth and development

1. Meristems
2. Concepts and theories of plant growth
3. Concepts and theories of plant developmen
B. Stages of Plant growth and development
1. Seed germination and seedling growth
2. Juvenility, Maturity, Flowering and Senescence
A. Concepts on Plant Growth and Development
Plant growth and development is an ongoing process and development continues throughout
the life of the plant. Growth and development are regulated at the cellular, biochemical and
molecular levels. Zygote gives rise to an embryo, continuously undergoing cell differentiation
and pattern formation, then from an embryo to seedling. The developing new plant structures
form preexisting structures forming plant organs composed of tissues arranged in specific
patterns through several cycles of cell division and differentiation.

A.1.1. Growth defined

Growth is defined as the irreversible increase in mass, weight or volume of a living
organism, organ or cell. Growth can mean change in size, change in form and/or change in
number. Thus, growth is accompanied by metabolic processes (both anabolic and catabolic),
that occur at the expense of energy.

A.1.2. Growth and Meristems

Meristems are the actively dividing cells and are composed of stem cells, which perpetuate
themselves by cell divisions and also give rise to derivate cells, which differentiate along new
lines resulting to formation of tissues and organs

Classification of Meristems based on location

1. Apical Meristems – located at the or near the tip of the shoot or root; shoot apical
meristem (SAM) and root apical meristem (RAM); responsible for primary growth and
elongation growth of the shoot and root organs
2. Lateral Meristems – located on the sides of roots or stems and add to the girth, or
secondary growth; vascular cambium, cork cambium
3. Intercalary Meristems – occur intercalated between mature regions and add to
elongation growth; bases of grass leaves, bases of leaf primordia and above the nodes in
stems

Classification of Meristems based on duration

1. Determinate Meristems - meristems that are active only for a short time and are used
up in the formation of the organs; leaf and flower development
2. Indeterminate Meristems – meristems that remain active for the life of the plant; SAM,
RAM and vascular cambium
 Figure 1. Diagrammatic representations of a dicot plant showing the principal meristems.
Arrows exhibit the direction of growth cells and organs (left picture).

A.1.3. Cell Growth – growth is a consequence of increase in the amount of protoplasm.

Increase in protoplasm is difficult to measure directly and therefore, measured in terms of
increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell number.

Phases of Cell Growth

1. Meristematic Zone – region in the cell line where there is constant cell division; rich in
protoplasm, possess large conspicuous nuclei; cell walls are primary in nature (thin and
cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal connections)
2. Elongation Zone – cells proximal to the meristematic zone; characterized by increased
vacuolation, cell enlargement and new cell wall deposition
3. Maturation Zone – the zone after the elongation zone; the phase of maturation where
cell attain their maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modifications

Figure 2. Phases of cell growth as seen in the root tip and shot apex representing the meristematic
phase of growth. Detection of zones of elongation by the parallel line techniques. Zones A, B, C, D,
immediately behind the apex have elongated most.
 A.1.4. Cell Growth Rates – increase in growth per unit time; rate of growth can be expressed
mathematically.
1. Arithmetic Growth – mitotic division where only one daughter cell continues to divide
while the other differentiates and matures; exemplified by a root elongating at a constant
rate
2. Geometric Growth – the initial growth is slow (lag phase), and it increases rapidly
thereafter at an exponential rate (log or exponential phase). Both the progeny cells
following mitotic cell division retain the ability to divide and continue to do so unless
limited by nutrient supply, then the growth slows down leading to a stationary phase.

Figure 3. Diagrammatic representation of (a) Arithmetic (b) Geometric growth and (c) Stages during
embryo development showing both growth rates
 A.1.5. Growth Curve
Phases
1. Lag Phase
2. Log Phase
3. Steady State

Fig. 4. Typical Growth Curve in Plants. If the growth is plotted against time, an ‘S’-shaped
curve is obtained, called the Sigmoid Curve or Grand Period Curve.

A.2.1. Development defined

Development is defined as ordered change or progress often (but not always) towards a
higher, more ordered or more complex state. Development includes all changes that an organism
goes through its life cycle from germination of the seed to senescence.

Embryogenesis initiates plant development process. Embryogenesis establishes the basic

plant body plan and forms the meristems that generate additional organs in the adult.

Figure 5. Sequence of the developmental process in a plant cell

A.2.2 Development of the Embryo

Embryo Development in Angiosperms
1. First division of the zygote is often asymmetric and sets up an apical cell
toward the chalazal end and a basal cell toward the micropylar end of the
ovule (a)
2. Division in the apical cell give rise to the embryo proper, that undergoes
several developmental stages (b to j): Proembryo (8-celled); Globular; Heart-
shaped and; Torpedo
3. Quiescence Period of the embryo (growth occurs only after germination)

Figure 6. Stages in embryo development in a typical angiosperm

 A.2.3. Cell Differentiation and Morphogenesis
Cell Differentiation – refers to the acquisition of qualitative differences among cells of
common ancestry (derived from a cell or group of cells). The cells in an organ or tissue
become different from each other, or specialized for different functions such as the
epidermis, mesophyll or xylem or phloem cells.
Morphogenesis – acquisition of form, how a plant or organ acquires its distinctive
shape or form. Morphogenesis is a function of planes of cell divisions and direction of cell
growth

A.2.4. Initiation and Development of Vegetative Structures

Figure 7. Internal structures of corn and bean seeds and stages of germination where the
radicle give rise to the roots, the hypocotyls may give rise to the roots or the lower stem and the
epicotyl gives rise to the stem and leaves.

A.2.4.1 Root Growth - Radicle is the embryonic root and grows to form primary root of the
seedlings.

Root Developmental Zones

i. Root cap – protects the apical meristem from mechanical injury as the root
pushes its way through the soilAs the root cap cells differentiate, they acquire
the ability to perceive gravitational stimuli and secrete mucopolysaccharides
(slime) that help the root penetrate the soil.
ii. Meristematic region – lies under the root cap and generates only one organ,
the primary root and no lateral appendages.
 iii. Region of cell elongation – also called the elongations zone and is the site of
rapid and extensive cell elongation which causes the root tip to project forward
and push through.

iv. Region of differentiation and maturation – The cells in this region

differentiate into various tissues, characteristic to the mature root; the
epidermis, cortex and stele.

Figure 8. Simplified diagram of a primary roots showing the four developmental zones.

A.2.4.2 Stem Growth – The life of stem starts as a plumule. It grows to form shoot of the
seedling. The longitudinal growth of stem and formation of various organs like branches,
leaves, flowers is the function of stem meristem

Tunica Corpus Theory – The cellular organizations of stem meristem is proposed by A.

Schmidt (1924), called the tunical corpus theory. Most apical meristems contain two zones, an
outer tunica and an inner corpus.
Tunica consists of one to several layers of cells at the surface of the meristem that divides
by anticlinal division or in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the stem. The Corpus cells
are beneath the tunica layer and divides in many different ways.
 Figure 9. Diagram of the Tunica Corpus and the shoot apical meristem (SAM)

A.2.4.3 Leaf Initiation and Growth – The formation of leaves on the stem are initiated in
the formation of a primordium or outgrowth at the surface of the meristem. Leaf primordia
appear as dome shaped at nodal positions on the periphery of the stem.

Figure 9. The origin of the leaves at the shoot apex

Stages of Leaf Development

Stage 1: Organogenesis – The cells in the L1 and L2 layers in the flanks of the apical dome
of the shoot apical meristem acquire the leaf founder cell identity. These cells divide and
produce the outgrowth that represents the leaf primordium that subsequently develop
into leaves.

Stage 2: Development of suborgan domains – Differentiation occurs along three axes on

the primordium:
Dorsiventral – abaxial-adaxial
Proximodistal – apical – basal
Lateral – margin-blade-midrib
 Figure 10. Diagram of a shoot showing the various axes along which development occurs

Stage 3: Cell and tissue differentiation – Cells derived from the L1 layer differentiate as
epidermis (epidermal cells, trichomes and guard cells); derivatives of the L2 layer
differentiate as the photosynthetic mesophyll cells and vascular elements; and bundle
sheath cells are derived from the L3 layer.

Arrangement of Leaf Primordia - The number and order in which leaf primordial form is
reflected in the subsequent arrangement of leaves around the stem, called phyllotaxy:
1- Alternate phyllotaxy
2- Opposite phyllotaxy
3- Decussate phyllotaxy
4- Whorled phyllotaxy
5- Spiral phyllotaxy

Figure 11. Diagram of phyllotactic patterns

A.2.5 Initiation and Development of Reproductive Structures

A.2.5.1 Determinants of Floral Evocation – floral evocation requires the apical bud to
pass through two development stages: Competence and Determination
 Figure 12. Model for floral evocation

A.2.5.2 Initiation and Development of Flowers

Once the biochemical requirements for evocation of flowering are completed and the
meristem has reached the point of no return, it develops either into an inflorescence (cluster of
flowers) or solitary flowers.
Flower initiation starts from a visible change in the shape of the shoot apex. The shoot apex
becomes flat from conical due to the inhibition of growth in the central portion of the meristem.
Floral parts are formed due to the development of the protuberances. The outermost whorl of
the protuberances forms the sepal and next to it forms petals and so on.
Most plants produce bisexual flowers containing functional male (stamens) and female
(pistil) parts. Other species contain staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers only on
different individual plants.

Figure 13. Longitudinal sections of a shoot tip illustrating vegetative meristem (a) & floral meristem
(b-f) in floral development. source: Ted DeJong
http://fruitandnuteducation.ucdavis.edu/generaltopics/AnatomyPollination/VegetativeFloral_Develo
pment/)
 A.2.5.3 Fruit and Seed Development
The first stage in fruit and seed development is rapid cell division without much
enlargement due to cytokinin production by the endosperm which is growing at this stage.
Various tissues of the parent plant viz, the ovary, receptacle and sometimes parts of the floral
tube may be involved in the formation of fruits.
Cell enlargement phase of growth proceeds due to the auxins produced in the seeds. Fruit
development stops if the seeds are removed from a developing fruit. Some fruits though,
respond to gibberellins rather than auxin.

Figure 14. Illustration of fruit growth pattern and processes

B. Stages of Plant Growth and Development

B.1. Seed Germination and Seedling Growth

B.1.1 Seed germination Defined
 Emergence of the radicle through the seed coat
 Emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential structures
which, for the kind of seed in questions, are indicative of the ability to produce a
normal plant under favorable conditions (AOSA, 1981)

B.1.2 Morphology of Germination: Epigeal Germination and Hypogeal Germination

Figure 15. Typical illustration of seed germination

 B.1.3 Steps of Germination Process
1- Imbibition of water
2- Formation of activation enzyme systems
3- Metabolism of storage products, transport and synthesis of new materials
4- Emergence of the radicle and growth of the seedlings

Figure 16. Key processes during germination (a) and corresponding morphology of
germinating barley at different period of germination (b)

B.2. Juvenility, Maturity and Senescence

B.2.1. Juvenility
 The initial period of growth when apical meristems will not typically respond to internal
or external conditions to initiate flowers
 Characterized by exponential increases in size
 Absence of the ability to shift from vegetative growth to reproductive maturity
 Specific morphological and physiological traits development
 Greater ability to regenerate adventitious roots and shoots
B.2.2 Maturity and Flowering
 Maturation refers to qualitative changes which allow the plant or organ to express its
full reproductive potential.
 Accomplished by a gradual transition of morphology, growth rate and flowering
capacity
 Length of maturation depends on both genetics and the environment (from days to
years)
 Maturation is related to flower formation and formation of other reproductive
structures such as tubers and bulbs

B.2.3. Senescence
 Senescence process is endogenously controlled deteriorative changes – death of cells,
tissues, organs and the organism
 Senescence and plant aging may cause decreased resistance to stress and disease,
thereby increasing the probability of death
 At present, the biochemical nature of aging and senescence is not well understood,
although there are already clear examples of programmed senescence .

Figure 17. Typical illustration of plant growth after germination

http://cdn.biologydiscussion.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/clip_image032-9.jpg
V. Assessment/Study Questions
1. Growth and development of plants starts from the seedling stages? ___True ____False
2. Meristems are located only at the tip of the shoots? ___True ____False
3. The phase of maturation where cell attain their maximal size in terms.

4. Identify the growth exhibited by the following based on the location of the meristems: apical;
lateral; intercalary
a. Internodal growth
b. Continuous growth of pole beans
c. Increase in width of trees
5. Based on Figure 4 on the typical growth curve of the plants, what happens during the following
phases by using a crop that you are familiar to its growth and development as an example:
a. Lag phase

b. Log Phase

c. Steady Phase

6. During the embryo development, what becomes of the apical cell at the torpedo stage?

7. Figure 7 shows the initiation and development of corn and bean seeds, give three differences and
thee similarities that you observed.

8. What is the function of the root cap?

9. Describe in your own words differences between competence and determination during the
development of the floral structure.

10. What is the significance of the phase 2 during the germination process especially to seeds
stored for a long time before planting?
VI. Reflection

THE SMALLEST SEED THAT CAN GROW INTO A BIG PLANT

 The smallest seeds are produced from the family of orchidaceae, about 1/300th of an inch (85
micrometers) long, which is below the resolving power of the unaided human eye and one seed
weighs 1/35,000,000th of an ounce (0.81 micrograms). The seeds have no endosperm and
contain underdeveloped embryos. Orchid seeds are dispersed into the air like minute dust
particles and come to rest in the upper canopy of rainforest trees, where they eventually
germinate.
 The smallest flowering plants belong to the genus Wolffia, tiny rootless plants of the duckweed
family (Lemnaceae) that float on the surface of quiet streams and ponds. The entire plant body of
both Wolffia augusta, an Australian species, and Wolffia globosa, a tropical species, are less than
1 mm long (less than 1/25th of an inch). An average plant is 0.6 mm long (1/42 of an inch) and
0.3 mm wide (1/85th of an inch) and weights about 150 micrograms (1/190,000 of an ounce) or
approximately the weight of two grains of table salt. A bouquet of one dozen plants in full bloom
would fit on the head of a pin.

VII. References

R.N. Arteca. 1996. Plant Growth Substances: Principles and Applications. Copyright 1996 Chapman
and Hall

L.O. Copeland and M.B. McDonald. 1985. Principles of Seed Science and Technology. 2nd ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., New York and Collier Macmillan Publishers, London

National Council of Educational Research and Training. 2006. Biology (Textbook for Class XI).
Chapter 15- Plant Growth and Development. ISBN 81-7450-496-6

L.M. Srivastava. 2001. Plant Growth and Development: Hormones and Environment. Copyright
2001. Elsevier Science (USA)

L. Taiz and E. Zeiger. 2002. Plant Physiology. 3rd ed. Copyright at 2002 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

V. Umamahesh. Ed. Lecture Notes on Crop Physiology. Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University.
Department of Plant Physiology, Agricultural College