The pendulum of a clock is an example of osillatory motion. Many kinds of oscillatory motion are sinusoidal in time, oF neatly so, and aro referred 10 ns being simple harmonic motion, Real systems generally Ihave at least some friction, causing the ‘motion to he “damped” When an cextornal sinusoidal force is exorted fon a system able t@ oscillate, reso nance veeurs if the deving force is fat o7 near the natural frequency of vibration. Vibrations ean give se 10 waves—such a8 Water Waves or waves traveling along a cord—which travel ‘outward from their source. CHAPTER 1 ] Vibrations and Waves any objects vibrate or oiate—an abject on the end of a spring, 2 M ting fork, he balance wheel fun old watch, n pendulum, plastie tule el ily over the eae oa abe and pen srk te ngs Of a gitar or pana Spiders detect prey bythe vibration oftheir wobs cs Src upand down when they hit a ump bins nnd ides bate when heavy use pas ofthe wind fietc, ined, Dacre most old are elas (sce Section 9-5), they vibrate (at least briefly) when given an impulse. Elec- the! osilons oss ado ad tion ate atthe atom eve atoms Crate within molecule andthe atoms af solvate southerly fted postions Becan itso common in every ie ang ous so many treas Of piicn ovat) (or vibrational) motion ie of gre! importance, Mechanical baton are ily desribed on the bas of Newlonian mechani rations and” wave: motion ae iniatey related subject, Wares Tie—have as lic slice a vibration. Inthe ete of sone oto she wares # ibang object, tut so the detector crdrum or the membrane of Iotophone: Inet, whee © vave tavels though « medium, the medium vibrates (ach aya for sound waves) Inthe cond bal of ti Chaps, fter te dein wbrationy we wil des spe waves sch at hone on wer or on tering. n Chaper 12 ws wl study sound waves and a later Chapters el {avout oer fons of wave moon ncluing Setromagnetic wanes and ghtEEE] simple Harmonic Motion When an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth, over the same path, each vibration taking the same amount of time, the motion is periodie, The simplest orm of periodic motion is represented by an object oscillating on the end of a uniform coil spring, Becouse many other types of vibrational motion closely resemble this system, we will look at it in detail, We assume that the mass of the spring can be ignored, and that the spring is mounted horizontally, as showa in ig, 11a, so that the object of mass m slices without friction on the horizontal surface. Any spring has a natural length at whieh it exerts no force an the mass zn. ‘The position of the mass at this point is called the equilibrium position, If the mass is moved either to the left, which compresses the spring, or to the right, which stretches it, the spring exerts a force on the mass that acts in the direction of returning the mass 10 the equilibrium position; hence it is called a resioring force. We consider the common situation where we can assume the magnitude of the restoring force F is dircetly proportional to the displacement x the spring has been stretched (Fig. 11-1b) or compressed (Fig, I1-1e) from the equilih rium position: F = ks, [force exerted by spring] (=I) Note that the equilibrium position has been chosen at x = 0. Equation 11-1, which is often referred to as Hooke's law (see Sections 6-4 and 9-5), is aceu- rate as long as the spring is not compressed to the point where the coils are close to touching, or stretched beyond the elastic region (see Fig. 9-19), ‘of a uniform spring, © 10° s)] (15 10-4 m)cos(1.65 ead) = ~1.2 10m NOTE Re sure your calculator is set in RAD mode, not DEG mode, for these coset ealeulations Eo + 2 7 ® FIGURE 11-10 (a) displacement «as a funet lime sx = Aeos(2e0/T); () velocity as a funetion of time: v= = tga in(221/T) (o) acceleration as a funetion of time a= =(kA/m) e0s( 20/7) 1Phs showing of @ caution Alves be sure your caleuator isin the correct mode jor angles SECTION 11-3. The Period and Sinuscidal Nature of SHM 295FIGURE 11-11. Strobe-light photo of an oscillating simple pendulum mgsind fy FIGURE 11-12 Simple pendulum and a trce-hody diagram TABLE 11-1 Sin 0 at Small Angles a] (degrees) (radians) slo Difference S* 04727. a0e716 O13. 017368 025882 030002 050000 ‘ ‘\mgeos where g isthe acceleration of gravity. The minus s @ ° ° Ez] The Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a small object (the pendulum bob) suspended from the end of a lightweight cord, Fig. 11-11. We assume that the cord doesn’t streteh and that its mass ean be of a simple pendulum swinging back and forth with negligible frietion resembles simple harmonic motion: the pendulum bob oscillates along the are of a circle with equal amplitude on either side of its equilibrium point, and as it passes through the equilibrium point (where it would hang vertically) it has its ‘maximum speed. But is it really undergoing SHM? That isis the restoring force proportional to its displacement? Let us find out ‘The displacement of the pendulum along the arc is given by x= LA, angle the cord makes with the vertical and Lis the length of the cord (Fig. 1112}, If the restoring force is proportional to x or to #, the motion will be simple harmonic. The the component of the weight, mg, tangent to th nored relative to that of the bob. The motion where @ is festoring foree isthe net force on the bob, equal to F = ~mgsin6, n here,as in Eq. 11—1,means the force is in the direction opposite to the angular displacement 8. Since F is proportional to the sine of # and not to @ itself, the motion is not SHIM. However, if # is small, hen sin is very nearly equal to @ when the latter is spec ilied in radians, This can be seen by noting in Fig. 11-12 that the are length as the chord (= Lsin@) indicated by the 15°, the differ- ence between 4 (in radians) and sind is less than 1%%—see Table 11-1.’ Thus, 10 avery good approximation for small angles, x(= LA) is nearly the same length horizontal straight dashed line, if és small For angles less tha F = —mgsin 6 ~ —mga. Substituting x = L8, or # = x/L, we have Peo ‘Thus, for small displacements, the motion is esentlly simple harmonic since this equation fits Hooke's law, F =~. The effective force constant k= mg/L 296 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and WavesIf we substitute k = mg/L. into Eq, 17a, we obtain the period of a simple pendulum: The egueny is f= 1/7 0 Lf Ueona] HHA) Pagina peston The mass m ofthe pendulum bob doesnt appear in these formals for and f ‘Ths we have the surprising tesull thatthe peed and equeney ol sme pend donot depend onthe mas of the pendulum bok Yo may hove fotze sity pose al handle one on the same Wea sce tom Eaten hat te pevod ofa pendulum does mr depend on the nie ie any HIME Seton 3) as Tong sthe amp cal Gatto said to have Tt noted ths hot whe wating asin lamp in ths Cathal at Pisa (hig 1°13) ths covey le othe ienton othe ponduiy BYEMYS1es APPLIED Shock. the ist eal pres timepcee nich became the standard or centres Pecunia Bcnine 4 pendulum docs aot indsrpe precls SEM. the pero docs upond sigly onthe ample the more so fr large amplitadc The son !ag of pendulum eee mould be leds after many sings by the dssesse in ampitude dve to trstion But the mainspring In pendulum cock. (or the fang weigh n'a grander lock) supp eneeay to compemste forte ie Measuring g. A geologist uses a simple pendulum that has a length of 37.10¢m and a frequency af 0.8190 Fz at a particular location ‘on the Earth, What isthe aeceleration of gravity at this location’? APPROACH We can use the length Land frequeney f of the pendulum in Eg, II=11h, hich contains our unkaowa, g. SOLUTION We solve Eq. 11-11b for g and obtain 8 = (2af FL = (6.283 x 0.8190 574(0.3710 m) = 9.894 m/s. EXERCISE D (2) Estimate the length ofthe pendulum in a grandfather elock that ticks ‘once per second. (b) What would be the period af a clack with a L0-m-lang pendulum? Equations 11-11 apply to a simple pendulum—a concentrated mass at the end of a string of negligible mass—but not to the oscillation of, say, a baseball bat suspended from one end, FIGURE 11-13 The swinging motion ofthis lamp, hanging by a very long cord from the ceiling of the cathedral at Pisa, is said to have been observed by Galileo and to have inspired him wo the conelusion that the period of a pendulum does not depend on amplitude SECTION 11-4 The Simple Pendulum 297FIGURE 11-14 Damped harmonic mation. 0 FIGURE 11-15 Graphs chat represent (A) underdamped. (B) itcally damped, and (C) overdamped oscilatory motion PHYSICS APPLIED Shock absorbers and building dampers Piston Viscous uid Attached to ‘arate 298 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and Waves FIGURE 11-16 FIGURE 11-17 These Attached to Attomabile spring and huge dampers placed ina Gartrame. shook absorber to building look lot like provide damping so that huge automobile shock 2 car won't Bornce up absorbers. and they serve and down so much, a similar purpose—to The amplitude of any real oscillating spring oF swinging pendulum will slowly decrease in time until the oscillations stop altogether. Figure 11-14 shows a typical graph of the displacement as a function of time. This is called damped hharmonie motion. The camping’ is generally due to the resistance of air and to internal friction within the oscillating system. The cneray that is dissipated to thermal energy results in a decreased amplitude of oscillation. Since natural oscillating systems are damped in gencral, why do we even talk: about (undamped) simple harmonic motion? The answer is that SHM is much easier to deal with mathematically: And if the damping is not larg, the osillations ean be thought of as simple harmonic motion on which the damping is superposed. The deercase in amplitude shown by the dashed curves in Fig, 11-4 represonts the damping, Although frictional damping does alter the fequeney of vibration, the effect is usually small unless che damping is large: thus Eqs. 11-7 can sill be used in most cases ‘Sometimes the damping is so large, however, that the motion no longer resembles simple harmonic motion. Three common cases of heavily damped systems are shown in Fig. 11-15. Curve 4 represents an underdamped sition, in which the system makes several swings before coming to rest, and eorte- sponds to a more heavily damped version of Fig, 1-14. Curve C represents the overdamped situation, for which the damping isso large that it takes a long time to reach equilibrium. Curve B represents extical damping: in this ease equilib rium is reached in the shortest ime. These terms all deive from the use of prac- tical damped systems such as door Incensity (defined Intensity % (amin FIGURE 11-20 A wove trwveling ‘outward in thee dimensions from a souree is spherical. Two cress {or compressions) are shown, of adit ry and ‘Sounds are quieter farther from The source SECTION 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves 305FIGURE 11-31 Calculating the ‘energy carsied by a wave mo with velosity 0 ing ‘The amplitude of a wave also decreases with distance, Since the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude (Eg. 11-15), the amplitude A must decrease as I/r so that I x A? will be proportional to 1/r? (as in Eg, 11—16b). Hence l Awt If we consider again two distances from the source, rand r, A Ah When the wave is twice as far from the source, the amplitude is half as large, and so on (ignoring damping due to friction). Earthquake intensity. ‘The intensity of an earthquake P wave traveling throngh the Earth and detected 100km from the source is 1.0 x 10° W/m*, What fs the intensity of that wave if detected 400 km from the souree? APPROAGH We assume the wave is spherical, so the intensity decreases as the square of the distance from the source. SOLUTION At 400 km the distance is 4 times areater than at 100 km, so the intensity will be 2)’ = % of its value at 100km, or (1.0 x 10° W/m?)/16 63 < 10°W/m' NOTE Using Eq. 11-16e direetly gives de = Life) = (1.0 10° W/m?){100 kim)"/(400 km)? = 6.3 * LO W/m’, The situation is different for a one-dimensional wave, such as a transverse \wave on a string or a longitudinal wave pulse traveling down a thin uniform metal rod. The area remains constant, s0 the amplitude A also remains constant (ignoring, friction). Thus the amplitude and the intensity do not decrease with distance In practice, frictional damping is gencrally present, and some of the is transformed into thermal energy. Thus the amplitude and intensity of a one-dimensional wave will decrease with distance irom the source. For a three-dimensional wave, the decrease will be greater than that discussed above, although the effect may often be small. Intensity Related to Amplitude and Frequency We can obtain an explicit relation between the energy earied by a wave, oF the wave's intensity Z, and the amplitude and frequency of the wave. For sinu- Soidal wave of frequency f, the particles moe in SHIM asa wave passes, so each paricle hos an encrey F = ska%, whore A is the amplitude of its motion, tither transversely of longitudinally. Using Bq. 117b. we can write in tems of the Irequency: k= 4a'mf’, where mis the mass of a particle (or small wolume) of the medium Then Qa'mpt a. ‘The mass m = pV’, where pis the density of the medium and V the volume of a small slice ofthe medium as shown in Fig. I-31. The volume V = Sf, where Sis tho eross-sectional surface area through which the wave travels. (Wie use § instead of A for area because we are using A for amplitude.) We can write as the distance the wave travels i a time ¢as f= 0f, Where vis the speed of the wave. Thus m= pV = pI = pSer, and F = 2ripSupa (11-179) From this equation, we see again the important result that the energy trans- ported by « wave is proportional 10 the square of the amplitude, The power 306 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and Wavestransported, P = E/r, is = 2p ofA 1-17) Finally, the intensity 7 of a wave is the power transported across unit are) perpendicular to the direction of energy flow: 1B arure eam "isan shows xpi at ints aero my ag Reflection and Transmission of Waves When a wave strikes an obstacle, or comes to the end of the medium it is trav cling in, at least a part of the wave is reflected, You have probably seen water waves reflect off a rock or the side of a swimming pool. And you may have heard a shout reflected from a distant eliff—which we eall an “echo.” lying on a table top (a) The end of the rope is fied i | / | FIGURE 11-82 Reflson uf ave pus n pe @ i) A wave pulse traveling down a rope is reflected as shown in Fig. 11-32. The reflected pulse returns inverted as in Fig. I1-32a if the end of the rope is fixed; it returns right side up if the end is free as in Fig. 1132b. When the end is fixed to a support, as in Fig. 1132a, the pulse reaching that fixed end exerts a force (upward) on the support. The support exeris an equal but opposite force down: ward on the rope (Newton's third law), This downward force on the rope is what “generates” the inverted reflected pulse Consider next a pulse that travels down a rope which consists of a light section and a heavy section, as shown in Fig, 11-33. When the wave pule reaches the boundary between the two sections, part of the pulse is reflected and pact is transmitted, as shown, The heavier the second section of rope, the less the energy that is transmitted. (When the second section is a wall or rigid support very little is transmitted and most is reflected, as in Fig. 11-32a.) For a periodic wave, the frequency of the transmitted wave does not change across the boundary because the boundary point escillates at that frequency. Thus if the Uransmitted wave has u lower speed, its wavelength is also shorter (X= /f). twa peg (b) The end of the rope is free to move. FIGURE 11-23 When a wave puke traveling tothe right along 2 thin cord (a) reaches a discontinuity ‘where the rope hecemes thicker and heavier, then partis reflected and part is transmitted (b), Light Heavy section /\_seation « “Transmit AE effected ben «) SECTION 11-11 Reflection and Transmission of Waves 307@ ) FIGURE 11-34 Rays.signifying the direction of wave motion, are always perpendicular co the wave fronts (ave cress). (a) Circular or spherical waves near the source (b) Far from the source, the wave fronts are nearly straight or flat, and are ealled plane waves Superposition principle Destructive icerforence Constructive interference FIGURE 11-36 Two wave pulses pass onch other. Where they ‘overlap interference oecvrs (a) destructive, and (b) constructive For a two- or three-dimensional wave, such as a water wave, we are concerned with wave fronts, by which we mean all the points along the wave forming the wave crest (what we usually refer to simply as a “wave” at the seashore). A line drawn in the direction of wave motion, perpendicular to the wave front, is called a ray, a8 shown in Fig. 11-34, Wave fronts far from the source we lost almost all their curvature (Fig. 11-34h) and are nearly straight, as ocean waves often are; they are then called plane waves. For reflection of a two- or thrce-dimensional. plane wave, as shown in Fig, 11-35, the angle that the incoming or incident wave makes with the reflecting surface is equal to the angle made by the reflected wave, This is the kaw of reflection: the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The “angle of incidence” is defined as the angle the incident ray makes with the perpendicular (o the reflecting surface (or the wave front makes with a tangent to the surface). ‘The “angle of rellection’ is the corresponding angle for the reflected wave. Incident Reflected FIGURE 11-35 Law of reflection eg Interference; Principle of Superposition Interference refers to what happens when two waves pass through the same region of space at the same time. Consider, for example, the to wave pulses on a string traveling toward each other as shown in Fig. 11-36, In Fig. 11-36a the two pulses hhave the same amplitude, but one is a crest and the other a trough; in Fig, 11-360 they are both eresis. Tn hoth cases, the waves meet and pass right by each other. However, in the region where they overlap, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sun of their separate displacements (a crest is considered positive and a trough negative) This is called the prineiple of superposition. In Fig. !1~36a, the two, waves have opposite displacements at the instant they pass one another, and they ‘add to zero. The result is called destructive interference. In Fig. 11-36b, at the instant the two pubes overlap, they produce a resultant displacement that is greater than the displncement of either separate pulse, and the result is constructive interference. @ © Pulses ropa /n / spprosching Time Pulses overlap precively meme SS 308 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and WavesConsuetive interference Destructive interference @ ) FIGURE 11-37 Interference of water waves. When two rocks are thrown into a pond simultaneously, the two sets of circular waves interfere with one another as shown in Fig, 11-37a, In some areas of overlap, crests of one wave repeatedly meet crests of the other (and lroughs meet troughs); see Fig. 1-37, Constructive interference is oceurring al these points, and the water continuously oscillates up and down with greater amplitude than either wave separately. In other areas, destructive interference ‘occurs where the water does not move up and down at all over time. This is where crests of one Wave meet troughs of the other, and vice versa Figure 11-38a shows the displacement of two waves graphically as a function fof time, as well as their sum, for the ease of constructive interference. For any two such waves, we use the term phase to describe the relative positions of Phase their crests When the crests and troughs are aligned as in Fig. 11-38a, for constructive interference, he two waves are im phase, At points where destruc- tive interference oceurs—see Fig, 11-38b—crests of one wave repeatedly mect troughs of the other wave and the two waves are said to be completely out of phase or, more precisely, out of phase by one-half wavelength. That is, the rests of one wave occur a half wavelength behind the crests of the other wave ‘The relative phase of the two water waves in Fig, 11-37 in most areas mediate between these {wo extremes, resulting in pardially destructive interfer- ence, a illustrated in Fig. 11-38e. If the amplitudes of to interfering waves are rot equal, fully destructive interference (as in Fig, 11-38b) does not occur. FIGURE 11-38 Graphs showing wo waves. and their sum. as a function of time at three locations In @) the two waves interfere constructively. in (b) destructively. and in (c) partially destructively APRPSE FPP POSS PPPE PRAPF A - - Ps @ (oy © SECTION 11-12. Interference; Principle of Superposition 308Aminods " —— FSS| t ©) Node Antinods © FIGURE 11-39 Standing waves corresponding to tee resonant frequencies Resonant frequencies FIGURE 11-40 310. CHAPTER 11 (8) A string is plucked (b) Only standing waves corresponding to Fesonant frequencies persist for long. Hea Standing Waves; Resonance If you shake one end of a cord and the other end is kept fixed, a continuous wave will travel down to the fixed end and be reflected back, inverted, as we sav in Fig 11-32, As you continue to vibrate the cord, waves will travel in both directions, and the wave traveling along the cord, away from your hand, will interlere with the reflected wave coming back. Usually there will be quite a jumble. But if you vibrate the cord at just the right trequeney, the two traveling \waves will interfere in such n way that a large-amplitude standing wave will be produced, Fig. 11-39, Is called a “standing wave” because it doesn’t appear 10 be traveling, The cord simply appears to have segments that oscillate up and down in a fixed pattern. The points of destructive interference, where the cord remains still at all times, are called mades. Points of constructive interference, Where the cord oscillates with masimum amplitude, are called antinades, The nodes and antinodes remain in fixed positions for a particular frequency Standing waves can occur at more than one frequency. The lowest frequeney of vibration that produces a standing wave gives rise to the paitern shown in Fig, 11-39a. The standing waves shown in Figs. 1139p and 11~39e are produced at precisely twice and three times the lowest frequency, respectively, assuming the tension in the cord is the same. The cord ean also vibrate with four loops (four antinodes) at four times the Towest frequency, and so on, ‘The frequencies at which standing waves are produced are the natural frequencies or resonant frequencies of the cord, and the different standing wave patterns shown in Fig, [1-39 are different “resanant modes of vibration.” A standing wave on a cord is the result ofthe interference of two waves traveling in opposite directions. A standing wave is also a vibrating object at resonance. Standing waves represent the same phenomienon as the resonance of a vibrating, spring or pendulum, which we discussed in Section 11-6. The only difference is that a spring or pendulum has only one resonant frequency, whereas the cord hhas an infinite number of resonant frequencies, each of which is a whole number multiple of the lowest resonant frequency. Consider a string stretched beween two supports that is plucked like a guitar or violin string, Fig. 11-40, Waves of a great variety of frequencies will \ —————— @ | Fundamental or first harmon, f, First otertone or second harmonic, f= 2/, ‘Second overtone or third harmonic fs = 3 w) Vibrations and Wavestravel in both direetions along the string, will he reflected at the ends, and will travel back in the opposite direction, Most of these waves interfere with each other and quickly die out, However, those waves that correspond to the resonant frequencies of the string will persist. The ends of the string, since they are fixed, will be nodes. There may he other nodes as well. Some of the possible resonant modes of vibration (standing waves) are shown in Fig. 11-40b, Gener- ally, the motion will be a combination of these different resonant modes, but only those frequencies that correspond to a resonant frequency will be present. ‘To determine the resonant frequencies, we first note that the wavelengths of the standing waves bear a simple relationship to the length Z of the string. The lowest frequency, called the fundamental frequency, corresponds to one antinode (or loop). And as can be seen in Fig. 11-40b, the whole length corresponds to ‘one-half wavelength, Thus Z = £A,, where 2, stands for the wavelength of the fundamental frequency. The other natural frequencies are called overtomes; for a vibrating string they are whole-number (integral) multiples of the fundamental and then are also called harmonies, with the fundamental being referred to as the first harmonic.’ The next mode of vibration after the fundamental has xo loops and is called the second harmonic (or first overtone), Fig. 11-40, The length of the string Lat the second harmonic corresponds to one complete wavelength: = Ay. For the third and fourth harmonies, L= 323, and L = 2A,, respectively, and so on. In general, we can write We 2 ‘The integer m labels the number of the harmonie: 21 = 1 for the fundamental n= 2 for the second harmonic, and so on. We solve for Ay and find 2b + where = 1,2, , na Lae (19a) To find the frequency f of each vibration we use Tq. 11-12, f= n/A, and we see that Ioannis where f, = v/Ay = 0/2L. is the fundamental frequency. We see that each reso- rant frequency isan integer multiple of the fundamental irequency Because a standing wave i equivalent to two traveling. waves moving in ‘opposite directions, the concept of wave velocity still makes sense and is given by Eq, 11-13 in termsof the tension F; inthe sirng and its mass per unit length (m/), That is, © = VFy/(n/L) for waves traveling in both direc nel 1-19») Piano string. A piano string is 1.10m long and has a mass of 9.00 g(a) How much tension must the string be under if itis to vibrate at a fundamental frequency of 131 Hz? (6) What are the frequencies of the first four harmonics? APPROACH ‘To determine the tension, we need to find the wave speed using Eq. 11-12 (v= Af), and then use Eq. 1113, solving it for Fy SOLUTION (a) The wavelength of the fundamental is A = 2L = 2.20m (Eq. 11-190 with m= 1). The speed of the wave on the string is b= Af = (2.20m)(131 5!) = 288 m/s. Then we have (Eq. 11-13) 00% 0 ke T10m (0) The frequencies of the second, third, and fourth harmonics are two, three ‘and four times the fundamental frequency: 262, 393, and $24 Fz, NOTE The speed of the wave on the string is nor the same as the speed of the sound that is produced in the air (as we shall see in Chapter 12), Jasna? = 9s The teria “harmonic” come ram smi beatae auch integral slips of fequencia “arto SECTION 11-13 Standing Waves; Resonance Fundamental frequency Overtones art harmonies atStanding waves are produced not only on strings, but on any abject that is, struck, such as a drum membrane or an object made of metal or wood. The resonant frequencies depend on the dimensions of the object just as for a string they depend on its length. Large objects have lower resonant frequencies than small objects, All musieal instruments, from stringed instruments to wind instruments (in which a column of air vibrates as a standing wave) to drums and other percussion instruments, depend on standing waves to produce their ‘musical sounds, as we shall see in Chapter 12. Hag Refraction ‘When any wave strikes a boundary, some of the energy is reflected and some is transmitted oF absorbed. When a two- of three-dimensional wave traveling in ‘one medium crosses « boundary into a medium where its speed is different, the luansmitted wave may move in a different direction than the incident wave, as shown in Fig. 11-41. This phenomenon is known as refraction. One example is a Water wave; the velocity decreases in shallow water and the waves refract, as shown in Fig, 11-42 below, [When the wave velocity changes gradually, as in ig, 1-42, without a sharp boundary, the waves change direction (retract) gradually] In Fig. 11-41, the velocity of the wave in medium 2 is less than in medium 1 In this case, the wave front bends so it travels more nearly parallel to the boundary. That is the angle of refraction, 8, is less than the angle of incidence, To sce why this is so, and to help us get a quantitative relation between 8 and 6}, FIGURE 11-41 Reftaction of ‘let 8 think of each Wave front as a row of soldiers. The soldiers are marching, from firm ground (medium 1) into mud (medium 2) and hence are slowed down after the boundary. The soldiers that reach the mud first are slowed down first, and the row bends as shown in Fig. 1143a. Let us consider the wave front (or row of soldiers) Inbeled A in Fig. 1!-43b. In the same time r that Ay moves a distance f, = vj, wesee that Az moves. distance fy = vt. The two right triangles in Fig. 11-43b, shaded yellow and green, have the side labeled a in common. Thus ‘waves passing a boundary. i sing, = ha OE aoa since a is the hypotenuse, and kot sing, = 2 = BE aoa Dividing these two equations we obtain the law of refraction Law of refraction ane, 7 (11-20) Since is the angle of incidence (0). and 0; is the angle of refraction (0), Eq, 11-20 gives the quantitative relation between the two. If the wave were This Ssetion and tho nest are covered in mote dot in Chaprets 2810 28,0 opti FIGURE 11-42. Water waves refract gradually as they approach the shore as their Velociy deeveases ‘There is no distinet boundary as in Fig, 11-1, because the wave velocity changes gradually 312. CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and WavesFIGURE 11-43 (a) Soldier analony to devive (b) law of refraction for waves. ing inthe opposite sirction, the geometry wold not change nly @ and would change roles: 6, would be the angle of refraction and @, the angle of Incidence Cleary he ithe wave tals non medium where ican move taser wl bend the oppesite nay, 8, > 8, We se fom Eq. 11-20 tha the ‘elo nerease te angle increase nd ie era Tanthquake waves relat within the Earth as they tavel though rock @YPMYsics appuie Inyers of aflernt deme (ond therefore the Vlocty fife) jun asa -© Eos an Waves. Tigh waves rtfat os wel nd hon we discs ge shall ind Eg 11-20 ery usta Refraction of an earthquake wave. An earthquake P wave ‘passes across a boundary in rock where its velocity inereases from 6.5 km/s to 80km/s If it strikes this boundary at 30°, what isthe angle of refraction’ APPROACH We apply the lnw of refraction, Eq, 11-20 SOLUTION Since sin 30° = 0.50, Eg. 11-20 yields inp, = BAS) og gy — sina = eS mjgy (050) = O62. So 0 (0.62) = 38°. NOTE Be careful with angles of incidence and refraction. As we discussed in Section 11-11 (Fig, 11-35), these angles are etween the wave front and the boundary line, or—equivalently—between the ray (direction of wave motion) and the line perpendicular to the boundary. Inspect Fig, 11~43b carefully. * EBD iffracti ion Waves spread as they wavel. When they encounter an obstacle, they bend around it somewhat and pass into the region behind as shown in Fig, 11-44 for ‘water waves. This phenomenon is called diffraction FIGURE 11-44 Wave diffraction, The waves fre coming, fom the upper left. Note how the vvaves, a8 they pass the obstacle, bend around it, into the “shadow region” behind it, *SECTION 11-15 Diffraction 313(a) Water waves passing ‘blades of geass FIGURE 11-45 Water waves passing objeets of various sizes Note that the longer the wavelength ‘compared to the sizeof the object. the more diffraction there is imo the “shadow region” FIGURE 11-46 The char ics ofa single-frequency wave at 41 = 0) Gust asin Fg. 11-23). o| a a= mplitade 7 (b) Sick in water (6) Shorewayelength (2) Longe wavelength ‘waves pusing Jog waves passing log The amount of difraction depends on the wavelength of the save and on the sizeof the obstacte, as shown in Fig 11-45. Ifthe wavelength is much larger than the object,as with the arass blades of Fig l-4Sa, the wave bends around them almast as if they are not there. For larger abjects, parts (b) and (), there i more of a “shadow” region behind the obsiacle where We might not expect the waves to penetrate—but they do, at east alittle. Then notice in part (8). where the abstace isthe same asin part (c) but the wavelength is longer, that there i, more diffraction into the shadow region. As a rule of thumb, only Ifthe rare length is smaller dhan the size of the object will shere be a significant shadow region. This rule applies to reflection from an obstacle as wel. Very litle of a wave is reflected unless the wavelength is smaller than the size af the obstacle ‘A rough guide 10 the amount of diffraction is vin «3. where @ is roughly the angular spread of waves after they have passed through an opening of width L or around an obstacle of width L. ‘That waves can bend around obstacles, and thus can carry energy to areas behind obstacles, is very different from energy carried by material particles ‘A clear example isthe following: if you are standing around a comer on one side of a building, you cant be hit by a bascball thrown from the other side, but you can hear a shout or other sound because the sound waves diflract around the edges. [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLETI=IS] Cell phones. Cellular phones operate by radio waves with frequencies of about 1 or 2 GHz (1 gigahertz = 10° Hz). ‘These waves cannot penetrate objects that conduct clecriity, such a8 a (ree trunk or a sheet of metal, The connection is hest if the transmiting antenna is within clear view of the handset. Yet itis possible to carry on phone conversa- tion even ifthe tower i blocked by tees or ifthe handset is inside a ar. Why? RESPONSE [f the mio waves havea frequency of about 2GHz,0nd the peed of propagation is equal (o the speed of light,3 x 10° m/s (Section 1-5), then the wavelength is A= 0/f = (3 x 10%m/s)/(2 x 10° Hz) = 0.15m. ‘The waves can diffrac readily around objects Sem in diametcr or smaller Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave A simple wave with a single frequency, as in Fig. 11-46, is sinusoidal, To express such a wave mathematically, we assume it has a particular wavelength 2 and frequency f.At = 0, the wave shape shown is n2® Asin x, aan, Whete y is the displacement of the wave (be it a longitudinal oF uansverse wave) at position x; A is the amplitude of the wave, and 2 is the wavelength [Equation 11-21 works because it repeats itsell every wavelength when =A, y= sin2e = sin] 314 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and WavesSuppose the wave is moving to the right with velocity ». After a time each part of the wave (indeed, the whole wave “shape”) has moved to the right a distance 11. Figure 11-47 shows the wave at = 0 as a solid curve, and at a later time ¢-as a dashed curve. Consider any point on the wave at 1 = 0: say, a erest at some position x. After a time f, that rest will have traveled a distance rv, so its new position is a distance or greater than its old position, To describe this same point on the Wave shape, the argument of the sine function must have the same numerical value, so we replace x in FIGURE 11-47 Eq, 11-21 by (x ~ v1) 5 asa? 0] A taveling wave Tn ime the wave moves a distance 1-D wave, moving 1-22) in positive x direction Said another way, if you are on a crest, as f increases, x must increase al the same rate so that (x — v1) remains constant For a wave traveling slong the x axis to the left, toward decreasing values of 4p becomes =v, so y= Asin[ 22 cx + 29} fl summary ED wave, rarveling in negate ¥ direction (to the lef) {A vibrating object undergoes simple hara if che restos nic motion (SHIM) foree is proportional o the displacement, FS ks, ap The maximum displacement is called the amplitude The period, 7. the time required for one complete cycle (back and forth, and the requeney, jis the numberof cycles per secone: they are related by 1 pop ‘he peiod of vibration for @ mass m onthe end of & soring gen by rare aay «aiay SHM is sinusoidal, which means thot the displacement as a fonetion of time follows a sine or cosine curve. During SHM, the total energy B= tm +t? a3) is continually changing from potential to kinetic and back again, ‘A simple pendulum of length Lpproximates SHM i ts mplitade is small and friction can he ignoyed. For small amplitudes. its period is then gi r Ala) where g isthe acceleration of gravity When friction is present (Jor all ral springs and pendu- Tums), the motion is said @ be damped. The masimum slisplacement decreases in time, and the energy is eventually all transformed (o thermal energy, Ilan osillaing force # applied to & system capable of vibrating. the system's amplitude of vibration can be ¥e large ifthe frequency ofthe applied force matches the mata {or resonant) frequency of the oscillator. This effet is called Vibvating objects act 9s sources of waves that travel ‘outward front the source. Waves on water and on a stcing are ‘examples. The wave may be a pulse (a single crest). or it may be continuous (many crests and (coughs). ‘The wavelength of a evatinuvus distance between two snecessve crests. ‘is the number of wavelengths (or crests) point per unit cme, ide of 8 Wave is the maximum height of a crestor depth of a ough, relative to the normal (or equilib sum) level The wave velocity (how fasta crest moves) is equal tothe ‘product of wavelength and frequency; woidal wave is the ay any In a transverse wave, the osc ions are perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels. An example is a wave fn a sting In 8 longitudinal wave, the oscillations are along (parallel to) the line of travel: sound isan example ‘The intensity of & wave is the enerey per unit time cartied actoss unit area {in watts/i), For three-dimensional waves caveling in open space, the intensity decreases inversely as the distance from the source squared! aL-t60y [Wave intensity is propostional to Une amplitude squared and to the froquency squared: Waves reflect off objects in their path. When the wave front (of 3 tvo- or three-dimensional wave) strikes an object, the angle of refleeion is equal to the angle of incidence When a wave strikes a houndary between two materials in which it ean travel, part of the wave i reflected and partis Ueansmnited, Summary 315When two waves pas through the same region of space at the same time, they interfere. The resultant displacement at any point and ime isthe sum of their separate displacements; this can result in constructive interference, destructive inter- ference. or something in between, depending om the ampli= tudes and relative phases ofthe waves. ‘Wives traveling on a string of fied length interfere with saves that have reflected off the end and are traveling back in the opposite direction, AC certain frequencies standing waves can be produced in whieh the waves seem to be standing sil rather than traveling. The string (or other medium) i vibrating as ‘whole This sx resonance phenomenon, and the frequencies at ‘which standing waves occur are called resonant froquences |LQuestions Give some examples of everyday vibrating objects, Which exhibit SHM, atleast approximately? 2 Is the acceleration of a simple harmonie oscillator ever eto? If so, where? 3. Explain why the motion of a piston in an automobile engine is approximately simple harmonic. 4. Real springs have mass. Will the true period and frequency he larger or smaller than given by the equa tions for a mass oscillating on the end of an idealized massless spring? Expla 5. How could you double the maximum speed of a simple harmonic essllator (SHO)? 6 AS00kg (rout is attached to the hook of a vertieal spring scale, and then is released. Deseribe the seale reading as & funetion a time, 7. Ia pendulum clock is accurate at sea level, wil it gain oF lose time sehen taken to high altitude? Why? 8 A tre swing hanging from a branch reaches nearly (othe ground (Fig. 1-48). How could you estimate the height of the branch using only a stopwatch? FIGURE 11-48 Question 8 316 CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and Waves Points of destructive interfersnce (no vibration) are called ‘odes. Pons of constructive interference (maxim ample vibration) are called antnodes [Waves change direction, or refrat, when traveling from cone medium into-a second medium where their specd f diferent. Waves. spread, or ailfac, as they travel and foneaunter obstacles A rough guide wo the amount of ifae tion is 8 © A/, where isthe wavelength and fhe width of an opening of ubstale. Tete isa significant “shadow region” only if the wavelength A issmller than the so ofthe obstacle] {A uaveling wave can be represented mathemacally a Asin {22/0 o)}] 9. Why can you make water slosh back and forth in @ pan ‘only if you shake the pan at a certain frequency? 10, Give several everyday examples of resonance. 11, Is. cattle in 9 car ever resonance phenomenon? Explain 12, Is the frequency of a simple periodic wave equal to the fequeney ofits souree? Why or why not? 13, Explain the difference between the speed of transverse ‘wave traveling down a cord and the speed of a tiny piece of the cor. 14, Why do the strings used for the lowest-frequency notes ‘on a piano normally have wite wrapped around them? 15. What kind of waves do you think will travel doxin a ho zontal metal rod if you strike its end (a) vertically from above and (b) horizontally parallel to its length? 116, Since the density of air decreases with an inevease in Temperature, bat the hulk modulus #8 nearly indepen: dent of temperature, how would you expect the speed of sound saves in air to vary with temperature? 17. Give two reasons why circular water waves decrease in| amplitude as they travel asvay’ rom the souree. Two linear waves have the same amplitude and speed, and ‘iherwise are identea, except one hus half the wavelength fof the other: Which transmits more energy? Hy what factor? 1% When a sinusoidal wave erosses the houndary’ berswen 1 seetions of eard as in Fig. 11-33, the frequency does ‘ot change (although the wavelength and velocity: do change). Explain why 20. If 9 string is vibrating in throe segments, are there any places you cowld tonch it with a knife blade without sisturbing the motion? 21, When a standing wave exists on a string, the vibrations of incident and reflecied waves cancel at the nodes. Does ‘this mean that energy was destroyed” Explain 22, Tf we know that energy was being tronsmitted from one ‘lace to another, how might we determine whether the {energy was being carsied by particles (material bodies) or Dy waves?§ Problems 11-1 to 11-3 Simple Harmonic Motion 1. (1) If9 partiele undergoes SHM with amplimde 0.18, ‘what i the total distance it travels in one period?” 2 (I) An elastic cord is Sem long when a weight of 75N hangs from it but fs 85m long when a Weight of 180N hangs from ‘ic Whats the “spring” constant kf this elastic cord? A. (1) The springs ofa 1500-kg ear compress 5.10 mm when its Oks driver gets into the driver's sat. Ifthe car goes ‘over a bump. what willbe the frequency of vibrations? 4. (IDA fisherman's seule stretches 3.6m when a 2.7-ke fish hangs from it (2) What i the spring stiffness constant and (b) what will be the amplitude and frequency of Vibration if the fish is pulled down 2Sem more and relented so thats vibrates up and dsm? (1D) An elastic cord vitratos with a frequency of 30H when a mass of O.60kg is fang from it. What is ts frequency if enly 0.38 hangs ftom it? 6. GD) Construct a Table indicating the position x of the ‘mass in Fi. 11-2 at times = 0.47.47, 27.T7, and 37. where is the period of osillation. On a graph of x v8 plot these six points Now eonneet these points with & Smooth eure Based on these simple considerations. does your curve resemble that of a cosine of sine wave Fig. 1-80 oF 11-9)? 7. (ID)A semll ly of mass 0.25 is caught in a spides’s web. The web vibrates predominately with a frequency of 401z. (2) What is the value of the effective spring stiff ness constant k for the web? (6) At what frequency would you expect the web to vibrate if an insect of mass 50.2 were trapped? 8 (ID) A mass m at the end of a spring vibrates with a froqueney of 0.88 Hz. When an adgitional 680-g mass is Added to m, the frequency is 0.0 He. What is the valve ot m? 9. (II) A 0.6044 mass at the end of a spring vibrates 3.0 ‘imes pet second with an amplitude of 0.131m, Determine (@) the velocity when it passes the equilibrium point (8) the velocity when itis 0.10m from equilibrium, ¢e) the {otal energy of the system, and (i) the equation describing the motion of the mass, assuming that x was a ‘maximum at ¢= U | (UD) At what displacement from equilibrium is the speed of a SHO half the maximum value? - (II) A mass attached to the end of a spring is stretched a distance xy from equilibrium and released. At what distance from equilibrium will it have acceleration equal {o half its maximum acesleration? 12, (I) A mass of 2.62 kg stretches a vertical spring 1.315 m. H the spring is stretched an additional 0.1lm and released, how long does it take « reach the (new) equi- librium position again? 13, (ID An object with mass 3.0kg is attached 10 a spring with spring stiffness constant. k = 280N/m and is ‘executing simple harmonic motion, When the object is 0.020 m from its equlibsium pesition cfs moving with a speed of 55m/s (a) Caleulate the amplitude of the siotion, (b) Calculate the maxiowum velocity attained by the object. [Hint: Use conservation of energy) 5 14, (I) It takes a force of 800N to compress the spring of a toy popgun 0.200m to “load” 9 0.180-kg ball. With what spec will the ball leave the gun? 15, (HI) A mass sitting on a hosizontal, frictionless surface is attached to one end of a spring. the other end is fixed (oa wall. 3.03 of work is required to compress the spring by 02m. If the mass is released from rest with the spring compressed, the mass experiences a maximum aceelera- tion of 1Sm/st. Find the value of (a) the spring stiffness constant and (b) the mass 16, (II) A O.6tl-kg mass vibrates according to the equation X= DAScos 640s, where x is in meters and # is in seconds. Determine (a) the amplitude, (b) the frequency. (o) the total enerys; and (d) the kinetic energy and poten tinl energies when x = 030m, (HI) At what displacement from equilibrium isthe enerey ‘of SHO half KP ane half 9? 18 (U1) If one wibvation has 7.0 times the energy of @ second, Dut their frequencies und masses are the same, What is the ‘aio of their amplitudes? 19 (11) A 2.00-kg pumpkin esillats from a vertically hanging light spring once every 065 (a) Write down tne equation aiving the pumpkin’s position » (+ upiard) as a funtion ‘of time f, assuming i started by being compressed Nem fiom the equilibrium position (where y= 0). and leased. (b) How long will it take to got to the equifbeium position forthe fist time? (c) What will he the pumpkia’s ‘maximum speed? (dl) What will be iis maximum aeceler- sion, and where will that frst be attained? 20, (11) A block of mass m is supported by to ‘dential parallel vertical springs each with Spring siflness constant & (Fig. 1119), What will be the frequency of vibration? 1 FIGURE 11-49 Problom 20, 21, (I) A_310-g mass vibrates according the equation x= 0.38sin6 50, whore x is in moters and ¢ is in seconds. Determine (a) the amplitude, (b) the frequency. (c) the petiod, (d) the total energy. and (e) the KE and mE when i 90cm, (f) Draw a careful graph of x vs. 1 showing the earrect amplitude and period 22, (Il) Figure 11-50 shows two examples of SHM, labeled A. and Bor each, whut is (a) the amplitude, (b) the frequency, and (¢) the period? (a) Weite the equations for both A and B in the form of a sine or cosine, #() FIGURE 11-50. Problem 22, Problems 317