OCR A-Level Computer Science Spec Notes

1.2 Software and software development

1.2.1 Systems Software
(a) Function and purpose of operating systems
Operating System: Low-level software which controls a computer’s basic functions such as:
- Controls communication to/from devices using protocols
- Manage Software: Loading/Uploading software to memory
- Provide Security: Username/Password control
- Handles code translations of: compilers/interpreters/assemblers to translate HLL/LLL
into machine code.
- Provide a user interface (UI) / HCI : So user can interact with the computer e.g Command
Line Interface (CMD/CLI)
- Utility software used to carry out maintenance tasks to maintain hardware
- Uses job scheduling to provide fair access to processor according to set rules.

(b) Memory management (paging, segmentation, virtual memory)

- Memory is limited so it needs to be managed.
- This is achieved by providing each process with a segment of the total memory
- This is so there is no corruption of data during memory transfer
- Ensures programs can’t access each other’s memory unless legitimately required to.
- Provides security to OS
- Allows programs larger than main memory to run
- Allows separate processes to run while managing memory

Paging Segmentation Virtual Memory

- Splits memory into - Splits memory into - When memory

fixed-size chunks variable sized logical inefficient = allocated
made to fit the memory divisions which can secondary storage
hold whole programs memory used to allow
programs to run

- Are assigned to memory when needed to allow - Uses backing store as

programs to run despite insufficient memory. additional memory for
temporary storage

- Are stored on a backing store disk to swap parts of - Swap pages to/from
programs used for virtual memory. RAM (paging)

- Allow programs to be stored in memory - Hold part of program

non-contiguously. not currently in use

- May cause disk threshing when more time spent swapping pages from memory to disk
than processing so computer may ‘hang’.
(c) Interrupts (function of ISRs)
Interrupt: A signal from a device alerting the CPU for its immediate attention
- Obtain processor time via generating a signal/message to processor stating they need to
be serviced immediately
- Breaks current execution which is occuring in the processor
- Interrupts have different priorities
- Start when current FDE cycle is complete to ensure max efficiency of processor
- Can only interrupt a low-priority task to avoid delays/loss of data
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
- Check IR to compare interrupt priority compared to task
- If lower/equal priority = current task continues
- If higher priority = CPU completes FDE cycle
- Contents of registers stored in LIFO stack
- Location of ISR is loaded by loading the relevant value into the PC
- When ISR is complete
● Flags sent to inactive state
● Further interrupts checked & serviced if necessary
● Contents of stack popped and loaded back onto registers to resume processing

(d) Scheduling
Scheduler: Manages the amount of time allocated to different processes in the CPU. It has
several purposes:
- Maximise # of jobs completed in set time
- Maximise # of users receiving fast response times with minimal delay
- Ensure all jobs are processed fairly so long jobs don’t monopolise the processor
- Obtain the most efficient use of processor time and utilise resources dependent upon
priorities
- Prevent process starvation from applications in deadlock failing to run

Scheduling Algorithms
Scheduling Process of Advantages Disadvantages
Algorithm Scheduling

Round - All jobs given - Simple to - The importance of the

Robin equal amount implement as process is not taken into
of processor jobs are account
time. If not relatively the - Some jobs require multiple
completed = same size processing tuns making
sent to back round robin inefficient for
of queue and longer jobs
next job is
given time

First come - Jobs -Simple algorithm - Once one job starts it

first completed in which starts a job as prevents other jobs from
served order of soon as it reaches the being processed
arrival. Other front of the queue - Long jobs take longer
 processes which decreases efficiency
wait in a of processor
queue - +Round Robin
disadvantages

Shortest - Jobs ordered - Ensures max # - When a longer job is

Job first by how much of jobs processed, it would be
time each job completed interrupted when a
takes to - Minimises shorter job arrives in the
complete average time to queue (Could never
process a task complete job is short jobs
keep coming)
- +Round Robin
disadvantages

Shortest - Orders jobs - Allows short - +Round Robin

remaining by how much processes to be disadvantages
time time they handles very
have quickly
remaining till - Ensures max #
completion of jobs
completed

Multilevel - This uses a - Enures higher - Complex to implement

Feedback number of priority - Not efficient if jobs have
queues queues. Each processes run similar priorities
of these on time
queues has a
different
priority.

(e) Distributed, embedded, multi-tasking, multi-user, real time OS

There are different types of operating systems:
- Multi-tasking: Allows more than one program to run simultaneously (Windows/Linux)
- Multi-user: Allows multiple users to operate one powerful computer using terminals
- Embedded: Handles a specific task on specific hardware (limited resources) (ATM)
- Distributed: Allows multiple computers (cluster) to work simultaneously on a problem as a
single system. Shares data to reduce bottlenecks
- Real-time: The data is processed immediately and a response is given within a guaranteed
time frame (Planes)
- Batch: The task of doing the same job over and over again (With different inputs/outputs)

(f) BIOS
Basic Input/Output system (BIOS) allows the computer to be ‘booted up’ when switched on
- When switched on, PC points processor to BIOS memory to start up
- Check to see if computer is functional/memory installed/processor functional
- Stored in flash memory for modification
(g) Device drivers
- Normally provided with a peripheral device which contains instructions to enable the
peripheral and OS to communicate and configure hardware.
- Enables multiple versions of OS to communicate with devices

(h) Virtual machines

- Theoretical/Generalised computer where a translator is available when programs are
run
- Can run OS on a software implementation
- Uses an interpreter to run intermediate code (Slower than compiler)
Intermediate Code
- Partially translated/simplified code (high/machine code)
- Can be produced by compiler (if error free)
- Protects source code from being copied to keep intellectual property
- Platform independent = improving portability
- The program runs more slowly than executable code as it needs to be translated each
time it is run by additional software.

1.2.2 Applications Generation

(a) Nature of applications
Software: Set of programs/instructions/code that runs on computers which makes hardware
work. (Applications/Utilities software)

Applications Software:
- Allows user/hardware to carry out tasks
- E.g Word processor/spreadsheet packages/photo-editing suites/web browsers

(b) Utilities
Utilities Software:
- Small piece of systems software with one purpose usually linked with maintenance
- E.g Anti-Virus/Disk defragmentation/File managers

(c) Open source vs closed source

Open Source Closed Source

- Free for others to examine/recompile - Sold as license to use the software

- Users can create amended versions of - Company/Developer holds copyright

program (Access to source code) so users don’t have access to source
code

- No helpline since no commercial - Helpline/support available from

organisation company + regular updates + large user
base

- E.g Linux/Firefox/Libre Office - E.g MAC OS,iWork,Safari

(d) Translators: Interpreters, compilers, assemblers
Translators: Converts code from one language to another (Between HLL,LLL,source
code,object,intermediate, executable,machine code). There are 3 types of translators:
- Interpreters
● Interprets & runs HLL code by converting it to machine code & runs it before
reading next line
● Reports one error at a time (stops to show location of error)
● Must be present each time the program is run so program runs slower due to
translation
● Source code (visible & changeable)
- Compilers
● Converts HHL source code to machine code
● Translates whole program as a unit + creates executable program when completed
● Gives list of errors at end of compilation
● Not readable by humans to protect intellectual property
● Machine dependent & architecture specific (Different code needed)
● Compiler is no longer needed when executable code is used
● Produces intermediate code for virtual machines
- Assemblers
● Uses low-level source code to translate assembly -> machine code
● Reserves storage for instructions & data
● One assembly language instruction is converted into one machine code
instruction
● Many lines needed for the simplest of tasks

(e) Stages of compilation

Compilation has several stages:
- Lexical Analysis
● Comments/Whitespace removed from program
● Remaining code turns into a series of tokens (sequences of characters)
● Symbol table is created to keep track of variables/subroutines
- Syntax Analysis
● Abstract syntax tree is built from tokens produced in lexical analysis
● If any tokens break rules of language = Syntax errors generated
- Code generation
● Abstract tree code is converted to object code
● Object code = machine code before ‘linker’ is run
- Code optimization
● Tweaks code to run as smoothly as possible

(f) Linkers, loaders, libraries

Linker: Combines compiled code with library code into a single executable file
Loader: Part of OS & responsible for loading a program into memory
Libraries: Pre-written bodies of code that can be used by programmers
- Save time/cover complex areas/different languages can be used together
 1.2.3 Software Development
(a) Waterfall/Agile methodologies/Extreme programming/Spiral/RAD
Developing Software project:
Step Process

Feasibilit - To carry out enquiries on whether the project is possible and solvable. Plans can
y Study be revised if there are problems
- Analysts consider parameters such as:
● Technical feasibility – Is there hardware/software available to implement
the solution?
● Economic feasibility/cost benefit analysis – Is the proposed solution
possible to run economically?
● Social feasibility – Is the effect on the humans involved too extreme to be
socially acceptable/environmentally sound?
● Effect on company’s practices and workforce – Is there enough
operational skill in the workforce to be capable of running the new
system?
● What is the expected effect on the customer? - If customer not
impressed then there may not be a point.
● Legal/ethical feasibility – Can the proposed system solve the problem
within the law?
● Time available – Is the time scale acceptable for the proposed system to
be possible?

Require - The specification document is developed between client/software developers

ments creates an understanding of a problem and solutions can be derived
Specifica - It states everything the new system is going to do including:
tion ● Input requirements
● Output requirements
● Processing requirements
● Clients agreement to requirements
● Hardware requirements
● Software requirements

Testing This process makes sure the project runs smoothly. There are 4 types of testing:
- Black-Box Testing: Tests the functionality of the program without looking into
the internal structures/working. Only input/output
- White-Box Testing: Tests the structure & workings of the application as
opposed to its functionality
- Alpha Testing: Where testers in the organisation test & identify all possible
bugs/issues before the product is released
- Beta Testing: Test the program in a ‘real environment’ with limited end-users so
they provide feedback on the functionality of the program.

Docume - Requirements specification: Details exactly what the system will do

ntation - Design: Includes algorithms/screen layouts/data storage descriptions
written - Technical Documentation: Details how the system works for future
through maintenance E.g Descriptions of code/modules & functionality
out the - User Documentation: Tell sythe user exactly how to operate the system E.g
process Tutorials/Error messages descriptions/troubleshooting guide
The waterfall lifecycle
- Series of linear stages presented in order (Can only go to next stage after previous is
done)
- Possible to back if necessary
- List of stages: Feasibility Study, Investigation/Requirements Elicitation, Analysis,
Design, Implementation/Coding, Testing, Installation, Documentation, Evaluation,
Maintenance
Agile development methodologies
- A group of methodologies to cope with changing requirements
- Software produced in a iterative manner (Build on previous versions)
Extreme Programming (XP)
- Example of a Agile Development Methodology (Iterative in nature)
- Customer is part of the team to help decide ‘users stories’ (Requirements/Tested)
- Each iteration creates a version of the program with code good enough to be the final
product
- Pair programming: One writes/one analyse = switch over
The spiral model
- Designed to manage risk. 4 stages:
● Determine Objectives: Determine objectives according to biggest risks
● Identify/Resolve Risks: Risks identified & alternate solutions considered. Project
stopped = Risk too high
● Development & Testing: This is where the program is developed/tested
● Plan next iteration: Determines what happens at next iteration
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
- Involves use of prototypes
- Prototype shown to user & feedback given to amend prototype until user is happy
- Constantly developed & reviewed by user until user = satisfied

(b) Merits and drawback of different methodologies

Waterfall Lifecycle

Advantages Disadvantages

- Suited to large scale static projects - If changes occur, hard to do = loss in

time/money

- Focuses on early stage development - Inflexible/limiting to change

requirements

- Focuses on end user (Can be involved in - Dependent on ‘clear requirements’ so

different parts of project) there is little ‘splash-back’

- Progress of development easily - Produces excessive documentation =

measurable time consuming

- Generally more progress forward than - Missing system components tend to be

backward found during design/development

- Orderly sequence guarantees quality - Performance can’t be tested until fully

 written documents completed

Agile development methodologies (Extreme Programming)

Advantages Disadvantages

- New requirements adapted throughout - Client has to be part of team which

might be inconvenient for them
- End-User is integral throughput - Lack of documents due to emphasis on
coding = not suitable for larger
- Pair programming allows code to be projects
efficient/robust/well written

- Code is created quickly and modules

available for user as they are done

The spiral model

Advantages Disadvantages

- Large amount of risk analysis - High skilled team needed for risk
significantly reduces risk as risks are analysis
fixed in early development stages

- Software prototype created early and - Development costs high due to number
updated in every iteration of prototypes created & increased
customer collaboration

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

Advantages Disadvantages

- End user can see a working prototype - Emphasis on speed & development
early in project affects overall system quality

- End user more involved & can change - Potential for inconsistent designs &
requirements so clear direction on lack of detail in documentation
where the program is heading

- Overall development time is quicker - Not suitable for safety critical systems
reducing costs

- Concentration on essential elements

for fast completion
1.2.4 Types of Programming Language
(a) Need for variety of programming paradigms
Paradigms = Methods

Many types of programming languages which are high/low level languages:

- High-level languages
● Uses language more similar to human language (English + Mathematical Expressions)
● Can be converted to machine code

- Low-level languages
● Directly linked to architecture of computer
● Machine/Assembly code are low level

(b) Procedural languages

- High level, 3rd gen, imperative languages
- Uses sequences/selection/iteration
- Program gives a series of instructions line by line on what/how to so an operation
- Statements are called functions/procedures
- Breaks down the solution into subroutine blocks which are rebuilt and combined to form
the program
- Tasks completed in a specific way
- Logic of program = series of procedure calls
- E.g VB.NET/Python/C

(c) Assembly language (LMC)

Assembly code:
- Machine oriented language
- Closely related to computer architecture
- Uses mnemonics for instructions
- Translated by a assembler
- Easier to write than machine code, but more difficult than HLL.
- Descriptive names for data stores
- Each instruction is translated into 1 machine code instruction.

LMC: fictional processor designed to illustrate the principles of how processors and assembly
code work.

LMC instruction set:

Mnemonic Function Example Explanation
Instruction

ADD Add ADD n Add the contents of n to the ACC

SUB Subtract SUB n Subtract the contents of n from the ACC

STA Store STA n Store the number n

 LDA Load LDA n Load the contents of n into the ACC

BRA Branch BRA number Unconditional jump to number label

always

BRZ Branch if zero BRZ number Jump to number label if ACC contents is
zero

BRP Branch if BRP number Jump to number label if ACC contents is

positive positive

INP Input INP Prompt for a number to be input

OUT Output OUT Outputs the contents of the ACC

HLT End HLT Stops program execution

Program

DAT Data Location n DAT 10 Creates data location n and stores the
number 10 in it

(d) Modes of memory addressing

Different ways of accessing memory in low level languages:
- Direct addressing
● Simplest & most common type of addressing
● Address in the memory where the value actually is that should be used
● “Instruction ADD 10 means go find data value in data location ‘10’ and add that value
to the accumulator’
● Used in assembly language

- Indirect addressing
● The operand is the address of the data to be used by the operator
● Useful for larger memories
● E.g. in ADD 23, if address 23 stores 45, address 45 holds the number to be used.

- Indexed addressing
● Modifies the address given by adding the number from the Index Register to the
address in the instruction.
● Allows efficient access to a range of memory locations by incrementing the value in
the IR e.g. used to access an array
● E.g Adding data value 5 to data location 20, 6 is at 21 etc
● Final address = base address + index
 - Immediate addressing
● Used in assembly language
● Memory remains as constant as it doesn't change (address field = constant)
● Data in the operand is the value to be used by the operator e.g. ADD 45 adds the
data value stored in data location ‘45’ to the value in the ACC.

(e) Object-oriented languages (OOP)

- Programming paradigm which enables programs to solve problems by implementing
components such as objects to work together to create a solution
- Most programs have OOP in them (Java/C++/C#)
- Components of OOP include:
● Classes: Template used to define an object. Specifies what methods/attributes the
object should have.
● Object: Self-contained instance of a class based off real world entities made from
attributes and methods.
● Methods: Subroutines which forms the actions an object can carry out
● Attributes: Value stored in variable associated with an object.
● Constructor: Method describes how an object is created.

Features of OOP
● Encapsulation
- Process of hiding data within objects to keep attributes private
- Prevents objects being amended in unintended ways
- Private attributes can only be amended by public methods = maintains data
integrity
● Inheritance
- When a class inherits it’s parents attributes & methods
- This class might have it’s own methods/attributes which could override
methods of the parent class (unless superclass is used)
- The class can be used as a base for different objects to save time
● Polymorphism
- Meaning “Many Forms”
- Applies same method to different objects = treated in same way
- Code written is able to handle different objects in the same way to reduce
the volume produced