DIODES AND APPLICATIONS

THE DIODE
A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which half is
doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region in
between. The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal. The n
region is called the cathode and is connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode
structure and schematic symbol are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Forward Bias
To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows
current through the pn junction. Figure 2 shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive
material (contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward bias. This external
bias voltage is designated as VBIAS. The resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not
damage the diode. Notice that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode
and the positive side is connected to the p region. This is one requirement for forward bias. A
second requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential.

Figure 2

Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region, simply because they have lost too
much energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. Since unlike
charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward
the left end of the p region. The holes in the p region provide the medium or “pathway” for these
valence electrons to move through the p region.
The valence electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left. The holes, which are the
majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the junction,
as you can see in Figure 2. This effective flow of holes is the hole current. You can also view the
hole current as being created by the flow of valence electrons through the p region, with the
holes providing the only means for these electrons to flow.
As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external connection (conductor) and to the
positive side of the bias-voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region; at the same time,
these electrons become conduction electrons in the metal conductor.
Recall that the conduction band in a conductor overlaps the valence band so that it takes much
less energy for an electron to be a free electron in a conductor than in a semiconductor and that
metallic conductors do not have holes in their structure. There is a continuous availability of
holes effectively moving toward the pn junction to combine with the continuous stream of
electrons as they come across the junction into the p region.
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced. As
more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn junction, the
number of negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward
bias causes the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Recall that the electric field between the positive and negative ions in the depletion region on
either side of the junction creates an “energy hill” that prevents free electrons from diffusing
across the junction at equilibrium. This is known as the barrier potential.
When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-
voltage source to overcome the barrier potential and effectively “climb the energy hill” and cross
the depletion region. The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion
region is equal to the barrier potential. In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy
equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion region. This energy loss results
in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7 V), as indicated in
Figure 3(b). An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to the
internal resistance of the material. For doped semiconductive material, this resistance, called the
dynamic resistance, is very small and can usually be neglected.

Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode. Figure 4 shows
a dc voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to produce reverse bias. This
external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias.
Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the negative
side is connected to the p region. Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider than
in forward bias or equilibrium.
 Figure 4
In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence electrons
and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create additional negative
ions. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers. The
flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being “pulled” toward the positive side.
The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time after the
reverse-bias voltage is applied. As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases. As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the
electric field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the potential
across the depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At this point, the transition current
essentially ceases except for a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.
The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition current dies out is
caused by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs. The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are “pushed”
toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage.
When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they “fall down the energy hill” and
combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the positive
bias voltage, creating a small hole current.
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than the conduction band in the n
region. Therefore, the minority electrons easily pass through the depletion region because they
require no additional energy. Reverse current is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected. However, if the external
reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
This is what happens. The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons
so that as they speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to knock
valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band. The newly created conduction
electrons are also high in energy and repeat the process. If one electron knocks only two others
out of their valence orbit during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply. As
these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy to go
through the n region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes.
The multiplication of conduction electrons just discussed is known as the avalanche effect, and
reverse current can increase dramatically if steps are not taken to limit the current.
When the reverse current is not limited, the resulting heating will permanently damage the diode.
Most diodes are not operated in reverse breakdown, but if the current is limited (by adding a
series-limiting resistor for example), there is no permanent damage to the diode.

VOLTAGE-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

V-I characteristic for Forward Bias

When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is called the
forward current and is designated IF. With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As
you gradually increase the forward-bias voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the
diode gradually increase.
A portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the limiting resistor. When the forward-
bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7
V (barrier potential), the forward current begins to increase rapidly.
As you continue to increase the forward-bias voltage, the current continues to increase very
rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V. This small
increase in the diode voltage above the barrier potential is due to the voltage drop across the
internal dynamic resistance of the semi-conductive material.

V-I characteristic for Reverse Bias

When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only an extremely small reverse
current (IR) through the pn junction. With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse current. As
you gradually increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse current and the
voltage across the diode increases. When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where
the reverse voltage across the diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current
begins to increase rapidly.
As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but
the voltage across the diode increases very little above VBR. Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a
normal mode of operation for most pn junction devices.
If you plot the results of reverse-bias measurements on a graph, you get the V-I characteristic
curve for a reverse-biased diode. The diode reverse voltage (VR) increases to the left along the
horizontal axis, and the reverse current (IR) increases downward along the vertical axis.
There is very little reverse current until the reverse voltage across the diode reaches
approximately the breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the curve. After this point, the reverse
voltage remains at approximately VBR, but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating and
possible damage if current is not limited to a safe level. The breakdown voltage for a diode
depends on the doping level, which the manufacturer sets, depending on the type of diode. A
typical rectifier diode (the most widely used type) has a breakdown voltage of greater than 50 V.
Some specialized diodes have a breakdown voltage that is only 5 V.
The complete V-I characteristic curves
Combine the curves for both forward bias and reverse bias, and you have the complete V-I
characteristic curve for a diode, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

DIODE MODELS

Bias connections
Recall that a diode is forward-biased when a voltage source is connected as shown in Figure
7(a). The positive terminal of the source is connected to the anode through a current-limiting
resistor. The negative terminal of the source is connected to the cathode. The forward current (IF)
is from anode to cathode as indicated. The forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential
is from positive at the anode to negative at the cathode.

Figure 7
A diode is reverse-biased when a voltage source is connected as shown in Figure 7(b). The
negative terminal of the source is connected to the anode side of the circuit, and the positive
terminal is connected to the cathode side. A resistor is not necessary in reverse bias but it is
shown for circuit consistency. The reverse current is extremely small and can be considered to be
zero. Notice that the entire bias voltage (VBIAS) appears across the diode.
Diode Approximations

The Ideal Diode Model

The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation and can be represented by a
simple switch. When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch, as
shown in Figure 8(a). When the diode is reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch,
as shown in part (b). Although the barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the
reverse current are all neglected, this model is adequate for most troubleshooting when you are
trying to determine if the diode is working properly.

Figure 8
In Figure 8(c), the ideal V-I characteristic curve graphically depicts the ideal diode operation.
Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are neglected, the diode is
assumed to have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the
curve on the positive vertical axis.

The forward current is determined by the bias voltage and the limiting resistor using Ohm’s law.

Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is assumed to be zero, as indicated in Figure 8(c)
by the portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.

The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage.

You may want to use the ideal model when you are troubleshooting or trying to figure out the
operation of a circuit and are not concerned with more exact values of voltage or current.
The Practical Diode Model
The practical model includes the barrier potential. When the diode is forward-biased, it is
equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent voltage source (VF) equal to the
barrier potential (0.7 V) with the positive side toward the anode, as indicated in Figure 9(a). This
equivalent voltage source represents the barrier potential that must be exceeded by the bias
voltage before the diode will conduct and is not an active source of voltage. When conducting, a
voltage drop of 0.7 V appears across the diode.

Figure 9
When the diode is reverse-biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in the ideal model, as
shown in Figure 9(b). The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias, so it is not a factor.
The characteristic curve for the practical diode model is shown in Figure 9(c). Since the barrier
potential is included and the dynamic resistance is neglected, the diode is assumed to have a
voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the
origin.

The forward current is determined as follows by first applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
Figure 9(a):

Substituting and solving for IF,

The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the portion of the curve on the
negative horizontal axis.

The practical model is useful when you are troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits. In these
cases, the 0.7 V drop across the diode may be significant and should be taken into account. The
practical model is also useful when you are designing basic diode circuits.
The Complete Diode Model
The complete model of a diode is the most accurate approximation and includes the barrier
potential, the small forward dynamic resistance r 'd and the large internal reverse resistance The
reverse resistance r 'R is taken into account because it provides a path for the reverse current,
which is included in this diode model.
When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the equivalent barrier
potential voltage (VB) and the small forward dynamic resistance r 'd as indicated in Figure 10(a).
When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the large internal
reverse resistance r 'R as shown in Figure 10(b). The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias,
so it is not a factor.

Figure 10
The characteristic curve for the complete diode model is shown in Figure 10(c). Since the barrier
potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included, the diode is assumed to have a voltage
across it when forward-biased. This voltage (VF) consists of the barrier potential voltage plus the
small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by the portion of the curve to the
right of the origin. The curve slopes because the voltage drop due to dynamic resistance
increases as the current increases. For the complete model of a silicon diode, the following
formulas apply:

The reverse current is taken into account with the parallel resistance and is indicated by the
portion of the curve to the left of the origin. The breakdown portion of the curve is not shown
because breakdown is not a normal mode of operation for most diodes.
For troubleshooting work, it is unnecessary to use the complete model, as it involves complicated
calculations. This model is generally suited to design problems using a computer for simulation.