Value Enhancement

Strategies
Aswath Damodaran

Aswath Damodaran 1
 The Objective Function In Corporate Finance

n The objective in decision making is to maximize firm value.

n In practice, conventional corporate financial theory argues that there
are three ways of creating value:
• Make better investment decisions. The net present value of the projects
that you take on increases your value as a firm.
• Use the right financing mix for your firm, which translates into a lower
cost of capital
• Establish an optimal reinvestment policy, which implies reinvenvesting
as long as projects earn a return greater than the cost of capital

Aswath Damodaran 2
 How Corporate Financial Decisions show up In
Classical DCF valuation
Determine the business risk of the firm (Beta, Default Risk)

The Investment Decision The Dividend Decision The Financing Decision

Invest in projects that yield a return If there are not enough Choose a financing mix that
greater than the minimum acceptable investments that earn the maximizes the value of the projects
hurdle rate hurdle rate, return the cash to taken, and matches the assets being
the owners financed.

Return on Capital Reinvestment Rate

20.00% 50% Equity: Debt::
Beta=1.25 Default Risk

Cost of Capital
Current Expected Growth = ROC * RR 12.22%
EBIT(1-t) = = .50 * 20%= 10%
$3,558 million

Year EBIT(1-t) Reinvestment FCFF Term. Value PV

Base $ 3,558 $ 1,779 $ 1,779
1 $ 3,914 $ 1,947 $ 1,966 $ 1,752
2 $ 4,305 $ 2,142 $ 2,163 $ 1,717
3 $ 4,735 $ 2,356 $ 2,379 $ 1,682
4 $ 5,209 $ 2,592 $ 2,617 $ 1,649
5 $ 5,730 $ 2,851 $ 2,879 $ 1,616
6 $ 6,344 $ 2,974 $ 3,370 $ 1,692
Transition to 7 $ 6,957 $ 3,025 $ 3,932 $ 1,773 In stable growth:
stable growth 8 $ 7,558 $ 3,006 $ 4,552 $ 1,849 Reinvestment Rate=31.67%
inputs 9 $ 8,132 $ 2,904 $ 5,228 $ 1,920 Return on Capital = 16%
10 $ 8,665 $ 2,708 $ 5,957 $ 120,521 $ 42,167 Beta = 1.00
Value of the Firm = $ 57,817 Debt Ratio = 30.00%
- Value of Debt = $ 10,407 Cost of Capital = 10.19%
Value of Equity = $ 47,410

Aswath Damodaran 3
 Alternative Approaches to Value Enhancement

n Maximize a variable that is correlated with the value of the firm. There
are several choices for such a variable. It could be
• an accounting variable, such as earnings or return on investment
• a marketing variable, such as market share
• a cash flow variable, such as cash flow return on investment (CFROI)
• a risk-adjusted cash flow variable, such as Economic Value Added (EVA)
n The advantages of using these variables are that they
• Are often simpler and easier to use than DCF value.
n The disadvantage is that the
• Simplicity comes at a cost; these variables are not perfectly correlated
with DCF value.

Aswath Damodaran 4
 Economic Value Added (EVA) and CFROI

n The Economic Value Added (EVA) is a measure of surplus value

created on an investment.
• Define the return on capital (ROC) to be the “true” cash flow return on
capital earned on an investment.
• Define the cost of capital as the weighted average of the costs of the
different financing instruments used to finance the investment.
EVA = (Return on Capital - Cost of Capital) (Capital Invested in Project)
n The CFROI is a measure of the cash flow return made on capital
CFROI = (Adjusted EBIT (1-t) + Depreciation & Other Non-cash
Charges) / Capital Invested

Aswath Damodaran 5
 In Practice: Measuring Capital Invested

n Many firms use the book value of capital invested as their measure of
capital invested. To the degree that book value reflects accounting
choices made over time, this may not be true.
n In cases where firms alter their capital invested through their operating
decisions (for example, by using operating leases), the capital and the
after-tax operating income have to be adjusted to reflect true capital
invested.

Aswath Damodaran 6
 In Practice: Measuring Return on Capital

n Again, the accounting definition of return on capital may not reflect

the economic return on capital.
n In particular, the operating income has to be cleansed of any expenses
which are really capital expenses (in the sense that they create future
value). One example would be R& D.
n The operating income also has to be cleansed of any cosmetic or
temporary effects.

Aswath Damodaran 7
 In Practice: Measuring Cost of Capital

n DCF valuation assumes that cost of capital is calculated using market

values of debt and equity.
n If it assumed that both assets in place and future growth are financed
using the market value mix, the EVA should also be calculated using
the market value.
n If instead, the entire debt is assumed to be carried by assets in place,
the book value debt ratio will be used to calculate cost of capital.
Implicit then is the assumption that as the firm grows, its debt ratio
will approach its book value debt ratio.

Aswath Damodaran 8
 Estimating Nestle’s EVA in 1995: Return on
Capital

n Return on Capital
• After-tax Operating Income = 5665 Million Sfr (1 - .3351)
= 3767 Million Sfr
• Capital in Assets in Place1994 = BV of Equity + BV of Debt
= 17774+(4180+7546) = 29,500 Million Sf
• Return on Capital = 3767 / 29,500 = 12.77%

Aswath Damodaran 9
 Nestle’s Cost of Capital

n Cost of Equity = 4.5% + 0.99 (5.5%) = 10%

n Cost of Debt = 4.75% (1-.3351) = 3.16%
n Market Value of Equity = 56650 Million
n Value of Debt = 4180 +7546 = 11,726 Million Sfr
Cost of Capital = 10% (56650/68376)+3.16%(11726/68376) = 8.85%

Aswath Damodaran 10
 Estimating EVA for Nestle

n Capital Invested = 29500 Million Sfr

n Return on Capital = 12.77%
n Cost of Capital = 8.85%
n Economic Value Added in 1995 = (.1277 - .0885) (29,500 Million Sfr)
= 1154.50 Million Sfr

Aswath Damodaran 11
 Discussion Issue

n Assume now that the Book Value at Nestle had been understated at
14,750 Million. Assuming the Operating Income remains the same,
estimate the EVA.

Aswath Damodaran 12
 EVA for Nestle in U.S. Dollar Terms

n Capital Invested = $ 19,963 Million (29,500 Million Sfr converted at

$ 0.6767/franc)
n Return on Capital = 12.77%
n Cost of Capital = 11.21% (Effect of higher inflation and long bond
rate)
n Economic Value Added in 1995 = (.1277 - .1121) ($ 19,963 Million) =
$ 311 Million
n In Swiss Franc Terms, this works out to approximately Sfr 467 Million

Aswath Damodaran 13
 EVA for Growth Companies

n For companies, divisions or projects which make significant

infrastructure investments, with long gestation periods, the current
EVA may not be a good indicator of the quality of investments.

Aswath Damodaran 14
 Estimating Tsingtao’s EVA in 1996

n Tsingtao Brewery, a Chinese Beer manufacturer, has make significant

capital investments in the last two years, and plans to increase its
exports over time. Using 1996 numbers, Tsingtao had the following
fundamentals:
• Return on Capital = 1.28%
• Cost of Capital = 15.51%
• Capital Invested = 3,015 million CC
n Economic Value Added in 1996 = – 429 million CC

Aswath Damodaran 15
 Discussion Issue: Reading the EVA

n Tsingtao had a negative EVA of – 429 million in 1996. Assuming that

the book value of capital, operating income and cost of capital are
correctly measured, which of the following are implied by this EVA?
o The firm has invested in poor projects
o The firm has inferior management
o The firm is currently earning less on its projects than it should be
earning, given its cost of capital.
n What does this tell you about the current EVA of high growth firms
and projects which make large investments up front on the
expectations of high growth later on?
o The measured EVA will generally be very positive
o The measured EVA will generally be very negative

Aswath Damodaran 16
 Things to Note about EVA

n EVA is a measure of dollar surplus value, not the percentage

difference in returns.
n It is closest in both theory and construct to the net present value of a
project in capital budgeting, as opposed to the IRR.
n The value of a firm, in DCF terms, can be written in terms of the EVA
of projects in place and the present value of the EVA of future
projects.

Aswath Damodaran 17
 An Equity EVA

n When capital is difficult to measure, and leverage is not a choice

variable (because of regulations or standard practice), the economic
value added can be stated in equity terms
n Equity EVA = (ROE - Cost of Equity) (Equity Invested)
• Equity Invested : This is supposed to measure the equity invested in
projects in place. It is usually measured using the book value of equity,
with adjustments made.
• Return on Equity: This is supposed to measure the return made on the
equity invested in projects in place. It is usually measured by dividing the
net income by the book value of equity
• Cost of Equity: This is supposed to measure the cost of equity for the
project, division or firm, for which the EVA is being measured.

Aswath Damodaran 18
 J.P. Morgan’s Equity EVA: 1996

n Equity Invested at the end of 1995 = $ 10,451 Million

n Net Income Earned in 1996 = $ 1,574 Million
n Cost of Equity for 1996 = 7% + 0.94 (5.5%) = 12.17%
• I used the riskfree rate from the start of 1996
n Equity EVA for J.P. Morgan = $ 1574 Million - ($10,451
Million)(.1217) = $ 303 Million

Aswath Damodaran 19
 Increasing Equity EVA at J.P. Morgan

n Assume now that you are the CEO of J.P. Morgan and that your
compensation next year will depend upon whether you increase the
EVA or not. What are the three ways in which you can increase your
EVA?

Aswath Damodaran 20
 Divisional EVA

n When EVA is computed at the division level, the computation requires

that
• book value be estimated at the divisional level. Since firms do not
maintain balance sheets at divisional levels, this will involve allocation
mechanisms
• income be estimated at the divisional level. Again, allocation of fixed
headquarters expenses becomes an issue
• cost of equity and capital be estimated at the divisional level
n The initial estimates of EVA are likely to reflect the allocation
mechanisms used and the mistakes made in those allocations
n Changes in EVA over time are more useful measures than the initial
EVA estimates themselves

Aswath Damodaran 21
 Things to Note about EVA

n EVA is a measure of dollar surplus value, not the percentage

difference in returns.
n It is closest in both theory and construct to the net present value of a
project in capital budgeting, as opposed to the IRR.
n The value of a firm, in DCF terms, can be written in terms of the EVA
of projects in place and the present value of the EVA of future
projects.

Aswath Damodaran 22
 DCF Value and NPV

Value of Firm

= Value of Assets in Place + Value of Future Growth

= ( Investment in Existing Assets + NPVAssets in Place ) + NPV of all future projects

j= N

∑ NPV
j=1
j
= ( I + NPVAssets in Place ) +
where there are expected to be N projects yielding surplus value (or excess returns) in the future and I

is the capital invested in assets in place (which might or might not be equal to the book value of these
assets).

Aswath Damodaran 23
 The Basics of NPV

(EBITt (1 − t) + Deprt )
t=n

∑ (1+ WACC) t
- Initial Investment
NPVj = t =1 : Life of the project is n years

t= n
WACC (Initial Investment) Initial Investment
∑ (1+ WACC)
t +
( 1 +WACC)
n
Initial Investment = t =1 : Alternative Investment

t =n
(EBITt (1 − t) + Depr t ) t=n
WACC (Initial Investment) Initial Investment
∑t =1 (1+ WACC)
t - ∑
t =1 (1 + WACC)
t -
( 1 +WACC)
n
NPVj =
t =n
EBITt (1 − t) t =n
WACC (Initial Investment) Initial Investment t =n
Deprt
∑ (1+ WACC)
t - ∑ (1 + WACC)
t -
(1 + WACC)
n + ∑ (1 + WACC) t
= t =1 t=1 t =1

Aswath Damodaran 24
 An Aside on CFROI and NPV

n By focusing on percentage differences in returns, it may lead firms to

turn away good projects which earn surplus returns.
n It does not adjust for risk and required returns (It ignores the cost of
capital)
n It fails to factor in the initial investment. An investment that earns a
CFROI which exceeds its cost of capital may not necessarily be a good
investment.
NPV j =
t =n
(CFROI − WACC) Initial Investment
∑
t =1 (1 + WACC)
t (Initial Investment) -
(1 + WACC)
n

Aswath Damodaran 25
 NPV to EVA

• Define ROC = EBIT (1-t) / Initial Investment: The earnings before interest and taxes are assumed
to measure true earnings on the project and should not be contaminated by capital charges (such
as leases) or expenditures whose benefits accrue to future projects (such as R & D).
t =n
Initial Investment Deprt
n
= ∑ (1+ WACC) t
• Assume that (1 + WACC) t =1 : The present value of depreciation covers the
present value of capital invested, i.e, it is a return of capital.

t= n t= n
ROC (Initial Investment) WACC (Initial Investment)
NPV j = ∑ - ∑
(1 + WACC) (1 + WACC)
t t
t =1 t =1

t= n t= n
(ROC - WACC) (Initial Investment) EVA t
NPV j = ∑ = ∑ (1 + WACC)
+
t t
t =1 (1 WACC) t= 1

Aswath Damodaran 26
 DCF Valuation, NPV and EVA

j= N

∑ NPV
j=1
j
Value of Firm = ( I + NPVAssets in Place ) +

 t=n
(ROC - WACC) I A   j=N  t = n (ROC - WACC) I j  
IA + ∑ + ∑ ∑
 t
  j = 1  t=1 (1+ WACC)t  
= t =1 (1+ WACC) 

 t= n
(ROC - WACC) I A   j=N  t= jn (ROC - WACC) I j  
 A ∑
I + + ∑  ∑ 
 j=1  t = 1j (1 + WACC)  
t t

=
t= 1 (1+ WACC) 

 t= n
  j = N  t = jn EVA j 
 A ∑
+ ∑ ∑
EVA A  
I + t 
t = 1 (1+ WACC)
t
  j=1  t = j1 (1 + WACC)  
=

Firm Value = Capital Invested in Assets in Place + PV of EVA from Assets in Place + Sum of PV of
EVA from new projects

Aswath Damodaran 27
 A Simple Illustration

n Assume that you have a firm with

• IA = 100 In each year 1-5, assume that
• ROCA = 15% ∆ I = 10 (Investments are at beginning of each
year)
• WACCA = 10% ROC New Projects = 15%
• WACCNew Projects = 10%
n Assume that all of these projects will have infinite lives.
n After year 5, assume that
• Investments will grow at 5% a year forever
• ROC on projects will be equal to the cost of capital (10%)

Aswath Damodaran 28
 Firm Value using EVA Approach

Capital Invested in Assets in Place =$ 100

EVA from Assets in Place = (.15 – .10) (100)/.10 =$ 50
+ PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 1 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10] =$ 5
+ PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 2 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.1 = $ 4.55
+ PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 3 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.1 2 =$ 4.13
+ PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 4 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.1 3 =$ 3.76
+ PV of EVA from New Investments in Year 5 = [(.15 -– .10)(10)/.10]/1.1 4 =$ 3.42
Value of Firm =$ 170.86

Aswath Damodaran 29
 Firm Value using DCF Valuation: Estimating
FCFF

Base 1 2 3 4 5 Term.
Year Year
EBIT (1-t) : Assets in Place $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00 $ 15.00
EBIT(1-t) :Investments- Yr 1 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50
EBIT(1-t) :Investments- Yr 2 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50
EBIT(1-t): Investments -Yr 3 $ 1.50 $ 1.50 $ 1.50
EBIT(1-t): Investments -Yr 4 $ 1.50 $ 1.50
EBIT(1-t): Investments- Yr 5 $ 1.50
Total EBIT(1-t) $ 16.50 $ 18.00 $ 19.50 $ 21.00 $ 22.50 $ 23.63
- Net Capital Expenditures $10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81
FCFF $ 6.50 $ 8.00 $ 9.50 $ 11.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81

Aswath Damodaran 30
 Firm Value: Cost of Capital and Capital
Invested

Assets in Place $ 100.00

New Investment $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 10.00 $ 11.25
Cumulative New Investment $ 10.00 $ 20.00 $ 30.00 $ 40.00 $ 50.00
Cumulative Total Investment $ 110.00 $ 120.00 $ 130.00 $ 140.00 $ 150.00
Return on Capital 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 10%
Cost of Capital 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%

Aswath Damodaran 31
 Firm Value: Present Value of FCFF

Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 Term Year

FCFF $ 6.50 $ 8.00 $ 9.50 $ 11.00 $ 11.25 $ 11.81
PV of FCFF ($10) $ 5.91 $ 6.61 $ 7.14 $ 7.51 $ 6.99
Terminal Value $ 236.25
PV of Terminal Value $ 146.69

Value of Firm $170.85

Aswath Damodaran 32
 Implications

n Growth, by itself, does not creat value. It is growth, with investment in

excess return projects, that creates value.
• The growth of 5% a year after year 5 creates no additional value.
n The “market value added” , which is defined to be the excess of
market value over capital invested is a function of tthe excess value
created.
• In the example above, the market value of $ 170.85 million exceeds the
book value of $ 100 million, because the return on capital is 5% higher
than the cost of capital.

Aswath Damodaran 33
 EVA Valuation of Nestle
0 1 2 3 4 5 Term. Year
Return on Capital 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77%
Cost of Capital 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85%

EBIT(1-t) 3,766.66Fr 4,066.46Fr 4,390.06Fr 4,739.37Fr 5,116.40Fr 5,523.38Fr 5,689.08Fr

WACC(Capital) 2,612.06Fr 2,819.97Fr 3,044.38Fr 3,286.61Fr 3,548.07Fr 3,830.29Fr 3,945.20Fr
EVA 1,154.60Fr 1,246.49Fr 1,345.69Fr 1,452.76Fr 1,568.33Fr 1,693.08Fr 1,743.88Fr
PV of EVA 1,145.10Fr 1,135.67Fr 1,126.30Fr 1,117.00Fr 1,107.76Fr
29,787.18Fr
PV of EVA = 25,121.24Fr PV of 1693.08 Fr
growing at 3% a year
Value of Assets 29,500.00Fr
in Place =
Value of Firm = 54,621.24Fr
Value of Debt = 11,726.00Fr
Value of Equity = 42,895.24Fr
Value Per Share = 1,088.16Fr

Aswath Damodaran 34
 Discussion Issue

n What would the firm value be if the book value of the assets were
understated at 14,750 Mil Sfr?
n What if the valuation were done in dollars?
n Would the value be much lower?

Aswath Damodaran 35
 DCF Valuation of Nestle

0 1 2 3 4 5 Terminal
Year
EBIT (1-t) 0.00Fr 4,066.46Fr 4,390.06Fr 4,739.37Fr 5,116.40Fr 5,523.38Fr 5,689.08Fr
+ Deprec’n 2,305.00Fr 2,488.02Fr 2,685.58Fr 2,898.83Fr 3,129.00Fr 1,273.99Fr 1,350.42Fr
- Cap Ex 3,898.00Fr 4,207.51Fr 4,541.60Fr 4,902.22Fr 5,291.48Fr 2,154.45Fr 2,283.71Fr
- Change in WC 755.00Fr 814.95Fr 879.66Fr 949.51Fr 1,024.90Fr 417.29Fr 442.33Fr
FCFF -2,348.00Fr 1,532.02Fr 1,654.38Fr 1,786.46Fr 1,929.03Fr 4,225.62Fr 4,313.46Fr
Terminal Value 151,113.54Fr
WACC 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85%
PV of FCFF -2,348.00Fr 1,407.40Fr 1,396.19Fr 1,385.02Fr 1,373.90Fr 51,406.74Fr

Value of Firm= 54,621.24Fr

Value of Debt = 11,726.00Fr

Value of Equity = 42,895.24Fr

Value Per Share = 1,088.16Fr

Aswath Damodaran 36
 In summary ...

n Both EVA and Discounted Cash Flow Valuation should provide us

with the same estimate for the value of a firm.
n In their full forms, the information that is required for both approaches
is exactly the same - expected cash flows over time and costs of capital
over time.
n A policy of maximizing the present value of economic value added
over time should be the equivalent of a policy of maximizing firm
value.

Aswath Damodaran 37
 Year-by-year EVA Changes

n Firms are often evaluated based upon year-to-year changes in EVA

rather than the present value of EVA over time.
n The advantage of this comparison is that it is simple and does not
require the making of forecasts about future earnings potential.
n Another advantage is that it can be broken down by any unit - person,
division etc., as long as one is willing to assign capital and allocate
earnings across these same units.
n While it is simpler than DCF valuation, using year-by-year EVA
changes comes at a cost. In particular, it is entirely possible that a firm
which focuses on increasing EVA on a year-to-year basis may end up
being less valuable.

Aswath Damodaran 38
 Year-to-Year EVA Changes: Nestle
0 1 2 3 4 5 Term. Year
Return on Capital 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77% 12.77%
Cost of Capital 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85%
EBIT(1-t) 3,766.66Fr 4,066.46Fr 4,390.06Fr 4,739.37Fr 5,116.40Fr 5,523.38Fr 5,689.08Fr
WACC(Capital) 2,612.06Fr 2,819.97Fr 3,044.38Fr 3,286.61Fr 3,548.07Fr 3,830.29Fr 3,945.20Fr
EVA 1,154.60Fr 1,246.49Fr 1,345.69Fr 1,452.76Fr 1,568.33Fr 1,693.08Fr 1,743.88Fr
PV of EVA 1,145.10Fr 1,135.67Fr 1,126.30Fr 1,117.00Fr 1,107.76Fr
29,787.18Fr
PV of EVA = 25,121.24Fr PV of 590.67 Fr growing
at 3% a year
Value of Assets 29,500.00Fr
in Place =
Value of Firm = 54,621.24Fr
Value of Debt = 11,726.00Fr

Value of Equity 42,895.24Fr

Value per Share = 1088.16Fr

Aswath Damodaran 39
 Discussion Issues

n In the above example, Nestle is expected to increase its EVA from

1154.50 Million Sfr in 1995 to 1246 Million Sfr in 1996.
n Assume that you are the analyst following Nestle and it announces a
restructuring which will increase its EVA next year beyond 1246
million Sfr.
n Does it follow that the value of Nestle as a firm will increase?

Aswath Damodaran 40
 When Increasing EVA on year-to-year basis
may result in lower Firm Value

n 1. If the increase in EVA on a year-to-year basis has been

accomplished at the expense of the EVA of future projects. In this
case, the gain from the EVA in the current year may be more than
offset by the present value of the loss of EVA from the future periods.
• For example, in the Nestle example above assume that the return on
capital on year 1 projects increases to 13.27% (from the existing 12.77%),
while the cost of capital on these projects stays at 8.85%. If this increase
in value does not affect the EVA on future projects, the value of the firm
will increase.
• If, however, this increase in EVA in year 1 is accomplished by reducing
the return on capital on future projects to 12.27%, the firm value will
actually decrease.

Aswath Damodaran 41
 Firm Value and EVA tradeoffs over time
0 1 2 3 4 5 Term. Year
Return on Capital 12.77% 13.27% 12.27% 12.27% 12.27% 12.27% 12.27%
Cost of Capital 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85% 8.85%
EBIT(1-t) 3,766.66Fr 4,078.24Fr 4,389.21Fr 4,724.88Fr 5,087.20Fr 5,478.29Fr 5,642.64Fr
WACC(Capital) 2,612.06Fr 2,819.97Fr 3,044.38Fr 3,286.61Fr 3,548.07Fr 3,830.29Fr 3,948.89Fr
EVA 1,154.60Fr 1,258.27Fr 1,344.84Fr 1,438.28Fr 1,539.13Fr 1,648.00Fr 1,693.75Fr
PV of EVA 1,155.92Fr 1,134.95Fr 1,115.07Fr 1,096.20Fr 1,078.27Fr
28,930.98Fr
PV of EVA = 24,509.62Fr PV of 590.67 Fr growing
at 3% a year
Value of Assets 29,500.00Fr
in Place =
Value of Firm = 54,009.62Fr
Value of Debt = 11,726.00Fr

Value of Equity = 42,283.62Fr

Value Per Share = 1,072.64Fr

Aswath Damodaran 42
 EVA and Risk

n 2. When the increase in EVA is accompanied by an increase in the cost

of capital, either because of higher operational risk or changes in
financial leverage, the firm value may decrease even as EVA
increases.
• For instance, in the example above, assume that the spread stays at 3.91%
on all future projects but the cost of capital increases to 9.85% for these
projects (from 8.85%). The value of the firm will drop.

Aswath Damodaran 43
 Nestle’s Value at a 9.95 % Cost of Capital
0 1 2 3 4 5 Term. Year
Return on Capital 12.77% 13.77% 13.77% 13.77% 13.77% 13.77% 13.77%
Cost of Capital 8.85% 9.85% 9.85% 9.85% 9.85% 9.85% 9.85%
EBIT(1-t) 3,766.66Fr 4,089.94Fr 4,438.89Fr 4,815.55Fr 5,222.11Fr 5,660.96Fr 5,830.79Fr
WACC(Capital) 2,612.06Fr 2,843.45Fr 3,093.20Fr 3,362.79Fr 3,653.78Fr 3,967.88Fr 4,384.43Fr
EVA 1,154.60Fr 1,246.49Fr 1,345.69Fr 1,452.76Fr 1,568.33Fr 1,693.08Fr 1,446.36Fr
PV of EVA 1,134.68Fr 1,115.09Fr 1,095.82Fr 1,076.88Fr 1,058.25Fr
21,101.04Fr
PV of EVA = 18,669.84Fr PV of 590.67 Fr growing
at 3% a year
Value of Assets 29,500.00Fr
in Place =
Value of Firm = 48,169.84Fr
Value of Debt = 11,726.00Fr

Value of Equity = 36,443.84Fr

Value Per Share = 924.50Fr

Aswath Damodaran 44
 EVA: The Risk Effect

Nestle: Value Per Share and Cost of Capital

1,400.00Fr

1,200.00Fr

1,000.00Fr
Value Per Share

800.00Fr

600.00Fr

400.00Fr

200.00Fr

0.00Fr
7.85% 8.85% 9.85% 10.85% 11.85% 12.85% 13.85% 14.85%
Cost of Capital

Aswath Damodaran 45
 Advantages of EVA

1. EVA is closely related to NPV. It is closest in spirit to corporate

finance theory that argues that the value of the firm will increase if you
take positive NPV projects.
2. It avoids the problems associates with approaches that focus on
percentage spreads - between ROE and Cost of Equity and ROC and
Cost of Capital. These approaches may lead firms with high ROE to
turn away good projects to avoid lowering their percentage spreads.
3. It makes top managers responsible for a measure that they have more
control over - the return on capital and the cost of capital are affected
by their decisions - rather than one that they feel they cannot control as
well - the market price per share.
4. It is influenced by all of the decisions that managers have to make
within a firm - the investment decisions and dividend decisions affect
the return on capital and the financing decision affects the WACC.
Aswath Damodaran 46
 EVA and Changes in Market Value

n The relationship between EVA and Market Value Changes is more

complicated than the one between EVA and Firm Value.
n The market value of a firm reflects not only the Expected EVA of
Assets in Place but also the Expected EVA from Future Projects
n To the extent that the actual economic value added is smaller than the
expected EVA the market value can decrease even though the EVA is
higher.

Aswath Damodaran 47
 Implications of Findings

n This does not imply that increasing EVA is bad from a corporate
finance standpoint. In fact, given a choice between delivering a
“below-expectation” EVA and no EVA at all, the firm should deliver
the “below-expectation” EVA.
n It does suggest that the correlation between increasing year-to-year
EVA and market value will be weaker for firms with high anticipated
growth (and excess returns) than for firms with low or no anticipated
growth.
n It does suggest also that “investment strategies”based upon EVA have
to be carefully constructed, especially for firms where there is an
expectation built into prices of “high” surplus returns.

Aswath Damodaran 48
 When focusing on year-to-year EVA changes
has least side effects

1. Most or all of the assets of the firm are already in place; i.e, very little
or none of the value of the firm is expected to come from future
growth.
• [This minimizes the risk that increases in current EVA come at the
expense of future EVA]
2. The leverage is stable and the cost of capital cannot be altered easily by
the investment decisions made by the firm.
• [This minimizes the risk that the higher EVA is accompanied by an
increase in the cost of capital]
3. The firm is in a sector where investors anticipate little or not surplus
returns; i.e., firms in this sector are expected to earn their cost of
capital.
• [This minimizes the risk that the increase in EVA is less than what the
market expected it to be, leading to a drop in the market price.]

Aswath Damodaran 49
 When focusing on year-to-year EVA changes
can be dangerous

n 1. High growth firms, where the bulk of the value can be attributed to
future growth.
n 2. Firms where neither the leverage not the risk profile of the firm is
stable, and can be changed by actions taken by the firm.
n 3. Firms where the current market value has imputed in it expectations
of significant surplus value or excess return projects in the future.
• Note that all of these problems can be avoided if we restate the objective
as maximizing the present value of EVA over time. If we do so, however,
some of the perceived advantages of EVA - its simplicity and
observability - disappear.

Aswath Damodaran 50