INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

• ICT means Information and Communication Technology.

• ICTs are basically information-handling tools—a varied set of goods,

applications, and services that are used to produce, store, process, distribute,

and exchange information.

• ICT includes both old and new tools. Old ICT tools mainly include radio, TV,

and telephone

• New ICT tools mainly include computers, satellite, wireless technology, and

the Internet.

• ICTs not only refer to the latest computer and the Internet-based technologies

but also refer simple audio–visual aids such as transparencies, slides, cassette

and video recorders, radio, television, and film.

• ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the

infrastructure and components that enable modern computing. Although

there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to

mean all devices, networking components, applications and systems that

combined allow people and organizations (i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies,

governments and criminal enterprises) to interact in the digital world.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF ICT

• Main aims of ICT is to help students to become competent and confident users

who can use the basic knowledge and skills acquired to assist them in their daily

lives.

• To equip learners with the appropriate social skills required to cooperate with

fellow ICT learners for a more productive learning experience.

 • It also aims to help students become well-cultured citizens of the modern world.

It achieves this as it facilitates the discovery and appreciation of various cultural

heritages of different countries around the world.

• ICT aims to assist students to grow personally by facilitating different methods

of learning. Distance-learning programs are now provided by most colleges and

universities

• Improving the quality of teaching, especially across remote locations.

• Increasing transparency and strengthening systems, processes, and compliance

norms in higher education institutes.

• Measuring the students’ learning participation and effectiveness. Analysing

students’ behaviour to maximize students’ involvement, optimizing retentions,

and improving placements.

STRENGTHS OF ICT
• Individualization of learning: Individualization of learning means that people

learn as

individuals and not as a homogenous group.

• Interactivity: Through interactivity feature, the learner can relate to the content

more effectively, go forward and backward in the content, and start at any point,

depending upon prior knowledge and experience.

• Uniform quality: If content is well produced and is of good quality, the same

quality can be delivered to the rich and the poor, the urban and the rural

equally, and at the same low cost. This way of using ICTs can be a great

equalizer.

• More economical, higher speed of delivery and wider reach: With increase in

number of learners.

• Multiple teaching functions and diverse audiences: ICTs, especially the

computer and the Internet-based can be useful in drills and practices; to help
 diagnose and solve problems, for accessing information and knowledge

about various related themes.

LIMITATIONS OF ICT

• High infrastructure and start-up costs: It costs money to build ICT systems and

to maintain them. The cost of hardware and software can be very high.

• Little attention towards individual differences in order to achieve economies

of scale: The higher the quantity, the lower will be the cost. To keep the cost

low, we make the content common.

• Accessibility issue: Not everyone has equal access; therefore, not everyone

benefits equally from the use of ICTs.

• Difficulty in performance evaluation: Learning from ICTs is usually

multidimensional in nature and with long-term perspective.

• ICT is basically a delivery system: A medium is different from the content; ICTs

are essentially meant only to deliver contents; they are not expected to major

attitudinal or behavioral changes.

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

FUNDEMENTALS OF COMPUTER:

• Computer: A computer is a truly amazing machine that performs a specified

sequence of operations as per the set of instructions (known as programs)

given on a set of data (input) to generate desired information (output).

A complete computer system consists of four parts:

o Hardware: Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of the

computer.

o Software: Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex

code (Programs that make the computer perform tasks.)

o User: The computer operators are known as users

 o Data: Consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form

of numbers.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

• A computer is an electronic device used for storing and processing data and

carrying out sequence of operations. In short, it is a device which is invented

to simplify the complicated tasks

• Word computer 1st used in a book named as “The Yong Man’s Gleanings” By

Richard Braithwaite.

• Father of computer Charles Babbage was considered to be the father of

computing after his invention and concept of the Analytical Engine in 1837.

ABACUS
• Earliest calculating device, also called a counting frame.

• First counting device in China.

• Name Abacus was obtained from Greek word Abax means slab.

PASCALINE
• Developed by Blaise Pascal

• first device with an ability to perform additions and subtractions on whole

numbers

• contains numbers 0 to 9 on its circumference

TRANSISTORS
• In 1947, Transistors were introduced into the computers. With the

introduction of transistors, computations were simpler and faster.

• Which uses discrete transistors instead of vacuum tubes

• Large amounts of heat can be reduced more easily

• 1st computer programmer-Ada Lovelace

• Father of information theory-Claude Elwood

• In 1957, IBM developed -FORTRAN

• First machine that could add, subtract, multiply and divide-Arithmometer

 • Invention of 1st electronic digital computer-Jhon Vincent Atanasoff

• In 1960, Mainframe computer was designed which used IC for the first time.

• In 1970, Memory chip with 1KB storage capacity was developed by Intel.

• In 1975, First microcomputer was developed by H. Edward Roberts (now the

father of microcomputer).

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

Since its invention the computer technology has gone through regressive

upgradation process. Sometimes it even seems like the that this technological

advancement in the field of has not got any limits. The history of computer

development is been divided into five generations. Each one of the five generations

of computers is characterized by a major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate.

 I. First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

• They used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,

• These computers were very expensive to operate and use huge amount of

electricity,

• First generation computers relied on machine language.

• They could only solve one problem at a time.

• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was

displayed on printouts

• The UNIVAC (First commercial computer 1951) and ENIAC computers are

examples of first-generation computing devices.

➢ Advantages
• Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those

days.

• These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

➢ Disadvantages
• The computers were very large in size.

• They consumed a large amount of energy.

• They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes

II. Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

• Transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.

• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-

efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.

• Second-generation computers relied on punched cards for input and

printouts for output.

• moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,

languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.

• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time,

such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

➢ Advantages
• Smaller in size as compared to the first-generation computers.

• Used less energy and were not heated.

➢ Disadvantages
• Cooling system was required.

• Constant maintenance was required.

III. Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

• Use Integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.

• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called

semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of

computers.

• Users interaction started through keyboards and monitors instead of

punched cards

• Use of operating system allowed the device to run many different

applications at one time.

➢ Advantages
• Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

• More reliable.

• Used less energy

➢ Disadvantages

• Air conditioning was required.

• Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

IV. Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-1980s)

• Invention of microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers,

Now, thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.

What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of

the hand.

• In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984

Apple introduced the Macintosh.

 • As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked

together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the

Internet.

• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse

and handheld devices.

➢ Advantages

• More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

• Small in size

• Fast processing power with less power consumption

➢ Disadvantages
• The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors

V. Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still

in development, there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that

are being used today.

• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make

artificial intelligence a reality.

• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond

to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

• Is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence, Also known as ROBOTICS

• They will able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed

• Aim to be able to solve highly complex problem including decision making

logic reasoning
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and

engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer

programs”. Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-

controlled robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent

humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn,

decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of

this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and systems.

Goal of Artificial Intelligence:

• To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior,

learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

• To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that

understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

Types of Computers:
Computers can be classified on the basis of their functioning, their input process,

their output process, their size, their capabilities and their storage capacity. The

different types of computers are as follows:

• Analog Computers

• Digital Computers

• Hybrid Computers

• Super Computers
Analog computers
• Analog computers always take input in form of signals. Uses continuously

changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as voltage, pressure,

temperature speed serves as a solver of differential equations and other

mathematically complex equations

• The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temp.,

pressure, speed, velocity.

• Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V).

• Accuracy 1% Approximately. Example: Speedometer.

Digital Computers
• These computers take the input in the form of digits & alphabets &

converted it into binary format.

• Numbers 0,1

• Used in automobile to control flow of fuels.

• Serves as the controller and provides logical and numerical operations

• Digital computers are high speed, programmable electronic devices.

o Signals are two level of (0 for low/off 1 for high/on).

o Accuracy unlimited.

• Examples: Computer used for the purpose of business and education is also

an example of digital computers.

Hybrid Computer

• The combination of features of an analog and digital computer is called a

Hybrid computer.

• The main examples are central national defense and passenger flight radar

system.

• They are also used to control robots. Combine best features of both Analog

& Digita

• Have the accuracy of analog and speed of digital computers eg : In

hospitals ,defense.
Super Computer

• The biggest in size.

• Most Expensive

• It can process trillions of instructions in seconds.

• This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a

college.

• Used by Govt. for different calculations and heavy jobs.

• Supercomputers are used for the heavy stuff like weather maps,

construction of atom bombs, earthquake prediction etc.

Mainframes
• It can also process millions of instructions per second.

• It can handle processing of many users at a time. Less expensive than

Supercomputer

• It is commonly used in Hospitals, Air Reservation Companies as it can

retrieve data on a huge basis.

• This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person.

• It can cost up to thousands of Dollars.

Mini-Computer

• These computers are preferred mostly by small type of business personals,

colleges etc.

• These computers are cheaper than above two.

• Its an intermediary between microcomputer and mainframe.

Micro Computer/ Personal Computer

• It is mostly preferred by Home Users.

• Cost is less compared to above.

• Small in size.

• A microcomputer contains a central processing unit on a microchip in the

form of read-only memory and random access memory, and a housed in a

unit that is usually called a motherboard.

Notebook Computers
• Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small

enough to fit easily in a briefcase.

• The principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal

computer is the display screen.

• Many notebook display screens are limited to VGA resolution.

Processing cycle in computer
• Input -Input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The

form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic
 computers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of

several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.

Device can send data to another device, but it cannot receive data from

another device. Examples of an input device include a computer keyboard,

scanner, joystick and mouse

• Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more

useful form. For example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards,

or a summary of sales for the month may be calculated from the sales

orders.

• Output - The result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The

particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For

example, output data may be pay-checks for employees. Reproduces or

displays the results of that processing, can receive data from another

device, but it cannot send data to another device. Examples of an output

device include a computer monitor, projector and speakers

Input Devices
Input Devices are the units for making link between user and computer. The input

devices translate the information into the form understandable by the computer. Due

to ICT revolution, we are day by day encountering different variety of Input devices

around us. These new generation of input devices are being created with the sole

objective of making Interaction between human a machine flawless.

• Keyboard: The most common and very popular input device which helps

in inputting data to the computer.

• Mouse: Mouse is the most popular pointing device and cursor-control

device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which
 senses the movement of a mouse and sends corresponding signals to

CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

• Trackpad: Also known as a trackpad, a touchpad is a common substitute

for a computer mouse. It is essentially a specialized surface that can

detect the movement of a user's finger and use that information to direct

a pointer and control a computer.

• Joy Stick: It is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is

mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer

games.

• Light pen: It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on

the monitor screen.

• Track Ball: Mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a

mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the

ball, the pointer can be moved.

• Scanner: A scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert it

into a file format that may be used within the Personal Computer.

• Graphic Tablet: Also known as digitizers, graphic tablets are input

devices used for converting hand-drawn artwork into digital images. It

converts analog information into digital form. The user draws with a

stylus on a special flat surface as if they were drawing on a piece of

paper. The drawing appears on the computer screen and can be saved,

edited, or printed.

• Microphone: Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then

stored in digital form.

• Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR input device is

generally used in banks because of a large number of a cheque to be

processed every day.

• Optical character recognition (OCR): OCR converts a scanned image

into text.

• Digital Camera: Digital cameras are also an input device as they are

used to capture photographs and videos independently. Later, these

photo and video files can be transferred to a computer.

• Webcams: They are necessary input devices for task like

videoconferencing. Webcams are different from digital cameras in two

ways. Firstly, they cannot operate independently from a computer, and

second, they have no inbuilt memory. Although webcams can capture

photographs and videos, they are more often used to live-stream videos

or facilitate video chats.

• Barcode reader: A barcode scanner or reader is a device used to read

barcodes printed on packed products. Most businesses buy barcode

scanners for use during the checkout process.

• Gamepad: The wired or wireless gaming remotes used for playing xbox,

playstation etc. are also input devices.

• MIDI keyboard: A MIDI keyboard or controller keyboard is typically a

piano-style electronic musical keyboard, often with other buttons, wheels

and sliders, used for sending MIDI signals or commands over a USB or

MIDI 5-pin cable to other musical devices or computers connected and

operating on the same MIDI protocol.

• Pen Input: Pen input refers to the way Windows lets you interact directly

with a computer using a pen. A pen can be used for pointing and also for

gestures, simple text entry, and capturing free-form thoughts in digital

ink.

• Electronic Whiteboard: An electronic whiteboard is a hardware device

that is similar to a whiteboard that is found in schools and businesses. It

 transmits any information written it to a computer or multiple computers.

They also allow live interaction with digital objects on the screen.

• Punch card reader: It is a computer input device used to read computer

programs in either source or executable form and data from punched

cards.

• Optical mark recognition (OMR): the technology of electronically

extracting intended data from marked fields, such as checkboxes and fill-

infields, on printed forms. OMR technology scans a printed form and

reads predefined positions and records where marks are made on the

form.

• Biometric scanner: Biometric input device measures a unique physical

characteristic of a person. The most common biometric devices are used

to input a person's fingerprint into a computer. More sophisticated

devices use a camera to input a description of a person's iris (the colored

part of the eye).

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by

users.

• Monitors: Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) are

the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots,

called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of

the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of

viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): The CRT display is made up of small picture

elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity,

or resolution
• Flat- Panel Display: The flat-panel display refers to a class of video

devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in

comparison to the CRT.

• Printers: Printer is an output device, which is used to print information

on paper.

• Impact Printers: The impact printers print the characters by striking

them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.

• Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print the characters without

using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so they are

also called as Page Printers. Laser Printers, Inkjet Printers.

• Plotters: Plotters are generally used with engineering applications, for

generating a hard copy of a digitally created design. In addition, Plotters

are also often used by graphic artists, architects, constructions engineers,

etc.

• Projector: Projectors are output devices used mainly by companies,

schools, and churches to show information to a large body of people at

the same time. They are also used during meetings or classes for

presentations.

• Computer Output Microfilm (COM): COM machines were used to take

print-image output from the computer either online or via tape or disk

and create a film image of each page.

• Speaker(s): Every variety of Speaker are considered as out devices as

they provide musical output.

• Head Phone/Earphone: The Headphones, and Earphone frequently used

by us are also output device like a speaker, they difference is that they

are manufactured for individual use.

 • Microfiche: Microfiche is a card made of transparent film used to store

printed information in miniaturized form. To read the card, one places it

under the lens of a microfiche reader machine, which magnifies it.

• Video Card: These are hardware devices that work in conjunction with

the monitor to display visual output to the user. This hardware device

helps the user return information to the computer as well, thereby

enhancing interaction.

• CD and DVD media: They standard output devices for a computer. The

advantage of these output devices is in storing data for a long period of

time. CD and DVD are writable, users write information into a CD and

DVD hardware device to share information.

• Actuator: An Actuator is an output device responsible for creating real-

world movements in a computer-controlled system. Also, an actuator is a

type of motor often used in companies that deal on robotics and in

construction companies that are involved in gear and metal movements.

• Braille Reader: It helps blind people to read the text. The computer sent

the text to the device in the Braille format. That makes the text readable.
Both Input–Output Devices
• Touch Screen: A touch screen is a device which works as both an input

and an output device. You view the options available to you on the

screen (output) and you then use your finger to touch the option that

you have chosen (input).

• Modems: A modem is a combination of two words, mod for modulation

and dem for demodulation. And so, it does act like an input and output

device, as it sends and receives information over the telephone lines.

• Network cards: Network card is a device for communication between

computers. It takes the input from one and transmit it to the other as

output.
 • Audio Cards / Sound Card: is an internal expansion card that provides

input and output of audio signals to and from a computer under control

of computer programs.

• Headsets: Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone hence it

performs both input and output task simultaneously. Speaker acts as

Output Device and Microphone act as Input device

• Facsimile (FAX): It has scanner to scan the document and also have

printer to Print the document.

BASICS OF INTERNET, INTRANET, EMAIL

INTERNET

• Internet word is derived from the word internetworking which is a collection

of individual networks connected by intermediate networking device but they

function together as one large unit.

• Network is a collection of terminals, various computer servers and other

components. It ensures easy flow of data between the various nodes or

participants. The Internet is a such global interconnected computer networks

using a common language called a protocol, standard internet protocol. The

protocol is TCP/IP.

• The ARPANET was launched by launched by the Department of defense of

USA. While first such inter-connected network was SPUTNIK by the Soviet

Union in the year 1957. ARPANET became the only official protocol after 1983.

• Any machine on the internet can communicate with other if it has following:

o An IP address, enable it to send IP Packets

o A medium to send and receive data in form of signals

o Rules to decide the transmission of data.

 o An IP address is a 32 bits long address, consisting of four sets of

numbers separated by dots. It is called as dotted decimal

representation.

• Example: 127.0.0.1 (loopback address)

• Each host on the network has an IP consisting of a ‘Net id’ and a ‘Host-id’. T

• The Physical address or the MAC address is assigned by the Network

Information Centre (NIC).

• WHO GOVERN THE INTERNET?
o There is no single authority or a President governing it.

o The ultimate authority of the internet rest with Internet Society (ISOC), a

voluntary organization). Another authority is a group of invited volunteers

called as Internet Architecture Board (IAB).

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) discuss the technical and operational

problem

• 1st Recorded cyber-crime was committed by Joseph Mary.

• Important sections (in hacking, identity theft, violations of privacy) in cyber

crime

• Asian school of cyber law is situated in Pune.

• 1st cyber post office-Chennai

• 1st Cybercrime police station in Kerala-Pattom ,Thiruvananthapuram

• Indian computer emergency response team comes in 2004

• India 1st cyber security chief Gulshan rai

• India 1st cyber village Melli Dara Paiyong

• 1st cyber case reported in France

• 1st cyber court in India Delhi

 FATHERS IN COMPUTER FIELD

• COMPUTER -Charles Babbage

• COMPUTER SCIENCE-Alan Turing

• INDIAN SUPER COMPUTER-Dr. Vijay Bhatkar

• PERSONAL COMPUTER-Henry Edward Ed Roberts

• MOBILE PHONES- Martin Cooper

• INFORMATION THEORY- Cloude Shannon

• IT IN INDIA- Rajiv Gandhi

• INTERNET- Vint Cerf

FOUNDERS OF FAMOUS ONLINE PLATFORMS

• Facebook - Mark Zuckerberg

• Google - Larry Page & Serge Brin

• Apple - Stev jobs, Ronald Wayne & Steve Wozniak

• E Mail - Ray Tomlinson

• WhatsApp - Brian Acton & Jan Koum

• E-mail - Ray Tomlinson

• www - Tim Berners Lee

• Linux - Linus Torvalds

• Wikipedia - Jimmy Wales

• Yahoo - Jerry Yang & David Filo

• Google - Larry Page & Sergey Brin

• Twitter - Jack Dorsey, Biz Stone, Evan Williams, Noah Glass,

• Apple -Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Ronald Wayne

• Instagram –Kevin Systrom,Mike Kreiger.

 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE INTERNET
Introduction of Computer Networks

• Computer Network is a collection of computers those are able to communicate

with each other through some medium, using hardware and software.

• Two computers are said to be connected, if they are able to exchange information

or able to communicate.

• Network is connected by the set of nodes via communication links where a node

can be any device capable of sending &/or receiving data to &/or from other

nodes in the network.

• Data Source: Provides the data to transmit.

• Sender (Transmitter): Converts data to signals for transmission.

• Data Transmission System: Transmits the data i.e., converted in signals.

• Receiver: Converts received signals to data.

• Destination: Receives and uses incoming data.

• Node: A device with independent communication ability and unique network

address.

• Protocol: A formal description, comprising rules and conventions defines the

method of communication between networking devices.

• Components of a Network:
There are five basic components of a network. Clients, Servers, Channels, Interface
devices, and Operating Systems.
• Methods of Message Delivery: A message can be delivered in the following

ways

• Unicast: One device sends message to the other to its address.

• Broadcast: One device sends message to all other devices on the network. The

message is sent to an address reserved for this goal.

• Multicast: One device sends message to a certain group of devices on the

network.

• LAN (Local Area Network)

o LAN is privately owned network within a single building or campus.

o LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of

computers used by thousands of people (like in some IT office, etc.)

o Examples of LAN technology: Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fibber

Distributed Data Interconnect (FDDI).

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o A MAN covers a city.

o An example of MAN is cable television network in city.

o It may be a single network such as cable TV network by means of connecting a

number of LANs into a larger network.

o Resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.

o A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a

public company such as local telephone company.

o Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS) Switched

Multi-megabit Data Services.

• WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A wide area network or WAN spans a large geographical area often a country.

o Internet It is also known as network of networks.

o The Internet is a system of linked networks that are world wide in scope and

facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer,

electronic mail, World Wide Web and newsgroups etc.

• WLAN
o Wireless Local Area Network

o Link 2 or more devices

o Adopted in School , home

• CAN
o Campus Area Network

o Inter connection of local area

o multiple interconnected local area networks (LAN) in a limited geographical area.

 • PAN
o Personal Area Network

o Data transmission

o In Computer ,Telephone
Other Important Terms
1. MODEM
• Also called as a Modulator and Demodulator. It converts computer data into

signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line. It is also capable of

converting a signal coming over a telephone line to be understood by the

computer.
2. HUB
• A hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from various directions

and is forwarded out to different directions and destinations. It is a common

point for connecting the devices on a LAN. It can connect various cables like

coaxial and twisted pair at the same time.

• It is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or

other network devices together. Unlike a network switch or router, a network

hub has no routing tables or intelligence on where to send information and

broadcasts all network data across each connection.

3. BRIDGE
• A Bridge is a device that connects two or more networks, such a one LAN with

another. It creates a single aggregate network from multiple networks rather

than being a connection to help them pass information from one part to

another like a router.

• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by

reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.

• It maintains a table of the MAC addresses of the devices connected to it.

 Types of bridge:

o Transparent Bridges: these are the bridge in which the stations are

completely unaware of the existence of the bridge on the network.

o Source Routing Bridge: The routing operation is performed by source

station and the frame specifies which route to follow. Route discovery

frames or packets are sent first to discover the desired route

4. REPEATERS

• It is an object or instrument that receives a signal and increases its signal

strength.

• A repeater mainly regenerates the signal over the same network before the

signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the

signal can be transmitted over the same network.

• Repeaters do not amplify the signal strength; it simply copies the signal bit by

bit.
5. SWITCHES

• A switch is a device that connects multiple devices together. Switches are

smart devices as they manage the flow of data across a network by

transmitting a received network packet only to the one or more devices for

which the packet is intended.

• It operates at the Layer 2 i.e. Data Link layer of the TCP/IP model.

• Many ports are there in a switch that routes the traffic based on the various

routing protocols..
6. ROUTERS

• Routers are physical or virtual devices that determines the next network point

to which the data packet should be forwarded. They forward the data packets

as per their IP address. In OSI MODEL routers are found at the layer 3 i.e.

Network layer.

• A router forwards the packets seeing its destination IP address and matching

it with the IP address mentioned in the routing table with the router.
 • It uses various protocols to forward the packets which gives the best possible

path also reduces the cost of the transmission. The various routing protocols

are OSPF, BGP, RIP etc.

COMPUTER MEMORY
• Store all instructions for CPU

• We will understand the concept of memory first before going for further

details. Computer memory is a physical device, where we can store the

information temporarily or permanently, namely- RAM (Random Access

Memory), ROM (Read-Only Memory), CD, DVD, HDD, and Flash Memory.

Operating systems, software use it, and hardware also utilizes to integrate the

circuits.

• There are two types of memory- Primary Memory and Secondary Memory. In

the following table, you can see the difference in both the memory devices:
Primary Memory
It is the memory that is accessed by the CPU (Central Processing Unit)

straightforwardly. It permits a processor to get to running execution applications and

administrations that are incidentally put away in a particular memory area. Primary

memory is also known as primary storage or main memory. It is Volatile, and the

storage capacity is limited in Primary Memory.

ROM:

• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only

read but cannot write on it.

• It is a non-volatile memory. The information is stored permanently in such

memories during manufacture.

• A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This

operation is referred to as bootstrap.

• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic

items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
There are mainly four types of ROM available:

• MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that

contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs

are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

• PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that

can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters

the desired contents using a PROM program.

• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM can be

erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.

Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.

• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The

EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and

reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming

take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second).

RAM:
• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing

data, program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores

data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data

is erased.

• Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage

location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the

same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is

very expensive.

• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer

or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System

(UPS) is often used with computers.

• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the terms of storage

capacity.
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
• In the SRAM,data is stored in transistors and requires a constant power flow.

Because of the continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed to

remember the data being stored. SRAM is called static as no change or action

i.e. refreshing is needed to keep the data intact.

• It is used in cache memories.

o Advantage: Low power consumption and faster access speeds.

o Disadvantage: Less memory capacities and high costs of manufacturing.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) :
• Data is stored in capacitors. Capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually

discharge energy, no energy means the data has been lost.

• The power has to be periodically refreshed in order to function. DRAM is

called dynamic as constant change or action i.e. refreshing is needed to keep

the data intact. It is used to implement main memory.

o Advantage: Low costs of manufacturing and greater memory capacities.

o Disadvantage: Slow access speed and high power consumption.

Secondary Memory

• Secondary memory is termed as external memory and refers to the multiple

storage media on which a PC can store information and projects. It can be

fixed or removable. Hard Disk comes under the Fixed Storage Media, which is

an Internal Storage Medium and set inside the PC. It is versatile and can take

outside the computer.

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) will not obtain the instant result to the

Secondary Memory. Alternatively, before sending it to the Processing Unit, the

accessed data will be loaded first into the RAM (Random Access Memory).
Secondary Storage Media
Here, we are providing complete detail information, which comes under the

Secondary Storage Media.

Magnetic Storage Media

The devices that come under the magnetic storage media are- Hard Disks, Floppy

Disks, and Magnetic Tapes. There are the devices that are coated with the magnetic

layer, magnetized in anti-clockwise, and clockwise directions. The head reads the

information stored at a particular area in binary 1s and 0s at reading while disks

move or rotate.

Floppy Disk- It is flexibly coated by the magnet, which is packaged inside the

protective plastic envelope. It is the oldest device with a memory of 1.44 MB now,

and there is no use of the Floppy Disk because of the less memory.

Hard Disk- It is consists of more than one circular device coated with magnetic

material, which is known as Platters. The inner surfaced of the Disk can store the data

except for the bottom and the top. The data will record by rotating magnetic reads/

write heads of the disks.

Components of the Hard Disk
1. There are several disk Platters mostly in the basic types of Hard Disk, which

placed around the spindle in a sealed chamber. The chamber has the motors

and reads/writes head.

2. Data will store in each Disk of concentric circles called Tracks

3. The tracks divided into further circles.

4. The internal hard drives are not very much portable comparatively from the

external one.

5. Data in the hard disk can store up to numerous terabytes.

Optical Storage Media
CD and DVDs come under the Optical Storage Media, which stored as a spiral

pattern of pits and ridges signifying binary 0 and 1. These are not magnet coated

devices like a floppy disk and hard disk. In these devices, the information is stored

and read using a laser beam.

Compact Disk (CD)- The Compact Device (CD) which uses optical rays, lasers, to read

and write data. It is a circular disk. It is a portable device as we can eject the drive and

remove it from the PC and carry it with us. The difference in the type of CDs

mentioned below-

CD-ROM

• Expanded Form of CD-ROM is Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory.

• In this Disk, once the data are written in the disk, it cannot be changed.

• These are usually used for text, audio, and video for games, encyclopedia, and

application software.

CD-R

• CD-R stands for Compact Disk- Recordable.

• In this Disk, the data can be recorded only once.

• Once the data can be written or recorded, it cannot be erased or modified.

CD-RW

• Full-Form of CD-RW is Compact Disk-Rewritable.

• It can be write and read multiple times.

Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD)

• The formation of the DVD is circular like the Compact Device and has similar

technology. It is a significant progression in portable storage technology.

• In DVD, we can hold 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data, which is 15 times more from the

storage of CD. Usually, it is used to store rich multimedia portfolios that need

high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three categories- read-only,

recordable and rewritable.

Blue Ray Disk (BD)

• It is used to store the High Definition (HD) videos or other multimedia files.

The laser wavelength is shorter than the CD/DVD as a comparison.

• Blue Ray Disk can store up to 128 GB data max, 27 GB data on a single layer

disk, and 54 GB and more data on a dual-layer disc.

Solid-State Memory
• It will be work based on the electronic circuits, not like the other devices like-

a reel of tape, magnet coating, or spinning disks, etc. The Solid-State Storages

devices use a special kind of memory to store data called Flash Memory.

Examples of Flash Memory Devices are- Digital Cameras, Pen Drives, or USB

Flash Drives.
Pen Drives
• Pendrives are also known as Thumb Drives or Flash Drives, which are added as

an emerged portable storage media recently.

• The memory in the Pen drive accompanied by the USB connector, which

enables it to connect with any device which has the USB portal.

• It has a capacity greater than the CD but smaller than the Hard Disk.
Advantages of Pen drive
1. Transfer File- When the Pen drive will connect to any of the USB port either in

the computer or any other device, we can use it to transfer the files, pictures,

documents, videos. Also, the selected data can be transferred between any

workstation and a Pen drive.

2. Portability- Pen drive is lightweight and portable to carry, which makes data

transportation easier and convenient.

3. Backup Storage- Nowadays, there is the feature of having password

encryption, important information related to family, medical reports, pictures,

videos, etc. can bestrode as a backup.

4. Data Transportation- The advantage of transferring the data is more useful for

the Professionals/Students by easily transport large files, documents,

video/audio lectures, etc. on a Pen drive and gain access to them from

anywhere. The technicians who have the independent PC’s can store their

work-related useful tools, various programs, and files on a high speed 64 GB

pen drive. The data can quickly move from one site to another with all their

valuable accommodations in a small device.

CACHE
• Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up

and synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main

memory or disk memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is

an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the

CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are

immediately available to the CPU when needed.

• Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the

Main memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies

of the data from frequently used main memory locations. There are various

different independent caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data.

Levels of memory:
Level 1 or Register –

It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are immediately

stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program counter,

address register etc.

Level 2 or Cache memory –

It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is temporarily stored

for faster access.

Level 3 or Main Memory –

It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and once power is

off data no longer stays in this memory.

Level 4 or Secondary Memory –

It is external memory which is not as fast as main memory but data stays

permanently in this memory.

TERMINOLOGIES IN COMPUTER
1. Domain Name
It is the unique name that identifies an Internet site. Domain Names always have two

or more parts, separated by dots. The part on the left is the most specific, the part on

the right is the most general.

.org- Organisation

.net -Network

.com- Commercial

.edu- Education

.gov -Government

.mil- Military
2. Computer Memory:

Blue ray disk : Blu-ray (not Blue-ray) also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a

new optical disc format which is jointly developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association

(BDA), The format offers more than 5 times the storage capacity of older DVDs and

can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc & 50GB on a dual layer disc.
3. Software terms:

• HTTP - Hyper Text Transmission Protocol

• IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol

• SSL - Secure Socket Layer

• TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

• FTP - File Transfer Protocol

• TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol

• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• SGML - Standard Generalized Mark-up

• Language HTML - Hyper Text mark-up language

• ASCII - American Standard Code for Information

• Interchange ACPI - Advanced Configuration Power Interface

• ANSI - American National Standard

• Institute CGA - Computer Graphic Application

• CSS - Cascading Style Sheets

 • DOS - Disc Operating System

• IDE - Integrated Development

• Environment MIPS - Million instructions per second

• UPS - Uninterrupted Power supply.

• ASR - Assisted speech recognition

• BIOS - Basic Input output System

• NLP Natural Language processing

• OCR – Optical Character recognition

• CERN - Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Nuclear

research centre)

• WAP - Wireless application protocol

• VR - Virtual reality

• IoT - Internet of Things

• VLE - Virtual learning environment

4. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

• Operating System: Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediary

between a computer user & computer hardware. The operating system is an

important component of the system software in a computer system.

Application programs generally requires an operating system to perform.

• Stand- Alone Operating System: A standalone operating system is a complete

operating system that works on a desktop computer, or notebook computer.

Client operating systems can work with/without a network.

• An embedded system: It is a computer that is part of a dedicated kind of

machine. Embedded systems examples include computers in cars, traffic

lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane controls etc.

 • Mobile Operating System: A mobile operating system, also known as mobile

OS, is an operating system that is dedicatedly designed to run on mobile

phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet computers etc.

• Buffering : It is the pre-loading of data into a reserved area of memory, which

is also called as buffer. With respect to streaming audio or video from the

Internet, buffering refers to downloading some amount of data before

starting to play the music, movie etc.

• Spooling : Spooling is the overlapping of low speed operations with normal

processing. Spooling originated with mainframes in order to optimize slow

operations.
5. NETWORK TERMINOLOGIES
• TCP: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to

establish and maintain a network conversation via which application programs

can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines

how computers send packets of data to each other.

• IP Address: Sometimes called a “dotted quad”. A unique number consists of

four parts separated by the dots, e.g. 202.54.1.1 is an IP number of one of the

servers. Every machine that is on the Internet has a unique IP number - if a

machine does not have an IP number, it is not really on the Internet.

• MAC Address: This is the address of the device on physical layer, called as

media access control. It is usually stored on the network adapter card and is

unique.

• VoIP: A Voice over IP call, or VoIP call, utilizes packet-switched Voice over

Internet Protocol (VoIP)/Internet telephony as different to the circuit-switched

telephony used by the earlier Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

• Cloud computing: It is used to describe different services over a network by a

collection of servers. These computers enable the visiting users to have access

to much faster computers or servers, which are able to access

 programs/services from anywhere with Internet access often without having to

install other software.

• NIC: Network Interface card, also known as an Ethernet card and network

adapter and is an expansion card that enables a computer to connect to a

network such as a home network or the Internet using an Ethernet cable with

a RJ-45 connector.

• Proxy server-: A proxy is a computer server/software program that is part of

the gateway server which separates a local network from outside networks.

• Web page-: A web page or webpage is a document mostly written in Hyper

Text Mark-up Language (HTML) is accessible through the Internet/other

network using a web browser.

• Firewall-: A firewall is a software utility or hardware device that limits outside

network access to a computer/local network by blocking the different network

ports. Firewalls are a great step for helping prevent un-authorized access to a

company or home network.

• Gateway: A gateway is an interconnecting device which joins two different

network together they are also known as protocol converters.

• Network Router: It is a network device with interfaces in multiple networks

whose task is to copy packets from one network to another.

• Network Switch: Network Switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple

computers together within one local area network (LAN).

• Network Hub: A hub is a small Network Device. A hub joins multiple

computers (or other network devices) together to form a single network

segment. On this network segment, all computers can communicate directly

with each other.

• Network Repeater: Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless

or optical signals. With physical media like Ethernet, data transmissions can

only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades.
 Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over

which data/information can travel safely.

• Channel Capacity: It is the speed of transmission of information. Often refer as

data rate in digital terminology.

• Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.

• Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information due of noise.

• Encoding: The number of levels used for signalling.

• Meta Search Engines: They automatically enters search queries into a number

of other search engines and return the results

CYBERSPACE:

A global domain within the information environment consisting of the

interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the

Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded

processors and controllers.“

Evolution of Cyber attacks in India

Union Bank of India Heist (July 2016)

Through a phishing email sent to an employee, hackers accessed the credentials to

execute a fund transfer, swindling Union Bank of India of $171 million, Prompt action

helped the bank recover almost the entire money.

WANNACRY RANSOMWARE (May 2017)

The global ransomware attack took its toll in India with several thousand computers

getting locked down by ransom-seeking hackers. The attack also impacted systems

belonging to the Andhra Pradesh police and state utilities of West Bengal

DATA THEFT AT ZOMATO(May 2017)

The food tech company discovered that data, including names, email IDs and hashed

passwords, of 17 million users was stolen by an ‘ethical’ hacker-who demanded the

company must acknowledge its security vulnerabilities-and put up for sale on the

Dark Web
PETYA RANSOMWARE(June 2017)

The ransomware attack made its impact felt across the world, including India, where

container handling functions at a terminal operated by the Danish firm AP Moller-

Maersk at Mumbai’s Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust got affected

Cyber Attacks Terminologies
Cyber attack

• A cyberattack is deliberate exploitation of computer systems, technology-

dependent enterprises and networks. Cyberattacks use malicious code to alter

computer code, logic or data, resulting in disruptive consequences that can

compromise data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and identity

theft.

• Cyberattack is also known as a computer network attack (CNA).

COMMON TYPES OF CYBER ATTACK

1. Malware
Malware is a term used to describe malicious software, including spyware,

ransomware, viruses, and worms. Malware breaches a network through a

vulnerability, typically when a user clicks a dangerous link or email attachment that

then installs risky software. Once inside the system, malware can do the following:

• Blocks access to key components of the network (ransomware)

• Installs malware or additional harmful software

• Covertly obtains information by transmitting data from the hard drive

(spyware)

• Disrupts certain components and renders the system inoperable

2. Phishing

Phishing is the practice of sending fraudulent communications that appear to come

from a reputable source, usually through email. The goal is to steal sensitive data like

credit card and login information or to install malware on the victim’s machine.

Phishing is an increasingly common cyberthreat.

3. Man-in-the-middle attack
Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, also known as eavesdropping attacks, occur when

attackers insert themselves into a two-party transaction. Once the attackers interrupt

the traffic, they can filter and steal data. Two common points of entry for MitM

attacks:

• On unsecure public Wi-Fi, attackers can insert themselves between a visitor’s

device and the network. Without knowing, the visitor passes all information

through the attacker.

• Once malware has breached a device, an attacker can install software to

process all of the victim’s information.

4. Denial-of-service attack

A denial-of-service attack floods systems, servers, or networks with traffic to exhaust

resources and bandwidth. As a result, the system is unable to fulfill legitimate

requests. Attackers can also use multiple compromised devices to launch this attack.

This is known as a distributed-denial- of-service (DDoS) attack.

5. SQL injection

A Structured Query Language (SQL) injection occurs when an attacker inserts

malicious code into a server that uses SQL and forces the server to reveal information

it normally would not.

An attacker could carry out a SQL injection simply by submitting malicious code into

a vulnerable website search box.

6. Zero-day exploit

A zero-day exploit hits after a network vulnerability is announced but before a patch

or solution is implemented. Attackers target the disclosed vulnerability during this

window of time. Zero- day vulnerability threat detection requires constant awareness.
7. DNS Tunneling
DNS tunneling utilizes the DNS protocol to communicate non-DNS traffic over port

53. It sends HTTP and other protocol traffic over DNS. There are various, legitimate

reasons to utilize DNS tunneling. However, there are also malicious reasons to use

DNS Tunneling VPN services. They can be used to disguise outbound traffic as DNS,
concealing data that is typically shared through an internet connection. For malicious

use, DNS requests are manipulated to exfiltrate data from a compromised system to

the attacker’s infrastructure. It can also be used for command and control callbacks

from the attacker’s infrastructure to acompromised system.

DIGITAL INITIATIVES BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA:
• USB Pratirodh”, was also launched by the government which, Union IT and

Electronics Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad states is aimed at controlling the

unauthorised usage of removable USB storage media devices like pen drives,

external hard drives and USB supported mass storage devices.

• An app called “Samvid” was also introduced. It is a desktop based Application

Whitelisting solution for Windows operating system. It allows only

preapproved set of executable files for execution and protects desktops from

suspicious applicationns from running.

• M-Kavach, a device for security of Android mobile devices has also been

developed. It provides protection against issues related to malware that steal

personal data & credentials, misuse Wi-Fi and Bluetooth resources, lost or

stolen mobile device, spam SMSs, premium-rate SMS and unwanted /

unsolicited incoming calls.

• Browser JSGuard, is a tool which serves as a browser extension which detects

and defends malicious HTML & JavaScript attacks made through the web

browser based on Heuristics. It alerts the user when he visits malicious web

pages and provides a detailed analysis threat report of the web page.
DIGITAL INITIATIVES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
ICT AND GOVERNANCE
Important Abbreviations in ICT
1. Al – Artificial intelligence

2. ALGOL – Algorithmic Language

3. ARP – Address resolution Protocol

4. ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange

5. BINAC - Binary Automatic Computer

6. BCC – Blind Carbon Copy

7. BASIC - Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

8. BIOS – Basic Input Output System

9. Bit – Binary Digit

10. CC – Carbon Copy

11. CAD – Computer Aided Design

12. COBOL – Common Business Oriented Language

13. CD – Compact Disc

14. CRT – Cathode Ray Tube

15. CDR – Compact Disc Recordable

16. CDROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory

17. CDRW – Compact Disc Rewritable

18. CDR/W – Compact Disk Read/Write

19. DBA – Data Base Administrator

20. DBMS – Data Base Management System

21. DNS – Domain Name System

22. DPI – Dots Per Inch

23. DRAM – Dynamic Random-Access Memory

24. DVD – Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile Disc

25. DVDR – DVD Recordable

26. DVDROM – DVD Read Only Memory

27. DVDRW – DVD Rewritable

28. DVR – Digital Video Recorder

29. DOS – Disk Operating System

30. EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

31. EDP – Electronic Data Processing

32. EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

33. ELM/e-Mail – Electronic Mail

34. ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

35. EOF - End Of File

36. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

37. EXE – Executable

38. FAX - Far Away Xerox/ facsimile

39. FDC - Floppy Disk Controller

40. FDD - Floppy Disk Drive

41. FORTRAN - Formula Translation

42. FS - File System

43. FTP - File Transfer Protocol

44. Gb – Gigabit

45. GB – Gigabyte

46. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format

47. GSM - Global System for Mobile Communication

48. HDD - Hard Disk Drive

49. HP - Hewlett Packard

50. HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language

51. HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

52. IBM - International Business Machine

53. IM - Instant Message

54. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol

55. ISP - Internet Service Provider

56. JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group

57. Kb – Kilobit

58. KB – Kilobyte

59. KHz – Kilohertz

60. Kbps - Kilobit Per Second

61. LCD – Liquid Crystal Display

62. LED – Light Emitting Diode

63. LPI – Lines Per Inch

64. LIS – Location Information Server

65. LSI – Large Scale Integration

66. Mb – Megabit

67. MB – Megabyte

68. MPEG – Moving Picture Experts Group

69. MMS – Multimedia Message Service

70. MICR – Magnetic Ink Character reader

71. MIPS – Million Instructions Per Second

72. NIC – Network Interface Card

73. NOS – Network Operating System

74. OCR - Optical Character Readers

75. OMR – Optical Mark Reader

76. OOP – Object Oriented Programming

77. OSS – Open Source Software

78. PAN – Personal Area Network

79. PC – Personal Computer

80. PDA - Personal Digital Assistant

81. PDF – Portable Document Format

82. POS – Point Of Sale

83. PNG - Portable Network Graphics

84. PPM – Pages Per Minute

85. PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol

86. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

87. PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network

88. POST – Power On Self Test

 89. PING – Packet Internet Gopher

90. RAM – Random Access Memory

91. RDBMS – Relational Data Base Management System

92. RIP – Routing Information Protocol

93. RTF – Rich Text Format

94. SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

95. SQL – Structured Query Language

96. SRAM – Static Random-Access Memory

97. SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol

98. SIM – Subscriber Identification Module

99. SD RAM - Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory

100. SDD - Software Design Description

101. SDK - Software Development Kit

102. SDL - Storage Definition Language

103. TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

104. TB – Tera Bytes

105. UPS – Uninterrupted Power Supply

106. URI – Uniform Resource Identifier

107. URL – Uniform Resource Locator

108. USB - Universal Serial Bus

109. ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration

110. UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer

111. VAR – Variable

112. VGA – Video Graphics Array

113. VSNL – Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited

114. VDU – Visual Display Unit

115. VPN - Virtual Private Network

116. VRAM - Video Random Access Memory

117. VRML - Virtual Reality Modelling Language

118. Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity

119. WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

120. WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access

121. WWW – World Wide Web

122. WORM – Write Once Read Many

123. W3C - World Wide Web Consortium

124. WAIS - Wide Area Information Servers

125. WAN - Wide Area Network

126. XHTML – eXtensible Hyper text Markup Language

127. XML - eXtensible Markup language

128. ZB – Zeta Byte