theorem are the consequences of the extreme value The extreme value theorem can also be stated as 'If a

Extreme Value Theorem theorem. Let us understand the meaning of extreme real-valued function f is continuous on [a, b], then f
value below as we proceed to state the theorem and attains its maximum and minimum of [a, b].
The extreme value theorem is an important theorem
prove it.
in calculus that is used to find the maximum and
minimum values of a continuous real-valued function in Extreme Value Meaning
a closed interval. This theorem is used to prove Rolle's Extreme values of a function f(x) are the values y = f(x)
theorem in calculus. The extreme value theorem is which a function attains for a specific input x such that
specific as compared to the boundedness theorem no other value of f(x) in the range is greater or less than
which gives the bounds of the continuous function on a these values. We have two types of extreme values:
closed interval. maximum and minimum. The maximum value of a
In this article, we will discuss the concept of extreme function is a value such that no other value of the
value theorem, its statement, and its proof. We will also function can be greater than this and the minimum
learn how to use the theorem with the help of a few value of a function is a value such that no other value of
solved examples for a better understanding of the the function is less than this value.
concept. Extreme Value Theorem Extreme Value Theorem Proof
What is Extreme Value of Statement
Theorem? Now that we have understood the extreme value
The extreme value theorem states that 'If a real-valued theorem and its statement, let us now prove it using the
The extreme value theorem helps in proving the function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] (with contradiction method and the boundedness theorem.
existence of the maximum and minimum values of a a < b), then there exist two real numbers c and d in [a, b] We will prove that f attains its maximum on the closed
real-valued continuous function over a closed interval. such that f(c) is the minimum and f(d) is the maximum interval [a, b]. The proof that f attains its minimum on
Once the existence of maximum and minimum values is value of f(x). Mathematically, we can write the formula [a, b] can be proved on similar lines.
proved, we might be asked to determine those values for the extreme value theorem as, f(c) ≤ f(x) ≤ f(d), ∀ By hypothesis, f is continuous on [a, b], so f is bounded
using the derivative of the function and finding x ∈ [a, b]. on [a, b] such that there exist m, M such that we have m
the critical points. Rolle's theorem and Mean value
≤ f(x) ≤ M using the Boundedness Theorem. Here, How to Use Extreme Value So the minimum value of f(x) on [0, 4] is -52 and its
suppose M is the least upper bound of f. Now, if there Theorem? maximum value on [0, 4] is 56.
exists c in [a, b] such that f(c) = M, then this implies f Important Notes on Extreme Value Theorem
attains maximum on [a, b]. We have proved the Now that we have proved the extreme value theorem,
• The extreme value theorem can also be
required result. let us learn how to use it with the help of an example.
stated as 'If a real-valued function f is
Consider function f(x) = x3 - 27x + 2. Find the maximum
Now, assume there is no such c in [a, b], then we have continuous on [a, b], then f attains its
and minimum values of f(x) on [0, 4] using the extreme
f(x) < M for all x in [a, b]. Define a function h(x) = 1 / [M maximum and minimum of [a, b].
value theorem.
- f(x)] on [a, b]. Now, we know that h(x) > 0 because f(x) • We can find the maximum and minimum
Solution: Since f(x) = x3 - 27x + 2 is differentiable,
< M for all x in [a, b] and h is also continuous on [a, b]. values of a function by finding the critical
therefore it is continuous. Since [0, 4] is closed and
So, using the boundedness theorem, we have h(x) is points of the function using its derivative.
bounded, therefore we can apply the extreme value
bounded on [a, b]. This implies there exists K > 0 such • The extreme value theorem can be proved
theorem. Differentiate f(x) = x3 - 27x + 2.
that h(x) ≤ K, for all x in [a, b]. using the contradiction and boundedness
f'(x) = 3x2 - 27
⇒ 1 / [M - f(x)] ≤ K theorem.
Setting f'(x) = 0, we have
⇒ M - f(x) ≥ 1/K Extreme Value Theorem Examples
3x2 - 27 = 0
Adding f(x) - 1/K on both sides, we have
⇒ 3x2 = 27 • Example 1: Find the maximum and
⇒ M - 1/K ≥ f(x) ⇒ x2 = 27/3 = 9 minimum values of f(x) = x4 - 3x3 - 1 on [-2,
⇒ f(x) ≤ M - 1/K ⇒ x = -3, 3 2].

This contradicts the fact that M is the least upper bound So, x = -3, 3 are the critical points. Now, we find the Solution: Since f(x) is differentiable, so it is
of f(x). Hence, our assumption that there exists no such value of f(x) at critical points and the endpoints of the continuous on [-2, 2]. So, we can apply
c in [a, b] such that f(c) = M is wrong. Therefore, f attains interval. extreme value theorem. Now, differentiate
its maximum on [a, b]. f(x).
f(-3) = (-3)3 - 27(-3) + 2 = -27 + 81 + 2 = 56
We can prove that f attains its minimum on [a, b] on f(3) = (3)3 - 27(3) + 2 = 27 - 81 + 2 = -52 f'(x) = 4x3 - 9x2
similar lines. f(0) = (0)3 - 27(0) + 2 = 2 = x2(4x - 9)

f(4) = (4)3 - 27(4) + 2 = -42 Setting f'(x) = 0, we have

 x2(4x - 9) = 0 ⇒ cos x = sin x Michel Rolle, a French mathematician. Rolle’s Theorem

⇒ x = 0, x = 9/4 ⇒ x = π/4, 5π/4 which lie in [0, 2π] is a special case of the mean value theorem.

So, 0 and 9/4 are the critical points. Since 9/4 So, we will find the value of f(x) at x = π/4, Lagrange’s mean value theorem is also termed as the

does lie in the interval [-2, 2], therefore we 5π/4, 0 and 2π. mean value theorem itself or the first mean value

will only consider one critical point x = 0. theorem. Commonly, the mean is considered as the
f(π/4) = sin (π/4) + cos (π/4) = 1/√2 + 1/√2
Now, we will find the value of f(x) at x = 0, -2 average of the given values but in the case of integrals,
= √2
and 2. the method of finding the mean value of two different
f(5π/4) = sin (5π/4) + cos (5π/4) = -1/√2 -
functions is different. In this article let us learn Rolle’s
f(0) = 04 - 3(0)3 - 1 = -1 1/√2 = -√2
theorem and the mean value of such functions along
f(-2) = (-2)4 - 3(-2)3 - 1 = 16 + 24 - 1 = 39
f(0) = sin 0 + cos 0 = 0 + 1 = 1 with their geometrical interpretation.
f(2) = (2)4 - 3(2)3 - 1 = 16 - 24 - 1 = -9
So, the maximum value of f(x) = x4 - 3x3 - 1 on
f(2π) = sin 2π + cos 2π = 0 + 1 = 1 What is Rolle's Theorem?
So, the maximum value of f(x) = sin x + cos x
[-2, 2] is 39 at x = -2 and minimum value is -9
on [0, 2π] is √2 at x = π/4 and minimum Let us understand Lagrange's mean value theorem
at x = 2.
value is -√2 at x = 5π/4. in calculus before we study Rolle's theorem.
Answer: Maximum value = 39; Minimum
Answer: Maximum value = √2; Minimum Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem
value = -9
value = -√2 Statement:
• Example 2: Determine the maximum and
The mean value theorem states that "If a function f is
minimum values of f(x) = sin x + cos x on [0,
Rolle's Theorem defined on the closed interval [a,b] satisfying the
2π] using the extreme value theorem.
In calculus, Rolle's theorem states that if a following conditions: i) the function f is continuous on
Solution: f(x) = sin x + cos x on [0, 2π] is
differentiable function (real-valued) attains equal the closed interval [a, b] and ii)the function f is
continuous. So we can apply extreme value
values at two distinct points then it must have at least differentiable on the open interval (a, b). Then there
theorem and find the derivative of f(x).
one fixed point somewhere between them where the exists a value x = c in such a way that f'(c) = [f(b) –
f'(x) = cos x - sin x
first derivative is zero. Rolle's theorem is named after f(a)]/(b-a)".
Setting f'(x) = 0, we have

cos x - sin x = 0
This theorem is also known with the name "first mean Mathematically, Rolle’s theorem can be stated as:
value theorem". A special case of Lagrange’s mean value Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and
theorem is Rolle’s Theorem. Let us now understand differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and
what is Rolle's Theorem. b are some real numbers.
Rolle's Theorem Statement: Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f′(c) = 0.

Rolle's theorem states that "If a function f is defined in

Geometric Interpretation of
the closed interval [a, b] in such a way that it satisfies
Rolle’s Theorem
the following condition:
In the given graph, the curve y = f(x) is continuous
i) f is continuous on [a, b],
Rolle's Theorem Proof
between x = a and x = b and at every point, within the
ii) f is differentiable on (a, b), and interval, it is possible to draw a tangent and ordinates When proving a theorem directly, you start by assuming
iii) f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least corresponding to the abscissa and are equal then there all of the conditions are satisfied. So, our discussion
one value of x, exists at least one tangent to the curve which is parallel below relates only to functions
let us assume this value to be c, which lies between a to the x-axis. Algebraically, this theorem tells us that if f
• that is continuous over [a, b],
and b i.e. (a < c < b ) in such a way that f‘(c) = 0." (x) is representing a polynomial function in x and the
• that is differentiable (a, b),
two roots of the equation f(x) = 0 are x = a and x = b,
• and have f(a) = f(b).
then there exists at least one root of the equation f‘(x) =
With that in mind, notice that when a function satisfies
0 lying between these values. the converse of Rolle’s
Rolle's Theorem, the place where f′(x)=0 occurs at a
theorem is not true and it is also possible that there
maximum or a minimum value (i.e., extrema).
exists more than one value of x, for which the theorem
How do we know that a function will even have one of
holds good but there is a definite chance of the existence
these extrema? the Extreme Value Theorem theorem
of one such value.
says that if a function is continuous, then it is
guaranteed to have both a maximum and a
minimum point in the interval.
Now, there are two basic possibilities for our function. Possibility 1: Could the maximum occur at a point

Case 1: the function is constant. where f′>0?

Case 2: the function is not constant. No, because if f′>0 we know the function is increasing.

Let us look into each of these cases in more detail. But it can't increase since we are at its maximum point.

Case 1: the function is constant Possibility 2: Could the maximum occur at a point
where f′<0?
For a constant function, the graph is a horizontal line
segment. No, because if f′<0 we know that function is decreasing,
which means it was larger just a little to the left of
where we are now. But we are at the function's
maximum value, so it couldn't have been larger. Since f′
exists, but isn't larger than zero, and isn't smaller than
zero, the only possibility that remains is that f′=0. And
that's it! We have shown that the function must
have extrema and that at the extrema the derivative
must equal zero!

In this case, every point satisfies Rolle's Theorem since

Since the function isn't constant, it must change Examples on Rolle's Theorem
directions in order to start and end at the same y-value.
the derivative is zero everywhere. (Remember, Rolle's
It means at some point within the interval the function • Example 1: Verify Rolle’s theorem for the
Theorem guarantees at least one point. It doesn't
will either have a minimum, a maximum or both. So, function y = x2 + 1, a = –1 and b = 1.
preclude multiple points!)
now we need to show that at this interior-point the Solution: The function y = x2 + 1, as it is
Case 2: the function is not constant.
derivative is equal to zero. the rest of the discussion will a polynomial function, is continuous in [– 1,
focus on the cases where the interior extrema is a 1] and differentiable in (–1, 1). Also,
maximum, but the discussion for a minimum is largely f(-1) = (-1)2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
the same. f(1) = (1)2 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2
 Thus, f(– 1) = f(1) = 2 Calculating the value of c: behavior of increasing and decreasing functions. The

Hence, the function f(x) satisfies all c = 2, which lies in the interval (1, 3). function is said to be increasing if the value of f(x)

conditions of Rolle's theorem. Answer: Rolle's theorem is verified and c = 2. increases with an increase in the value of x and the
function is said to be decreasing if the value of f(x)
Now, f'(x) = 2x • Example 3: Can we apply Rolle's theorem on
decreases with an increase in the value of x.
Rolle’s theorem states that there is a point c the function f(x) = cos x on the interval [0,
2π]? In this article, we will study the concept of increasing
∈ (– 2, 2) such that f′(c) = 0.
and decreasing functions, their properties, graphical
2c = 0 Solution:
representation, and theorems to test for increasing and
c = 0, where c = 0 ∈ (–1, 1) We know that the cosine function is
decreasing functions along with examples for a better
continuous on [0, 2π] and differentiable on
Answer: Hence Rolle's theorem is verified. understanding.
(0, 2π). Now,
• Example 2: Verify Rolle’s theorem for the What are Increasing and
f(0) = cos 0 = 1
function f(x) = x2 - 4 x + 3 on the interval [1 , Decreasing Functions?
3], and then find the values of x = c such that f f(2π) = cos 2π = 1

'(c) = 0. So f(0) = f(2π). Increasing and decreasing functions are functions

Solution: f is a polynomial function, whose graphs go upwards and downwards respectively

Since all conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied, yes,
therefore is continuous on the interval [1, 3] as we move towards the right-hand side of the x-axis.
we can apply Rolle's theorem for the given function.
and is also differentiable on the interval (1, Increasing and decreasing functions are also called non-
Answer: Yes.
3). decreasing and non-increasing functions. Let us go

Now, f(1) = f(3) = 0 and thus function f Increasing and through the formal definition of increasing and
decreasing functions to understand their meaning:
satisfies all the three conditions of Rolle's
theorem.
Decreasing Functions Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Increasing and decreasing functions are functions in
Definition
Also, there exists at least one value of x = c
such that f '(c) = 0. calculus for which the value of f(x) increases and • Increasing Function - A function f(x) is said to
f '(x) = 2 x - 4 decreases respectively with the increase in the value of be increasing on an interval I if for any two
f '(c) = 2 c - 4 = 0 x. The derivative of the function f(x) is used to check the
 numbers x and y in I such that x < y, we have f(x) We use the derivative of a function to check if it is an
≤ f(y). increasing or decreasing function. Suppose a function
• Decreasing Function - A function f(x) is said to f(x) is differentiable on an open interval I, then we have
be decreasing on an interval I if for any two • If f'(x) ≥ 0 on I, the function is said to be an
numbers x and y in I such that x < y, we have f(x) increasing function on I.
≥ f(y). • If f'(x) ≤ 0 on I, the function is said to be a
• Strictly Increasing Function - A function f(x) is decreasing function on I.
said to be strictly increasing on an interval I if for Example: Let us consider an example to understand the
any two numbers x and y in I such that x < y, we concept better. Consider f(x) = x3 defined for all real
have f(x) < f(y). numbers. The derivative of f(x) = x3 is given by f'(x) =
• Strictly Decreasing Function - A function f(x) is 3x2. We know that square of a number is always greater
said to be strictly decreasing on an interval I if for than or equal to 0, therefore we have f'(x) = 3x2 ≥ 0 for
any two numbers x and y in I such that x < y, we The above graphs show the graphical representation of
all x. Hence f(x) = x3 is an increasing function.
strictly increasing, strictly decreasing, increasing and
have f(x) > f(y). Properties of Increasing and
Graphical Representation of decreasing functions. As we can see above in the graphs,
Decreasing Functions
Increasing and Decreasing the increasing function contains both strictly increasing
Functions intervals and the intervals where the function is Since we know how to check if a function is increasing
constant. Similarly, a decreasing function consists of or decreasing, let us go through the algebraic properties
Now, that we know the meaning and definition of intervals where the function is strictly decreasing and of increasing and decreasing functions:
increasing and decreasing functions, let us see the where the function is constant. • If the functions f and g are increasing functions on
graphical representation of increasing and decreasing Rules to Check Increasing and an open interval I, then the sum of the functions f
functions which will help us to understand the behavior Decreasing Functions + g is also increasing on this interval.
of the functions.
• If the functions f and g are decreasing functions
on an open interval I, then the sum of the
functions f + g is also decreasing on this interval.
 • If the function f is an increasing function on an • Increasing and decreasing functions are also • For x > 1, (1 - x) < 0 ⇒ e-x(1 - x) < 0
open interval I, then the opposite function -f is called non-decreasing and non-increasing [because exponential is always
decreasing on this interval. functions. positive]
• If the function f is a decreasing function on an Hence, we have f'(x) > 0 for x < 1. Therefore,
open interval I, then the opposite function -f is Increasing and Decreasing the interval where f(x) = xe-x is increasing on
increasing on this interval. Functions Examples (-∞, 1).
• If the function f is an increasing function on an Answer: f(x) = xe-x is increasing on (-∞, 1)
open interval I, then the inverse function 1/f is • Example 1: Determine the interval(s) on
• Example 2: Use the graph of the derivative
decreasing on this interval. which f(x) = xe-x is increasing using the rules
function f'(x) to determine the intervals
• If the function f is a decreasing function on an of increasing and decreasing functions.
where f(x) is increasing or decreasing.
open interval I, then the inverse function 1/f is Solution: To determine the interval where
increasing on this interval. f(x) is increasing, let us find the derivative of
• If the functions f and g are increasing functions on f(x).
an open interval I and f, g ≥ 0 on I, then the f(x) = xe-x
product of the functions fg is also increasing on f'(x) = e-x - xe-x
this interval. = e-x(1 - x)
• If the functions f and g are decreasing functions
To determine the critical point, equate f'(x)
on an open interval I and f, g ≥ 0 on I, then the
with 0, that is,
product of the functions fg is also decreasing on
e-x(1 - x) = 0 ⇒ x = 1 [Because exponential
this interval.
function cannot be equal to 0]
Important Notes on Increasing and Decreasing
• For x < 1, (1 - x) > 0 ⇒ e-x(1 - x) > 0
Functions
[because exponential is always
• The first derivative of a function is used to check positive]
for increasing and decreasing functions.
 Solution: We know that for a differentiable Let us learn more about the first derivative test, steps • If f ′(x) does not change significantly as x
function f(x) to be increasing on an interval I, for the test, uses, and examples of the first derivative increases through (c, f(c)) then c is neither a
we need to have f'(x) > 0 for all x in I and or a test. point of local maxima nor a point of local minima.
differentiable function f(x) to be decreasing What is First Derivative Test? In fact, such a point is called a point of inflection.
on an interval I, we need to have f'(x) < 0 for
all x in I. The first derivative test helps in finding the turning

As we can see in the image above, the graph points, where the function output has a maximum value

of f'(x) > 0 (above x-axis) in the interval (-2, or a minimum value. For the first derivative test. we

2) and the graph of f'(x) < 0 (below x-axis) in define a function f(x) on an open interval I. Let the

the intervals (-∞, -2) and (2, ∞). Therefore, function f(x) be continuous at a critical point c in

the function f(x) is increasing in (-2, 2) and interval I. Here we have the following conditions, to find

decreasing in (-∞, -2) ∪ (2, ∞). the local maximum and minimum, by using the first
derivative test.
Answer: Intervals where f(x) is increasing is
• If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x
(-2, 2) and where f(x) is decreasing is (-∞, -2)
increases through (c, f(c)) i.e., if f ′(x) > 0 at every
∪ (2, ∞).
point sufficiently close to and to the left of (c, f(c))

First Derivative Test and f ′(x) < 0 at every point sufficiently close to Local Maxima: Here in the first graph above, (c, f(c)) is
and to the right of (c, f(c)) then c is a point of local a point of local maxima, since f'(x) > 0 towards its left,
The first derivative test is the simplest method of maxima. and f'(x) < 0 towards its right.
finding the local maximum and the minimum points of a • If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x
Local Minima: Here in the second graph above (c, f(c))
function. The first derivative test works on the concept increases through (c, f(c)) i.e., if f ′(x) < 0 at every
is a point of local minima, since f'(x) < 0 towards its left,
of approximation, which finds the local maxima and point sufficiently close to and to the left of (c, f(c))
and f'(x) > 0 towards its right.
local minima by taking values from the left and from the and f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to
Steps for First Derivative Test
right in the neighborhood of the critical points and and to the right of (c, f(c)) then c is a point of local
substituting it in the expression of the first derivative. minima.
The following steps are helpful to complete the first The first derivative test is beneficial in a number of • A ball thrown in the air from the top of a building
derivative test and finding the limiting points. ways, which can be understood from the following of height 10m, travels along the path given by the

• For the given function f(x), find the first applications. formula h(x) = 60 + x - x2/60., where x is the

derivative f'(x). • The first derivative test can be used to find the horizontal distance and h(x) is the height of the

• Find the limiting points by equalizing the first local maxima and local minima of a function, ball. To find the maximum height the ball would

derivative expression to zero f'(x) = 0. under certain constraints. reach, we use the first derivative test.

• Find one point each in the neighboring left side • The first derivative test is useful to find the • A helicopter of the enemy is traveling along the

and the neighboring right side of the limiting optimal solution for the problem situation. path defined by the equation P(x) = x + 7, and a

point. • For a parabolic equation the first derivative test soldier placed at the point (1, 2) wants to hit the

• Substitute these neighboring points in the first helps in finding the turning point or the vertex of helicopter. Here to find the minimum distance at

derivative functions. a parabola, and also gives the orientation of the which the soldier can hit the helicopter, we can

• If the differentiation of the function is positive parabola. use the first derivative test.
f'(x) > 0, for the neighboring point to the left, and • The first derivative test helps in knowing the Examples of First Derivative Test
it is negative f'(x) < 0, for the neighboring point to extreme points of the curves.
the right, then the limiting point is the local • The first derivative test helps us to know if the • Example 1: Find the local maxima and local

maxima. curve concaves up or concaves down. minima of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 - 12x +

• If the differentiation of the function is negative 5., using the first derivative test.
Further, the first derivative test can be applied in the
f'(x) < 0, for the neighboring point to the left, and following real-life situations. Solution:
it is positive f'(x)>0, for the neighboring point to The given function is f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 - 12x + 5
• The profit from a grove of orange trees is given by
the right, then the limiting point is the local f'(x) = 6x2 + 6x - 12
the algebraic expression P(x) = ax + bx2+ cx3 + d,
minima. f'(x) = 0; 6x2 - 6x - 12 = 0, 6(x2 + x - 2) = 0, 6(x
where a, b are constants and x is the number of
Applications of First Derivative - 1)(x + 2) = 0
mango trees per acre. To find the number of
Test mango trees per acre, which are required to Hence the limiting points are x = 1, and x = -2.
maximize the profit we use this first derivative Let us take the points in the immediate
test. neighbourhood of x = 1. The points are {0, 2}.
f'(0) = 6(02 + 0 - 2) = 6(-2) = -12, and f'(2) = • Example 2: Verify the result of Example The above problem can be solved using the
6(22 + 2 - 2) = 6(4) = +24 1 graphically. first derivative test. Since the sum of the two

The derivative of the function is negative Solution: positive numbers is 10, we have the numbers

towards the left of x = 1, and is positive Graphing the cubic function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 - as x and 10 - x,

towards the right. Hence x = 1 is the local 12x + 5, The sum of the squares of these two positive
minima. numbers need to be a minimum value.

Let us now take the points in the immediate Hence we have f(x) = x2 + (10 - x)2. The aim is

neighborhood of x = -2. The points are {-3, - to find the local minimum.

1}. Here we can use the first derivative test to

f'(-3) = 6((-3)2 + (-3) - 2) = 6(4) = +24, and find where f(x) has local minimum.

f'(-1) = 6((-1)2 + (-1) -2) = 6(-2) = -12 f'(x) = 2x -2(10 - x) = 2x - 20 + 2x = 4x - 20

The derivative of the function is positive f'(x) = 0; 4x - 20 = 0; x = 20/4; x = 5

towards the left of x = -2, and is negative Let us now take two points in the immediate
towards the right. Hence x = -2 is the local neighborhood of x = 5. And the points are {4,
maxima. 6}.
Therefore, the local maxima is at x = -2, and It is very clear from the graph that f(x) has a f'(4) = 4(4) - 20 = 16 - 20 = -4, and f'(6) = 4(6)
the local minima is at x = -1. local minimim at (1, -2) and a local maximum - 20 = 24 - 20 = +4
Local maxima = f(-2) = 2(-2)3 + 3(-2)2 - 12(- at (-2, 25).
The derivative of the function is negative
2) + 5 = 25 Answer: The solution of Example 1 is
towards the left of x = 5, and is positive
Local minima = f(1) = 2(1)3 + 3(1)2 - 12(1) + verified graphically.
towards the right. Hence x = 1 is the local
5 = -2 • Example 3: Find two positive numbers
minima.
whose sum is 10 and the sum of
Answer: Local maxima is at (-2, 25) and local Hence we have x = 5, and 10 - x = 5.
whose squares is minimum.
minima is at (1, -2).
Solution:
 Answer: Therefore, the two positive (i) If f''(x) > 0 on an open interval I, then f(x)
is concave up on I.
numbers whose sum is 10, and the sum of
whose squares is minimum are 5, and 5.
(i) If f''(x) < 0 on an open interval I, then f(x)
is concave down on I.
CONCAVITY AND
POINTS OF INFLECTION Point of Inflection

Concave up : The points where the graph of the function

changes from “concave up to concave down” or
The graph is said to be concave up (convex “concave down to concave up” are called the
down) at a point if the tangent line to the graph
Relationship Between First points of inflection of f (x) .
at that point lies below the graph in the vicinity Derivative and Concavity
of the point. How to calculate point of
Let f(x) be a function whose second derivative
Concave down : exists in an open interval I = (a, b). Then the
inflection ?
function is said to be
It is said to be concave down (convex up) at a (i) If f ′′(c) exists and f ′′(c) changes sign when
point if the tangent line lies above the graph in passing through x = c , then the point
(i) If f'(x) is strictly increasing on I, then the
the vicinity of the point. function is concave up on the open interval I.
(c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of
f.
(ii) If f'(x) is strictly decreasing on I, then the
function is concave down on the open interval I.
(ii) If f ′′(c) exists at the point of inflection,
then f ''(c) = 0 .
Finding Concavity from Second
Derivative Inflection point and sharp point :
To determine the position of points of inflexion f'(x) = (x-4)2(4x-4)
on the curve y = f (x) it is necessary to find the
u = (x-4)2 v = (4x-4)
points where f ′′(x) changes sign. For ‘smooth’
curves (no sharp corners), this may happen when u' = 2(x-4) and v' = 4
either
f''(x) = (x-4)2(4)+(4x-4)2(x-4)
(i) f ''(x) = 0 or
f''(x) = (x-4)[4(x-4)+2(4x-4)]
(ii) f ′′(x) does not exist at the point.
f''(x) = (x-4)[4x-16+8x-8]
Problem 1 :
f''(x) = (x-4)(12x-24)
Find intervals of concavity and points of
f''(x) = 12(x-4)(x-2) At x = 2, the curve changes its sign, it changes
inflexion for the following functions:
from concave up to concave down.
(i) f (x) = x(x − 4)3 f''(x) = 0
At x = 4, the curve changes its sign, it changes
x - 4 = 0 and x - 2 = 0 from concave down to concave up.
Solution :

Point of inflection :
f(x) = x(x − 4)3
x = 4 and x = 2
u = x, v = (x − 4)3
At x = 2 At x = 4

u' = 1 and v' = 3(x-4)2 f (2) = 2(2 − 4)3 f (4) = 2(4 − 4)3

f'(x) = x[3(x-4)2] + (x − 4)3 (1) f (2) = 2(−2)3 f (4) = 0

f'(x) = (x-4)2[3x + (x−4)] f (2) = -16

So, point of inflection are (2, -16) and (4, 0). Problem 3 :

(ii) y = sin x + cos x, 0 < x < 2π f(x) = 1/2 (ex-e-x)

Solution : Solution :

y = sin x + cos x f(x) = 1/2 (ex-e-x)

y' = cos x - sin x f'(x) = 1/2 (ex+e-x)

y'' = -sinx -cosx f''(x) = 1/2 (ex-e-x)

At x = 3π/4, the curve changes its sign, it
y'' = 0 changes from concave down to concave up. f''(x) = 0

sinx -cosx = 0 At x = 7π/4, the curve changes its sign, it 1/2 (ex-e-x) = 0
changes from concave up to concave down.
-sinx = cosx ex = e-x
Point of inflection :
e2x = 1
sinx/cosx = -1
f(3π/4) f(7π/4)
2x = 0
tan x = -1
= sin (3π/4) + cos(3π/4) = sin (7π/4) + cos(7π/4)
x = 0
x = tan-1(-1)
= -1/√2 + 1/√2 = -1/√2 + 1/√2
So, the intervals are (-∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
x = 3π/4, 7π/4
= 0 = 0

The intervals are (0, 3π/4) (3π/4, 7π/4) and

(7π/4, 2π). So, points of inflection are (3π/4, 0) and (7π/4,
0).
 derivative test by checking the sign of the second relative maxima and minima is called the relative
derivative at the critical points or using the first extrema.
derivative test by checking the change of sign of
the first derivative of the function in the nearest
neighborhood of the critical point. First
Derivative Test and Second Derivative Test are Relative Extrema Definition
the two most commonly used methods to
determine the relative extrema. The relative extrema of a function are points on
the graph of a function at which the minimum or
Point of Inflection : In this article, we will learn how to find the
maximum values of the function are obtained in
relative extrema of a function using the derivative
some interval of the domain of the function. Let
at x = 0 tests and using graphs. We will also solve
us go through the definitions of relative maxima
different examples to understand the steps for
f(0) = 0 and relative individually:
finding the relative extrema and for the clarity of
the concept. • Relative Maxima - A point x = b is said to be the
So, point of inflection is (0, 0).
point of relative maxima for f(x) if in the 𝛿-
What are Relative Extrema?
neighborhood of b i.e in (b−𝛿, b+𝛿) where 𝛿 can

Relative extrema are the input values of a be made arbitrarily small, f(x) < f(b) for all x ∈

function f(x) where f(x) has minimum or (b−𝛿, b+𝛿)∖{b}. In other words, if we consider a

maximum values. They can be of two types small region (interval) around x = b, f(b) should

Relative Extrema - relative maxima and relative minima. Graphically, be the maximum in that interval.

relative extrema are the peaks and valleys of the • Relative Minima - A point x = a is said to be point
The relative extrema of a function indicate the graph of a function, peaks being the points of of relative minima for f(x) if in the neighbourhood
behavior of the function and tell the points where relative maxima and valleys being the points of of a, i.e. in (a−𝛿,a+𝛿), where 𝛿 can be made
the function has maxima or minima. Points of relative minima. The combination of arbitrarily small, f(x) > f(a) for all x ∈
relative extrema can be obtained using the second (a−𝛿,a+𝛿)∖{a}. In simple words, if we consider a
 small interval around x = a, f(a) should be the Relative Extrema First Derivative can be arbitrarily small, then x = c is a point of
minimum in that interval. Test relative minima.

Please note that a function f(x) can have more • Test Fails: If the sign of the first derivative of f(x)
Now, to find the relative extrema using the first does not change we move through the point c,
than one relative extrema. On the other hand,
derivative test, we check the change in the sign of then x = c is called the point of inflection.
there can only be one absolute extremum (one
the first derivative of the function as we move Let us consider an example to understand how to
absolute maximum and one absolute minimum)
through the critical points. The slope of the graph find the points of relative extrema using the first
of the function over the entire domain.
of the function is given by the first derivative. derivative test step-wise. For this, consider the
Consider a continuous differentiable function f(x) function f(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 + 6. Now, follow the given
Finding Relative Extrema with a critical point at x = c such f'(c) = 0. Then, steps to find its points of relative extrema:
we have the following conditions for the points of
We can evaluate the relative extrema of a function Step 1: Determine the derivative of f(x)
relative extrema:
using derivative tests. There are two tests, f'(x) = 6x2 - 6x
• Relative Maxima: If the sign of f'(x) changes from
namely: Step 2: Equate the derivative to 0, i.e., f'(x) = 0 to
positive to negative as we move from left to right
• The first derivative test find the critical points.
through the point x = c, i.e., if f'(x) > 0 for values
• The second derivative test f'(x) = 0
of x in left 𝛿-neighborhood of c, and f'(x) < 0 for
We will study the two tests in detail with the help
values of x in right 𝛿-neighborhood of c, where 𝛿 ⇒ 6x2 - 6x = 0
of examples to understand their applications. In
can be arbitrarily small, then x = c is a point of ⇒ 6x(x - 1) = 0
the first derivative test, we check the sign of the
relative maxima.
first derivative as move via the critical points, and ⇒ x = 0, or x = 1
• Relative Minima: If the sign of f'(x) changes from
in the second derivative test, we check the sign of Therefore, x = 0 and x = 1 are the critical points.
negative to positive as we move from left to right
the second derivative at the critical points. Let us Now, to determine the points of relative extrema,
through the point x = c, i.e., if f'(x) < 0 for values
explore the two tests thoroughly in the following we will consider points on the left and right sides
of x in left 𝛿-neighborhood of c, and f'(x) > 0 for
sections. of these critical points.
values of x in right 𝛿-neighborhood of c, where 𝛿
Step 3: Find a point on the left side and right side Now, follow the given steps to find its points of
of the critical points and check the value of the Relative Extrema Second relative extrema:
derivative at these points. Derivative Test Step 1: Determine the derivative of f(x)
Consider x = -1 on the left side and x = 1/2 on the f'(x) = 6x2 + 6x - 12
right side of the critical point x = 0 and check the Next, to find the points of relative extrema using
Step 2: Equate the derivative to 0, i.e., f'(x) = 0 to
value of f'(x) at these points. the second derivative test, we check the sign of
find the critical points.
the second derivative of the function at the
f'(-1) = 6(-1)2 - 6(-1) = 6 + 6 = 12 > 0
critical points. Generally, if the first derivative test f'(x) = 0
f'(1/2) = 6(1/2) - 6(1/2) = 6/4 - 6/2 = 3/2 - 3 = -
2
fails, then we use the second derivative test to ⇒ 6x2 + 6x - 12 = 0
3/2 < 0
find the points of relative extrema. Consider a ⇒ 6(x2 + x - 2) = 0
Since the value of f'(x) changes from positive to
function f(x) that is differentiable twice and a ⇒ x2 + x - 2 = 0
negative, therefore x = 0 is a point of relative
critical point x = c within the domain of f(x) such ⇒ x2 + 2x - x - 2 = 0
maxima.
that f'(c) = 0, then we have the following ⇒ x(x + 2) - 1(x + 2) = 0
Similarly, consider x = 1/2 on the left side and x = conditions:
⇒ (x - 1) (x + 2) = 0
2 on the right side of the critical point x = 1 and
• If f''(c) < 0, then x = c is a point of relative
check the value of f'(x) at these points. ⇒ x = 1, or x = -2
maxima.
f'(1/2) = 6(1/2)2 - 6(1/2) = 6/4 - 6/2 = 3/2 - 3 = - Therefore, x = -2 and x = 1 are the critical points.
• If f''(c) > 0, then x = c is a point of relative
3/2 < 0 minima.
Step 3: Determine the second derivative of f(x).
f'(2) = 6(2)2 - 6(2) = 24 - 12 = 12 > 0 • The test fails if f''(c) = 0. In this case, x = c is f''(x) = 12 x + 6
Since the value of f'(x) changes from negative to called the point of inflection. Step 4: Substitute the critical points into f''(x) and
positive, therefore x = 1 is a point of relative Let us consider an example to understand how to check the sign of the second derivative.
minima. find the points of relative extrema using the f''(-2) = 12(-2) + 6 = -24 + 6 = -18 < 0 ⇒ x = -2 is a
To determine the relative maximum and second derivative test step-wise. For this, point of relative maxima.
minimum values, we can find the values of f(0) consider the function f(x) = 2x + 3x - 12x + 5.
3 2
f''(1) = 12(1) + 6 = 12 + 6 = 18 > 0 ⇒ x = 1 is a
and f(1), respectively. point of relative minima.
 Important Notes on Relative Extrema maxima and there is no relative minima for
Relative Extrema On Graph • A function can have more than one relative this function.

extrema but there can only be one absolute Answer: x = 0 is the required relative
We have learned to determine the points of maximum and absolute minimum point. extrema point.
relative extrema algebraically using the • The value of x within the domain of f(x), which is • Example 2: Evaluate the relative extrema of
derivative tests. Next, we will learn to identify the neither a local maximum nor a local minimum, is the function f(x) = x3 - 6x2+9x + 15.
relative extrema of a function using a graph. called the point of inflection. Solution: We will use the second derivative
Peaks and valleys in a graph indicate the relative Relative Extrema Examples test to find the relative extrema of the
extrema of the function. As we can see in the
function f(x) = x3 - 6x2+ 9x + 15.
graph below, there are valleys at x = a and x = c, • Example 1: Determine the points of relative
We will find the first derivative of f(x) to
and the function has minimum values at these extrema of the function f(x) = 2 - x2
determine the critical points.
points, hence x = a and x = c are the points of Solution: We will use the first derivative test
relative minima. Similarly, we see peaks at x = b to find the relative extrema of the function f'(x) = 3x2 - 12x + 9

and x = d in the graph. The function has maximum f(x) = 2 - x2 f'(x) = 0

values at these points, and hence x = b and x = d f'(x) = -2x ⇒ 3(x2 - 4x + 3) = 0
are the points of relative maxima. ⇒ x2 - 4x + 3 = 0
f'(x) = 0

⇒ -2x = 0 ⇒ (x - 1)(x - 3) = 0

⇒ x = 0 is the critical point. Hence the critical points are x = 1, and x = 3.

Choose a point to the left and right of x = 0 Next determine the second derivative of f(x).

and check the sign of f'(x) at those points. f''(x) = 6x - 12

Let us consider x = -1 and x= 1. f''(1) = 6(1) - 12 = 6 - 12 = -6 < 0 ⇒ x = 1 is

f'(-1) = -2(-1) = 2 > 0 and f'(1) = -2(1) = -2 < 0 the relative maxima.

⇒ The sign of f'(x) changes from positive to f''(3) = 6(3) - 12 = 18 - 12 = 6 > 0 ⇒ x = 3 is

negative, therefore x = 0 is a point of relative the relative minima.

 Answer: Hence x = 1 and x = 3 are the points any function without even looking at the graph of There are two types of maxima and minima that
of relative extrema. the function. Maxima will be the highest point on exist in a function, which are:
the curve within the given range and minima • Local Maxima and Minima
Maxima and Minima would be the lowest point on the curve. • Absolute or Global Maxima and Minima
The combination of maxima and minima is Let us learn about them in detail.
Maxima and minima are known as the extrema
extrema. In the image given below, we can see Local Maxima and Minima
of a function. Maxima and minima are the
various peaks and valleys in the graph. At x = a
maximum or the minimum value of a function
and at x = 0, we get maximum values of the Local maxima and minima are the maxima and
within the given set of ranges. For the function,
function, and at x = b and x = c, we get minimum minima of the function which arise in a particular
under the entire range, the maximum value of the
values of the function. All the peaks are the interval. Local maxima would be the value of a
function is known as the absolute maxima and the
maxima and the valleys are the minima. function at a point in a particular interval for
minimum value is known as the absolute minima.
which the values of the function near that point
There are other maxima and minima of a function,
are always less than the value of the function at
which are not the absolute maxima and minima of
that point. Whereas local minima would be the
the function and are known as local maxima and
value of the function at a point where the values
local minima. Let us learn more about local
of the function near that point are greater than
maxima and minima, absolute maxima and
the value of the function at that point.
minima, and how to find the maxima and minima
of the function. Local Maxima: A point x = b is a point of local
maximum for f(x) if in the neighborhood of b i.e in
What are Maxima and Minima of a
(b−𝛿, b+𝛿) where 𝛿 can be made arbitrarily small,
Function?
f(x) < f(b) for all x ∈ (b−𝛿, b+𝛿)∖{b}. This simply
Maxima and minima are the peaks and valleys in means that if we consider a small region
the curve of a function. There can be any number (interval) around x = b, f(b) should be the
of maxima and minima for a function. In calculus, maximum in that interval.
we can find the maximum and minimum value of Local Minima: A point x = a is a point of local
minimum for f(x) if in the neighbn ourhood of a, function whereas the lowest point of the function How to Find Maxima and Minima
i.e. in (a−𝛿,a+𝛿), (where 𝛿 can have arbitrarily within the entire domain of the function, is known of a Function?
small values), f(x) > f(a) for all x ∈ (a−𝛿,a+𝛿)∖{a}. as the absolute minima of the function. There can
This means that if we consider a small interval only be one absolute maximum of a function and Maxima and minima of a function can be
around x = a, f(a) should be the minimum in that one absolute minimum of the function over the calculated by using the first-order derivative test
interval. entire domain. The absolute maxima and minima and second-order derivative test. Derivative tests
of the function can also be called the global are the quickest ways to find the maxima and
In the image given below, we can see that x = b
maxima and global minima of the function. minima of a function. Let us discuss them one by
and x = d, are the local maxima, and x = a and x =
one.
c, are the local minima. • Absolute maxima: A point x = a is a point of global
maximum for f(x) if f(x) ≤ f(a) for all x∈D (the First Order Derivative Test for Maxima
domain of f(x)).
and Minima
• Absolute minima: A point x = a is a point of global The first derivative of a function gives the slope of
minimum for f(x) if f(x) ≥ f(a) for all x∈D (the the function. Near a maximum point, the slope of
domain of f(x)). the curve increases as we go towards the
In the image given below, point x = a is the maximum point then becomes 0 at the maximum
absolute maxima of the function and at x = b is the point and then decreases as we move away from
absolute minima of the function. the maximum point. Similarly, near the minimum
point, the slope of the function decreases as we
move towards the minimum point then becomes
0 at the minimum point, and then increases as we
move away from the minimum point. We use this
Absolute Maxima and Minima information to know whether the point is maxima
or minima.
The highest point of a function within the entire Let say we have a function f which is continuous
domain is known as the absolute maxima of the at the critical point, defined in an open interval I
and f’(c) = 0 (slope is 0 at c). Then we check the • Local maxima: If f''(c) < 0 ⇒ dy/dx = d(2x3)/dx - d(3x2)/dx + d(6)/dx
value of f'(x) at the point left to the curve and • Local minima: If f''(c) > 0 ⇒ dy/dx = 6x2 - 6x + 0
right to the curve and check the nature of f'(x), • Test fails: If f''(c) = 0 ⇒ dy/dx = 6x2 - 6x ------ (eq 2)
then we can say, that the given point will be: Important Notes on Maxima and Minima: Putting dy/dx = 0 to find critical points,
• Local maxima: If f’(x) changes sign from positive
• Maxima and minima are the peaks and valleys in ⇒ 6x2 - 6x = 0
to negative as x increases via point c, then f(c)
the curve of a function. ⇒ 6x (x - 1) = 0
gives the maximum value of the function in that
• There can only be one absolute maxima of a
⇒ x = 0,1
range.
function and one absolute minimum of the
• Local minima: If f’(x) changes sign from negative The critical points are 0 & 1.
function over the entire domain.
to positive as x increases via point c, then f(c) Differentiate both of sides of (eq 2), w.r.t x.
• A function f is called a monotonous function in
gives the minimum value of the function in that ⇒ d2y/dx2 = d(6x2)/dx - d(6x)/dx
the interval I, if f is either increasing in I or
range. ⇒ d2y/dx2 = 12x - 6
decreasing in I.
• Point of inflection: If the sign of f’(x) doesn’t
Solved Examples on Maxima and Now, put the values of x and find the max or
change as x increases via c, and the point c is
Minima min value.
neither the maxima nor minima of the function,
At x = 0, d2y/dx2 = 12(0) - 6 = -6 < 0, hence x
then the point c is called the point of inflection. • Example 1: Find the points of maxima and
= 0 is a point of maxima
Second-Order Derivative Test for Maxima minima of a function:y = 2x3 - 3x2 + 6
At x = 1, d2y/dx2 = 12(1) - 6 = 6 > 0, hence x =
and Minima Solution
1 is a point of minima
In the second-order derivative test for maxima Given function: y = 2x3 - 3x2 +6
Answer: The maxima of the function is at x
and minima, we find the first derivative of the Using second order derivative test for the = 0 and minima of the function is at x = 1.
function and if it gives the value of the slope equal maxima and minima of a function:
• Example 2: Find the extrema of the given
to 0 at the critical point x = c (f’(c) = 0), then we Taking first order derivative of: function: f(x) = -3x2 + 4x + 7 and the
find the second derivative of the function. If the
y = 2x3 - 3x2 + 6 ----- (eq 1) extremum value using maxima and minima
second derivative of the function exists within the
Differentiate both of sides (eq 1), w.r.t x. formulas.
given range, then the given point will be:
Solution:

Using second order derivative test for the

maxima and minima of a function:

Given function: f(x) = -3x2 + 4x + 7 --------------

--(eq 1)

Differentiate on both sides of (eq 1), w.r.t x.

⇒ dy/dx = d(-3x2)/dx + d(4x)/dx + d(7)/dx

⇒ dy/dx = - 6x + 4

Putting dy/dx = 0 to find critical points.

⇒ -6x + 4 = 0 ----------------(eq 2)

⇒x = 2/3

The critical point is 2/3.

Differentiate both sides of (eq 2), w.r.t x.

⇒ d2y/dx2 = d(-6x)/dx + d(4)/dx

⇒ d2y/dx2 = -6
Since d2y/dx2< 0, the given curve will have
maxima at x = 2/3.

The maxima value of f(x) at x = 2/3 is,

f(2/3) = -3(2/3)2 + 4(2/3) + 7 = -4/3 + 8/3 +

7 = 25/3

Answer: The maxima of the function is at x

= 2/3 and maximum value is 25/3.