INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING

Lecture 01: Introduction: Fundamental concepts of quality, inspection and their

role in manufacturing
Dr. Kaushik Pal
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What is Inspection?
Definition- “Measuring, examining, testing and gauging one or more characteristics of a product or
service and comparing the results with specified requirements to determine whether conformity is
achieved for each characteristic.” - ISO 2859

Assess conformity with design specifications.

Objectives
Improve product quality and reliability.

 Inspection can be performed at several places in production: from acceptance of the raw materials
and parts from the suppliers to the shipping of the products to the customers.
 Inspected products can be the components used for production, work-in-process inventory, or
finished goods.
 For manufacturing systems which are in continuous operation and subject to breakdown, inspection
can be an appropriate maintenance strategy.

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Role of Inspection in Manufacturing:
“Intellectuals solve problems, geniuses prevent them”

-Albert Einstein
 Inspection: Watchdog of a manufacturing process.

Final
Product
Design Manufacturing Inspection

Repair/Rework

Feedback

 Inspection is performed in an manufacturing industry to prevent the defects from passing further down
the line and to make the product as per the required specifications.

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 Inspection is done to minimize the rework and scrap costs in manufacturing.

 Rework – The transformation of products not fulfilling the present specification into products that
do, e.g. correcting of defective, failed, or non-conforming items, during or after inspection.
 Scrap – Waste that either has no economic value or only the value of its basic material content
recoverable through recycling.

 Scrap and rework are an incredible drain on company resources.

 Scrap and rework costs are incurred due to many reasons, for example:
o When the wrong parts or raw materials are ordered.
o Machine malfunction or human error.
o When designs are not properly executed on the manufacturing line.
o When engineering changes aren’t effectively communicated.
o Product damaged in transit.

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Functions of Inspection:
Inspection is normally carried out:

1. To find out physical imperfections (such as surface defects and internal defects etc.).
2. To check the quantity (such as numbers, volume, and weight etc.).
3. To check the physical dimensions (such as length, width, height, and thickness etc.).
4. To check the nominal size (usually done for the bulk raw materials).
5. To check the physical appearance (such as brightness, dullness, rusting, weathering, colour, solid,
liquid etc.).
6. To check the chemical composition.
7. To check physical, mechanical, and electrical properties like density or specific gravity, dimensional
tolerances, product shape, temperature, tensile strength, microstructure, fracture analysis etc.
8. To check many other properties which are specific to certain products such as coating thickness in case
of coated products, refractoriness and apparent porosity etc.

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Basic Issues of Inspection:
 The purpose of inspection is to provide information on the degree to which items conform to
a standard.

At what points in the process inspection should occur?

How much to inspect and how often?

Basic issues of
inspection
Whether to inspect attributes (counts) or variables (measures)?

Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location?

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1. Where to inspect?
 Inspection always adds to the cost of the product; therefore it is important to restrict
inspection efforts to the points where they can give the more advantage.
• Before a costly operation.
 In manufacturing, some of the typical inspection points are: • Before an irreversible
process.
• Before a covering process.

• Raw materials and

purchased parts.

• Before shipping
• Finished products
to the customer.

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Stages of Inspection and Testing:

Incoming materials In-process material Semi-finished product Finished product

inspection and testing inspection and testing inspection and testing inspection and testing

I. Incoming Materials Inspection and Testing:

 Incoming Inspection is called as Raw Material Inspection and it is done for the purchase order.
 This procedure covers inspecting purchased supplier material i.e. raw material, purchased parts, subcontracted
goods etc.
II. In-process Material Inspection and Testing:
 It is performed when the product is transferred from one process to the next.
 Its purpose is to prevent defected goods from entering the next process and producing further damage.
III. Semi-finished Product Inspection and Testing:
 It is performed for processed parts, and assemblies, and it does not include the completely finished goods.
IV. Finished Product Inspection and Testing:
 It is the inspection performed in the final stage of manufacturing process.
 In this test, whether the complete goods meet the requirements as a product or not is determined in order to
prevent the loss in customer confidence, various problems, and damages in advance.

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Example- (Automobile Production Line):
Accepted Raw Material (After Inspection):
Steel, Aluminium etc.

Car Body
Frame

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2. How much to inspect?
 The amount of inspection can range from no inspection to inspection of each item many
times.
 Low-cost, high volume items such as paper clips and pencils often require little
inspection because:
 The cost associated with passing defective items is quite low.
 The process that produces these items are usually highly reliable, so that defects
are rare.
 High-cost, low volume items that have large cost associated with passing defective
items often require more intensive inspection such as airplanes and spaceships.
 The majority of quality control applications ranges between these two extremes.
 The amount of inspection needed is governed by the cost of inspection and the expected
cost of passing defective items.

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Optimal Amount of Inspection
• The complete setup and execution of inspection activities increase total production cost.
• Total inspection cost is the sum of the fixed cost and the variable cost, in which the variable cost is
related to the quantity inspected per day.
• The fixed cost includes the setup cost and salaried workers of the inspection area
• For calculating the optimal amount of inspection, the variable cost is taken into consideration.
Minimum point on
the total cost curve

Total Cost = Cost of inspection + Cost of passing defectives

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3. Whether to Inspect Attributes (Counts) or Variables (Measures)?

• Basically, there are two types of data to collect as part of a inspection procedure:
a) Attribute (Discrete) Data:
 Quality characteristic for which a numerical value is not specified.
 It is a qualitative data that can be counted for recording and analysis.
 For example: taste, paint quality, quality of output, no. of defects, no. of defectives, no. of
scrap items, etc.
b) Variable (Continuous) Data:
 It is a measurement information of the product.
 For example: length, volume, time, etc.
• They are both important information, but variable data is generally more useful as it is more
precise and contains more information.

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Difference Between Attribute Data and Variable Data:
Attribute Data Variable Data
Attribute data focuses on numbers or go/no-go Variable data focuses on measurements on a
information. continuous scale.
Attribute data simply classifies the output as Variable data tells that how bad each defective
defective or not defective. product is: 10% faulty, 20% faulty, and so on.
Attribute data is simpler to gather, so it’s a good Variable data can tell us many things that attribute
choice if we are looking at a binary condition, for data can’t.
example: • With variable data trends are seen allowing for
• The product works or it doesn’t work. corrective action to be taken long before the
• The parts fit the slot or not. product reaches the reject level.
• Students pass the test or they fail.
Example: Example:
Temperature

On or Off? Broken or Unbroken? Size

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4. Whether to inspect in a centralized or on-site location?
 Based on the timing and place of the inspection procedure in relation to the manufacturing
process, two alternative situations are possible:
I. Off-line or Centralized Inspection
II. On-site Inspection
 Off-line or Centralized Inspection:
 Off-line or centralized inspection is performed away from the manufacturing process,
and there is generally a time delay between processing and inspection.
 Generally, in these inspection activities:
 More specialized testing equipment are used.
 More favourable testing environment is needed.
For example: Medical tests, analysing food samples, testing metals for hardness, running
viscosity tests on lubricants etc.

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 Continued…
 On-site Inspection:
 The alternative to off-line inspection is on-line inspection, in which the procedure is
performed when parts are made.
 In this case, quicker decisions can be made and extraneous factors (e.g. surface
scratches) can be avoided.
For example: Inspecting the hull of a ship for cracks, construction site inspection.

Centralized or on-site location?

 Effects on cost and level of disruption are major issues in selecting centralized vs on-site
inspection.

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What is Quality?
 Quality has no specific meaning unless related to a specific function and/or object.
 The definition of “quality” has changed over time, and their various interpretations are given
below:
 The totality of features and characteristics of a product or services that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs of the customers (ISO).
 Quality of a product or service is the fitness of that product or service for meeting its intended use
required by the customer (JOSEPH JURAN).
 Quality is conformance to specifications (EDWARD DEMING).
 Quality is conformance to requirements (PHILIP CROSBY).
 Quality is what the customer says, it is (FEIGENBAUM).
 The common element of the above definitions is that the quality of a product or service refers to
the perception of the degree to which the product or service meets the customer's expectations.

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 Continued…
 Perceived quality is governed by the gap between customers’ expectations and their
perceptions of the product or service.

Gap Gap

Customers’ Customers’ Customers’ Customers’

expectations Customers’ expectations perceptions Customers’ perceptions
for the perceptions for the of the expectations of the
product or of the product or product or for the product or
service product or service service product or service
service service

Expectations > Perceptions Expectations = Perceptions Expectations < Perceptions

Perceived quality is poor Perceived quality is acceptable Perceived quality is good

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Dimensions of Product Quality:

As prescribed by Garvin, the eight dimensions of quality are:

1. Performance (will the product do the intended job?)
2. Conformance (does the product meets the specifications?)
3. Reliability (how often the product fails?)
4. Durability (how long the product lasts?)
5. Serviceability (how easy is to repair the product?)
6. Aesthetics (what does the product looks, feels, sounds, smells, or tastes?)
7. Features (what does the product do? For example extra features added to basic features.)
8. Perceived quality (what is the reputation of a company?)

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What is Quality Control?
 Definition: Inspection, analysis and action applied to a portion of the product in a
manufacturing operation to estimate overall quality of the product and determine what, if
any, changes must be made to achieve or maintain the required level of quality.
Proper Planning

 It involves inspection and testing of

units and determining if they are within Right Design
the specifications for the final product.
Quality control of a product Proper equipment
can be viewed as a system
 The purpose of the testing is to which ensures:
determine any needs for corrective Proper Inspection
actions in the manufacturing process.
Corrective action

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Benefits of Quality Control:
 Quality is vital in all areas of business, including the product development and
production functions.
 A well established, committed quality system in an organization will render the
following benefits:
 Defect reduction
 Higher productivity
 Cost reduction
 Continuous improvement in quality of product
 Customer satisfaction

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Cost of Quality:
 Money spent beyond expected production costs (labour, materials, equipment) to ensure that
the product the customer receives is a quality (defect free) product.
 It quantifies the total cost of quality-related efforts and deficiencies in manufacturing a
product.

Cost of Cost
Cost of not
ensuring that
the job is
doing the job Of
right
done right Quality

It include the cost arises from efforts It include downtime, repair costs,
to prevent or detect defects. rework, scrap, and employee turnover.

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Four Cost Categories Related to Quality

Total Cost of Quality

Appraisal Cost Prevention Cost Internal Failure Cost External Failure Cost

Cost of good quality Cost of poor quality

Cost of achieving good quality is the Cost of poor quality (COPQ) are costs that
investment made by the company in proactive would disappear if systems, processes, and
quality management practices and planning. products were perfect.

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 Prevention Cost
o Cost of planning and executing a project so it is error free or within an acceptable error range.
 Example: Cost of training and performing acceptance sampling of raw materials, SQC, Six Sigma, and other
techniques.
 Appraisal Cost
o Cost of evaluating process and their outputs to ensure quality.
 Example: Cost of detecting defects in the final product i.e. outgoing inspection of products before being
shipped to customers
 Internal Failure Cost
o Cost incurred to correct an identified defect before the customer receives the product.
 Example: Cost of scrap and rework of defective products- This includes the extra paper work, delays,
rescheduling required, etc.
 External Failure Cost
o Cost that relates to all errors not detected and corrected before delivery to the customer.
 Example: Cost of Warranty Claims- This also includes the loss of goodwill on the part of customers.

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Activities Associated with Different Cost Categories:

Prevention Appraisal Internal Failure External Failure

• Design and development of • Receiving inspection.
inspection • Scrap.
Scrap • Lost profit/sales.
profit/sales
equipment.
equipment
• Laboratory inspection and • Rework and repair.
repair • Repair/replacement of sold
• Quality review.
review testing
testing. goods
goods.
• Rescheduling due to
• Maintenance and • In-process inspection.
inspection downtime
downtime. • Warranty claims.
claims
calibration of production
and inspection equipment.
equipment • Final inspection.
inspection • Overtime to cover • Product recalls.
recalls
production losses.
losses
• Supplier quality audits.
audits • Field testing (performance • Allowances.
Allowances
test and status reporting).
reporting) • Downgrading.
Downgrading
• Quality training (seminars, • Complaint adjustment.
adjustment
workshops/lectures).
workshops/lectures) • Inspection and test • Failure Analysis- To
equipment
equipment. establish the causes of • Cost of support operations.
operations
• Quality improvement internal product or service
programs.
programs failure
failure.

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Cost of rectifying error over the product development stages:

 The cost of rectifying errors increases more

rapidly the longer they remain uncorrected in the
Cost Curve
development and launch process.

Cost of rectifying error

 The sooner, the better: the sooner we find the
error, the cheaper the cost will be.

Criticality of failure of a part at different stages:

I. Failure at supplier’s site (bad) Concept Design Prototype Pilot Market use
production

II. Failure at manufacturer’s site (worse) Stages in development and launch process

III. Failure at customers’ site (worst)

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Impact of Quality Management on Costs:
 Total cost of quality is ultimately reduced by investing money up front in quality design and
development.
 Increasing the effort spent on preventing errors occurring in the first place brings a more
than equivalent reduction in other cost categories.

Example:
If we design the product right first time,
build it right first time - we save all the
costs of redesign, rework, scrap,
resetting, repair, warranty work etc.

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Impact of Higher Quality on Value:
What is value?
• Value is “the amount buyers are willing to pay for what a firm provides them. Value is
generally measured by the total revenue of the company”.
• A firm’s value goes beyond its financial performance and it includes social impact and
strategic importance to the regional and national economy.

Effect of higher quality on value:

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Summary:

 Inspection is performed to asses the conformity with design specification

and to improve the product quality and reliability.
 Basic issues related to the inspection in manufacturing has been discussed.
 Quality control involves inspection and testing of units and helps in
determining the needs of corrective action during manufacturing.
 A proper inspection and quality control system ultimately reduces the total
cost by minimizing the scrap and rework losses.

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INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 02: Need of Inspection: Types and Principles

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Need of Inspection:
 Inspection is an indispensable tool of modern manufacturing process.
 It helps to control quality, reduces manufacturing costs, eliminate scrap losses and assignable causes of
defective work.
 It has mainly two uses: 1. Quality Control - before the component is used in service.

2. Maintenance and Health Monitoring - while the component is in service.

 Inspection is the most common method of attaining standardization, uniformity and quality of
workmanship.
 It is the art of controlling the product quality after comparison with the established standards and
specifications.
 If the said item does not fall within the zone of acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure
will be applied to see that the items in future confirm to specified standards.

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 Defects in manufactured parts, if remain undetected may result to failure of the product.
Example:
Crash of United Flight 232 Place: Sioux City, Iowa; Date: July 19, 1989 Fatalities: 111; Injuries: 172

 The NTSB (National Transportation Safety Board) Accident Report cited the
initial problem in the manufacturing of the fan rotor by General Electric
Aircraft Engines (GEAE).
 During the purification of titanium-alloy rotor, a “hard α inclusion” (a
microstructural defect that occurs from an inadequate vacuum during melt
processing) formed within a cavity in the rotor.
 The rotor left the foundry with the defect unnoticed after its initial
certification process.
 During the rotor’s normal use, one, if not more, fatigue cracks initiated from
this defect area and grew (through sub-critical crack growth) until finally the
rotor failed.

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 Purpose of Inspection:
The purpose of inspection is:
• To distinguish good lots from bad lots.
• To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
• To determine if the process is changing.
• To determine if the process is approaching the specification limits.
• To rate quality of product.
• To rate accuracy of inspectors.
• To measure the precision of the measuring instrument.
• To secure products – design information.
• To measure process capability.

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Design for Inspection:
 Design for Inspection (DFI) is an engineering principle based on Design for X (DFX) methodology, where X is
variable.
 It proposes that inspection methods and measurement instruments used to certify manufacturing conformity, should be
considered early in design of products.
 DFI describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the measurement in order to
reduce the overall costs of manufacturing and delivering products that satisfy customers.
 If the inspection method and instruments are considered and selected at the design stage, the likelihood that a tolerance
feature cannot be inspected or requires a specialised instrument is substantially reduced.

Design Guidelines:
 Production processes should be designed in such a way that features of the products are easy to inspect with readily
available measurement instruments, and so that measurement uncertainty is considered in the tolerance that are
applied.
 Inspection can represent a significant percentage of an existing product's manufacturing cost. DFI may naturally be
called for in redesign of a product to reduce that cost component when it is high.
 The use of modules in product design simplifies inspection and testing activities as it helps run tests before the final
assembly is put together.

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Classification of Inspection:

Types of Inspection

Based on usefulness of Based on number of Based on

Based on timing Based on place Based on contact
the part after inspection samples inspected application

Off-line Destructive Contact Sampling Inspection of Raw

Floor Inspection
Inspection Inspection Inspection Inspection Products

Inspection
On-line Centralized Non-destructive Non-contact
100% Inspection Following
Inspection Inspection Inspection Inspection
Secondary
Processing

Combined In-service
Inspection Damage
Inspection

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Classification based on Timing:
 The timing of the inspection procedure in relation to the manufacturing process is an important
consideration in quality control.
 Based on the timing, inspection can be classified into two categories:
1. Off-line inspection
2. On-line inspection

I. Off-line Inspection
• Off-line inspection is performed away from the manufacturing process, and there is generally a time
delay between processing and inspection.

 Example: Parts which require

specialized testing equipment or
environment such as medical
devices, aerospace components,
etc.

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II. On-line Inspection
• Online inspection systems are integrated tightly into the production process.
• Online inspection offer great benefit in process efficiency and catching defects in near real-time.
• It is an alternative to off-line inspection, in which the procedure is performed when parts are made,
either as:
 An integral step in the processing or assembly operation, or
 Immediately afterward.
• They can be further divided into two categories: On-line/In-process
Inspection On-line/post-process
Inspection

a) On-line/In-process Inspection:
 This is achieved by performing the inspection procedure during
the manufacturing operation.
 As the parts are being made, the inspection procedure is
measuring, or gauging the parts simultaneously.

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b) On-line/Post-process Inspection
 In this type, the measurement or gauging procedure is accomplished immediately following the
production process.
 Even though it follows the process, it is still considered an on-line method because it is integrated
with the manufacturing workstation, and the results of the inspection can immediately influence
the production operation of the next part.

 Technologically, automated on-line/in-process inspection of the product is usually difficult and

expensive to implement, as an alternative on-line/post process procedures are often used.

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Classification based on Place of Inspection Procedure: Floor or Decentralized
Inspection

On the basis of place, there are Classification of Inspection

Centralized Inspection
three ways of doing inspection: (based on place)

Combined Inspection

I. Floor or Decentralized Inspection

• It suggests the checking of materials in process at the machine or in the production time by
patrolling inspectors.
• It requires the inspector to be fully equipped with all their devices or equipment.
• These inspectors moves from machine to machine and from one to the other work centres.
Inspectors have to be highly skilled.
• This method of inspection minimise the material handling, does not disrupt the line layout of
machinery and quickly locate the defect and readily offers field and correction.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Suitability of Floor or Decentralized Inspection:

Advantages:
o Encourage co-operation of inspector and foreman.
o Random checking may be more successful than batch checking.
o Does not delay in production.
o Saves time and expense of having more batches of work for inspection.
Disadvantages:
o Possibility of biased inspection because of worker.
o High cost of inspection because of numerous sets of inspections and skilled inspectors.

Suitability:
o Heavy products are produced.
o Different work centres are integrated in continuous line layout.

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II. Centralized Inspection
• Materials in process may be inspected and checked at centralised inspection centre which are
located at one or more places in the manufacturing industry.
• The inspection staff is more experienced and skilled in this case.
• Sophisticated and reliable instruments and techniques are used to measure the quality, hence
centralised inspection is reliable and accurate.
Advantages:
 Better quality check-up.
Suitability:
 Closed supervision.  Incoming materials
inspection.
 Absence of workers pressure.
 Orderly production flow and low inspection cost.  Finished product
inspection.
Disadvantages:
 More material handling.  Departmental
inspection.
 Delays of inspection room causes wastage of time.
 Work of production control increases.  High precision parts
of delicate products.
 Due to non-detection of machining errors in time, there may more spoilage of work.

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III. Combined Inspection
o It is a combination of two methods: floor and centralized inspection methods.
o This is perhaps the best method as it encompasses all of the benefits to reduce issues.
o The main objective is to locate and prevent defect which may not repeat itself in subsequent
operation to see whether any corrective measure is required and finally to maintain quality
economically.
Classification based on the Usefulness of the Part after Inspection:

Destructive Inspection: Part

cannot be used after
 On the basis of usefulness of the inspection
part after inspection, they are
classified into two categories: Non-destructive Inspection:
Does not affect the part’s
future usefulness

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I. Destructive Inspection
 Destructive tests are carried out to the specimens’ failure, in order to understand a specimen’s
performance or material behaviour under different loads.
 These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to
interpret than non-destructive testing.
 While destructive testing is intrinsically more revealing; it also is costly to a manufacturing
operation due to material loss and, for obvious reasons, it is not suitable for in service material
testing.
Examples:

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II. Non-destructive Inspection
 Non-destructive inspection or Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is a method of materials testing to
assess the characteristics of a component without altering or destroying it.
 NDT is important in the materials testing industry where quick, dependable information on
finished or raw material is needed.
 This may occur during the production stage, during the service life of a material or product, or as a
diagnostic tool in the event of material failure.
 NDT is contrary to destructive testing such as stress or bend testing where critical material
properties are determined through achieving specimen failure.
Examples:

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Classification based on Contact:
 On the basis of contact between object and instrument, inspection techniques can be
divided into two broad categories:
I. Contact Inspection Examples of
contact inspection:
II. Non-contact Inspection

I. Contact Inspection
 In contact inspection, physical contact is made between the object and
the measuring and gauging instrument.
 Typically contact is achieved using a mechanical probe or other device
that touches the item, and allows the inspection procedure to occur.
 By its nature, contact inspection is concerned with some physical
dimension of the part, and so contact methods are widely used in
manufacturing and production industries to assess metal parts.

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II. Non-contact Inspection
 In non-contact inspection no physical contact is made.
 Non-contact inspection techniques use sensors instead of a mechanized probe favoured by contact
inspection methodologies.
 The sensor is located at a certain distance from the object to be inspected, to measure or gauge the
desired features of the object.
 Example: Radiography Testing, Visual Inspection, Lasers Metrology i.e. Scanning Laser Systems.

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Classification based on Number of Samples Inspected:
 On the basis of number of samples inspected, it can be classified into two parts:
1) 100% Inspection
2) Sampling Inspection
I. 100% Inspection
o This type will involve careful inspection in detail of quality at each strategic point or stage of manufacture
where the test involved is non-destructive and every piece is separately inspected.
o It requires more number of inspectors and hence it is a costly method.
o There is no sampling error. This is subjected to inspection error arising out of fatigue, negligence, difficulty of
supervision etc. Hence complete accuracy of influence is seldomly attained.
o It is suitable only when a small number of pieces are there or a very high degree of quality is required.
Examples: Jet engines, Aircraft, Medical and Scientific equipment.
Problems with 100% Inspection-
o Very expensive
o When product must be destroyed
o Inspection must be very tedious so defective items do not slip through inspection.

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II. Sampling Inspection or Acceptance Sampling
o Sampling Inspection involves inspecting a relatively small number of items from a batch or
lot and then using the results of this sample to either accept or reject the entire lot.
o The accept/reject criteria is the number of defective items found in the sample.
o This method is most useful when product testing is expensive, destructive, or time consuming.

Examples : Electrical bulbs, radio bulbs, washing machine, destructive tests conducted for the products
whose endurance or ultimate strength properties are required etc.

 Depending upon the number of samples being inspected, it can be further classified into four
types:
1) Single Sampling
2) Double Sampling
3) Multiple Sampling
4) Sequential Sampling

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1. Single Sampling:
 When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on the basis of only one
sample, acceptance plan is known as single sampling plan.
 It is the most common and easiest plan to use.

Single sampling plan is defined by the following

parameters:
i. Lot size, N
ii. Samples size, n
iii. Decision criterion or acceptance number, c

Single Sampling Procedure

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

2. Double Sampling:

When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on

the basis of two samples, then acceptance plan is known as
double sampling plan.

Double sampling plan is defined by the

following parameters:
i. Lot size, N
ii. Sample size of first sample, n1
iii. Acceptance number for first
sample, c1
iv. Sample size of second sample, n2
v. Acceptance number for both
sample, c2
Double Sampling Procedure

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

3. Multiple Sampling:
 In multiple sampling, a lot is accepted or rejected based upon the results obtained from several samples (more than 2)
drawn from the lot.
 Two limits are specified for each sample.
 Cumulative number of defects are compared to limits for each successive sample:
 If number of defects < lower limit, accept the lot.
 If number of defects > upper limit, reject the lot.
 If number of defects between limits, continue sampling.
 Continue sampling until accept or reject lot based on all sample data.
4. Sequential Sampling:
 It is an extreme case of multiple sampling, in which sampling might continues until
the lot is exhausted.
 Items are randomly selected from the lot and inspected one at a time.
 Results are compared to sequential-sampling chart.
 Chart guides decision to reject, accept, or continue sampling (select another item),
based on cumulative results.
 Average number of items inspected is generally lower with sequential sampling.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Advantages of Sampling Inspection:
o Sampling inspection is cheaper and quicker and it requires less number of Inspectors.
o It is subjected to sampling errors but the magnitude of sampling error can be estimated.
o In the case of destructive test, random or sampling inspection is desirable.
o This type of inspection governs wide currency due to the introduction of automatic machines or
equipment which are less susceptible to change variable and hence require less inspection.
o It is suitable for inspection of products which have less precision importance and are less costly.
o Rejection of a complete batch on the basis of a sample decidedly pressurizes for improvements in
quality.

Disadvantages of Sampling Inspection:

o Risk included in chance of bad lot acceptance and good lot rejection.
o Sampling inspection provides less information than 100% inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Classification based on Application:
 On the basis of their application in manufacturing, they can be classified into three main
categories:
I. Inspection of raw products
II. Inspection following secondary processing
III. In-service damage inspection

I. Inspection of Raw Products:

 This include the raw material or subcontracted parts from the suppliers for example:
 Castings
 Forgings
 Extrusions, etc.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

II. Inspection Following Secondary Processing:
 Secondary manufacturing processes are the process, which
are used to further modify the output of the primary
manufacturing processes in order to improve the material
properties, surface quality, surface integrity, appearance
and dimensional tolerance.
 This includes the following processes: machining, welding,
grinding, heat treating, plating, etc.

III. In-service Damage Inspection:

 It is performed to asses the quality of critical engineering
structures using non-destructive inspection techniques to
avoid their failure.
 It includes power plant inspection, wire rope inspection,
aircraft inspection, bridge inspection, etc.
 In service damages, that can occur are cracking, Corrosion,
Erosion/Wear, Heat Damage, etc.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Drawbacks of Inspection:

 Inspection merely separates good and bad items. It is no way to prevent the production
of bad items.
 Inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value.
 It requires more man power/operations to maintain quality control and adds more time
to the initial process.
 It is partially subjective, often the inspector has to judge whether a product passes or
not.
Example: Inspector discovering a slight burnish on a surface must decide whether it is bad
enough to justify rejection even with micrometres a tight or loose fit change measurement by say
0.0006 inches. The inspectors design is important as he enforces quality standards.
 Fatigue and Monotony may affect any inspection judgement.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Summary:

 Inspection is an important tool to reduce the manufacturing cost by controlling the

product quality at different stages.
 As inspection adds to the cost of the product but not for its value, DFI concepts are used
at design stage so that products are easy to inspect with readily available instruments.
 Classification of inspection activities on the basis of different parameters has also been
discussed.
 In this course, all the inspection techniques will be discussed by categorizing them into
destructive and non-destructive inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 03: Destructive Inspection-I

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What is Destructive Inspection?
Definition: Destructive tests (or destructive physical analysis, DPA) are defined as those tests
which are performed to a material through the use of tools or machines, which produce an
irreversible alteration of their chemical composition or dimensional geometry.

Why Destructive Inspection is Important?

 These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to
interpret than non-destructive testing.
 Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which will be mass-produced, as
the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is negligible.
 It is usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are to be
produced (for example, in the case of a building).
 It is often less expensive to scrap a part to make a destructive quality test than to test the parts
using more expensive non-destructive tests.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Destructive Testing of Materials:
Determination of chemical, mechanical and metallurgical properties.

Aim of Destructive Tests Evaluation and selection of material for a specific environment and a certain
(DT): application.

Determination of service life of a component under given loading conditions.

 Destructive tests are best when used together with non-destructive methods: this combination gives the best
information on materials.
 Non-destructive tests show if cracks, corrosion or other faults exist. Destructive tests in turn indicate how and
when the objects are in danger of breaking down or failing.
 Destructive testing of materials include mechanical testing (tensile, bend and impact tests), hardness testing,
macro and micro testing as well as material analysis and metallographic examinations.
 It is also useful in some scenario of reverse engineering for finding the relevant / similar material for replacing /
renewing a material or component.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Classification of Destructive Testing:
Qualitative Analysis
Chemical Test
Quantitative Analysis
Corrosion Test
Tensile Test
Destructive Testing Metallographic Test
Bend Test

Impact & Fatigue Test

Mechanical Test
Fracture Toughness Test We will
discuss in
Creep & Hardness Test lecture 04.

Nick-break Test

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

I. Chemical Tests:
Objective of Chemical Test:
 To determine chemical composition of materials.
 Chemical analysis of materials is important to ensure that we are getting the material
that is appropriate for the intended end use.
 These techniques can be grouped into two categories:

Qualitative Analysis

Quantitative Analysis

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

1) Qualitative Analysis: Mass Spectrometric Atomic
Spectroscopy, X-ray
 These methods are used to determine which elements exist in a sample. Fluorescence, Particle-induced
X-ray Emission, and X-ray
 Some most commonly used qualitative analysis techniques are: Photoelectron Spectroscopy.

 All these spectroscopic analysis techniques work on the principle of spectroscopy which describes
the interaction of radiation with matter.
 These methods differ with respect to the species to be analyzed (e.g., molecular or atomic
spectroscopy), the type of radiation-matter interaction to be monitored (e.g., absorption, emission,
or diffraction), and the region of the electromagnetic spectrum used in the analysis.

Principles of Spectroscopy:
If matter is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, the radiation
can be absorbed, transmitted, reflected, scattered or undergo
photoluminescence. Photoluminescence is a term used to
designate a number of effects, including fluorescence,
phosphorescence, and raman scattering.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

2) Quantitative Analysis:
 Quantitative analysis is the determination of the mass of each element or compound
present.
 Quantitative Analysis methods include:
Neutron Activation
Analysis
Optical Atomic
Spectroscopy
Gravimetry
Analysis

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

 Gravimetry Analysis:
• In this method, the sample is dissolved and then the element of interest is precipitated and its mass
measured or the element of interest is volatilized and the mass loss is measured.
Example:
 Volatilization Method: To determine the water content of a compound by vaporizing the water
using thermal energy (heat).
 Precipitation Method: Determination of the amount of calcium in water.
Step-1 An excess of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, is added to a measured, known volume of water.
Step-2 By adding a reagent (ammonia), the calcium will precipitate as calcium oxalate.
Ca2+ (aq.) + C2O42-  CaC2O4
Step-3 The precipitate is collected, dried and ignited to high (red) heat which converts it entirely to calcium oxide.
CaC2O4  CaO (s) + CO (g) + CO2 (g)
Step-4 The pure precipitate of calcium oxide is cooled, then measured by weighing, and the difference in weights
before and after reveals the mass of calcium oxide.
The amount of calcium oxide can then be used to calculate the amount of calcium in the original mix.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

  Optical Atomic Spectroscopy:  Neutron Activation Analysis:
• In optical spectroscopy, energy absorbed to • Neutron activation is the process in which
move an electron to a higher energy level neutron radiation induces radioactivity in
(higher orbital) is absorbed in the form of materials, and occurs when atomic nuclei
photons. capture free neutrons, becoming heavier and
• Because each element has a unique number entering excited states.
of electrons, an atom will absorb energy in • In this method, sample is bombarded with
a pattern unique to its elemental identity neutrons, causing the elements to form
(e.g. Ca, Na, etc.) and thus will absorb radioactive isotopes.
photons in a correspondingly unique
pattern. • The radioactive emissions and radioactive
decay paths for each element are well
• The type of atoms present in a sample, or known. Using this information, it is possible
the amount of atoms present in a sample to study spectra of the emissions of the
can be deduced from measuring these radioactive sample, and determine the
changes in light wavelength and light concentrations of the elements within it.
intensity.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

II. Corrosion Tests:
Objective: To determine the type and rate of corrosion.
 Conducted under laboratory conditions for accurate forecasting of products performance in service.
 Accelerated corrosion tests are used to get a better understanding of its mechanism or to determine the
corrosion susceptibility of materials.
 An accelerated corrosion test is a necessary and powerful tool when used in:
 Material selection as a relative indicator of corrosion resistance.
 Examining potential environments for new materials.
 Determining corrosion control strategies of fielded items.
III. Metallographic Tests:
 It is the study of physical structure and components of metals, by using microscopy.
 Ceramic and polymeric materials are also prepared and tested using metallographic techniques, hence
these studies are called ceramography, plastography and, collectively called materialography.
 Some of their applications include:
Distribution of non-metallic Nature and distribution of
Grain size measurements.
inclusions in the weld. secondary phases.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Metallographic Test Procedure:
 Proper preparation of metallographic specimens to determine microstructure and content requires a rigid
step-by-step process to be followed:

In sequence, the steps include:

i. Sectioning (Cutting): Cutting a small representative piece of the
metal to be studied.
ii. Mounting: Specimens are mounted to facilitate easy handling during
preparation and examination.
iii. Grinding: Preparing the surface for metallographic examination as
optically flat, reflective, smooth and scratch free.
iv. Polishing: To remove deformations from grinding and obtain a
surface that is highly reflective.
v. Etching: It is used to reveal the microstructure of a specimen under
the optical microscope by achieving contrast in the microstructure.
vi. Microscopic Examination: To study the structure and constitution of
metals and alloys using metallurgical microscopes and magnifications.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

IV. Mechanical Tests: Tensile
tests
 Mechanical testing is the testing Nick-
Bend tests
of materials to find out its break test
mechanical properties, for
example its yield strength,
hardness, fracture strength, etc. Common
Creep Hardness
tests Mechanical Tests
 Mechanical testing is used to Test
ensure that supplied materials will
perform as expected under
Fatigue Impact
mechanical loading. tests tests
Fracture
Toughness
tests

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

1. Tensile Tests:
• Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and engineering test in
which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
• It is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test one can perform on material.
• Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized.
• Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are: ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength,
maximum elongation and reduction in area.
• From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's
ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.
• These properties are useful in comparisons of materials, alloy development, quality control, and design
under certain circumstances.
Tensile Test Specimen:
Tensile test specimen generally have “dogbone”
configuration with either circular or rectangular cross
section.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Tensile Test Procedure:
i. The specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of the testing
apparatus.
ii. The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant
rate.
iii. It also continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load
(with a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer).
iv. A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is
destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually
fractured.
 The output of tensile test is recorded as stress versus strain.
 Engineering stress, σ and strain, ε are defined by the following relations:
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴0 Where, 𝐹 is instantaneous load applied perpendicular to specimen cross
section, in units of Newton's (N).
𝑙𝑖 −𝑙0 ∆𝑙 𝐴0 is original cross sectional area before any load is applied (m2).
𝜀= = 𝑙0 is original length before any load is applied.
𝑙0 𝑙0
𝑙𝑖 is instantaneous length.
∆𝑙 is deformation, elongation or change in length at some instant.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Mechanical Properties Determination from Tensile Test: Ultimate Tensile Strength

 Yield Strength:
• The engineering stress at which, it is considered that plastic
elongation of the material has commenced.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS):
• The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of
sustaining.
 Ductility:
• It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
• Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent
elongation or percent reduction in area.
 Elongation: %𝑬𝑳 =
𝒍𝒇 − 𝒍𝟎
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑙0 = Original gauge length.
𝒍𝟎 𝑙𝑓 = Fracture length.
𝐴0 = Original cross-sectional area.
 Reduction of Area: %𝑹𝑨 =
𝑨𝟎 − 𝑨𝒇
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐴𝑓 = Cross sectional area at the point of fracture.
𝑨𝟎

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

 Resilience:
• Resilience may be defined as the energy absorbed by a
material in undergoing elastic deformation up to the
elastic limit.
• Modulus of resilience for a specimen subjected to a
uniaxial tension test is just the area under the engineering
stress–strain curve taken to yielding.
 Toughness:
• Toughness is the total amount of energy which a material
can absorb up to the point of fracture.
• It is the area under the stress-strain curve up to the point
of fracture.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Tensile Testing of Weldments:
• Weld joints are generally subjected to destructive tests such as hardness, toughness, bend and tensile
test for following applications like:

Welding procedure Welder performance

Research Inspection Failure analysis work
qualification qualification testing

• Tensile testing of weldments is carried out to determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and yield
point (YP) under static loading of base metal, weld metal and the welded joint.
All weld metal test

Longitudinal butt weld test

• For weldments, different type of tensile tests performed are: Transverse butt weld test

Tension shear test

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Specimen Preparation:
To determine the tensile strength of weld metal alone or welded joint the samples are prepared which are
of the types as shown in Figure.

a) All Weld Metal Test:

In a commonly used weld tensile test, the axis of the
test bar is parallel to the axis of the weld and the
specimen is machined so that the entire bar consist
of deposited weld metal with a diameter of 6.4 mm.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

b) Longitudinal Butt Weld Test:
• Here the loading is parallel to the weld axis.
• It differs from all weld metal test in that it contains weld,
HAZ and base metal along the gauge length.
• All these zone must strain equally and simultaneously.
• Weld metal elongates with base metal until failure occurs.
• This test thus provides more information about the composite joint than the transverse test specially when
base metal and weld metal strengths differ significantly.
c) Transverse Butt Weld Test:
• In this test, if failure occurs in the base metal, it shows that the weld metal is stronger than base metal.
• If the failure occurs in the weld metal, means the weld strength is lower than the base metal.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

d) Tension Shear Test:
• Tension shear tests may be used to evaluate the shear properties
of fillet welds.
• Such tests are usually intended to represent completed joints in
weldments and so prepared using similar procedures.
• Two types of specimens are usually employed, viz.,
i. Transverse-shear Specimen
ii. Longitudinal-shear Specimen

• In the Transverse Shear Specimens, double lap specimens are preferred because they are more symmetrical and
therefore, the stress state under load better approaches pure shear.

• In Longitudinal Fillet Weld Shear Test, measure the strength of the fillet weld when the specimen is loaded parallel to
the axis of the weld.

• The weld shearing strength is reported as load per linear mm or MPa based on the weld throat and type of specimen.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

2. Bend or Flexure Tests:
• The flexure test method measures behaviour of materials subjected to simple beam loading.
• Unlike tensile test, a flexure test does not measure fundamental material properties. Why?
Because
 When a specimen is placed under flexural loading all three fundamental stresses are present: tensile, compressive and shear.
 So the flexural properties of a specimen are the result of the combined effect of all three stresses as well as (though to a lesser
extent) the geometry of the specimen and the rate the load is applied.

• The most common purpose of a flexure test is to measure flexural strength and flexural modulus.
 Flexural Strength:
It is defined as the maximum stress at the outermost fiber on either the compression or tension
side of the specimen.
 Flexural Modulus:
It is calculated from the slope of the stress vs. strain deflection curve.
• These two values can be used to evaluate the sample materials ability to withstand flexure or bending
forces.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

 Procedure:
i. The material is laid horizontally over two points of contact (lower
support span).
ii. Then a force is applied to the top of the material through either one
or two points of contact (depending upon 3-point or 4-point flexure
test) until the sample fails.
3-point Flexure Test - The loading force is applied in the middle by
means loading pin.
4-point Flexure Test - The loading force is applied by means of
two loading pins with a distance between them equal to a half of the
distance between the supporting pins.
iii. Maximum fiber stress and maximum strain are calculated for
increments of load.
iv. Results are plotted in a stress-strain diagram.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Calculation of Flexural Properties:
 Flexural strength is calculated at the surface of the specimen on the convex or tension side.
 Flexural modulus is calculated from the slope of the stress vs. deflection curve. If the curve has no
linear region, a secant line is fitted to the curve to determine slope.
Example: 3 - Point Flexural Test
𝑀𝑐
 Stress, 𝜎 =
𝐼
where, M = maximum bending moment
c = distance from centre of specimen to outer fibers
I = Moment of inertia of cross section
F = applied load
 For a rectangular cross section, the flexural strength 𝜎𝑓𝑠 is equal to:
3𝐹𝑓𝐿
𝜎𝑓𝑠 = M c I 𝝈
2𝑏𝑑2
 When the cross section is circular, then
𝐹𝐿 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 3 3𝐹𝐿
𝐹𝑓𝐿 Rectangular
𝜎𝑓𝑠 = 4 2 12 2𝑏𝑑 2
𝜋𝑅3
𝐹𝐿 𝜋𝑅 4 𝐹𝐿
Where, Ff is the load at fracture, and L is the distance between support points. Circular 𝑅
4 4 𝜋𝑅 3

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Flexural or Bend Testing of Weldments:

The quality of the weld, in terms of ductility of weld metal and HAZ as well as tests for
opening of defects particularly lack of side wall fusion, root fusion, and penetration of
welded joint are checked by means of a bend test.

 The bend test is a simple and inexpensive qualitative test that can be used to evaluate both
the ductility and soundness of a material.
 It is often used as a quality control test for butt-welded joints, having the advantage of
simplicity of both test piece and equipment.
 Bend tests of weldments are sub-divided into two types:
a) Free bend test,
b) Guided bend test

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

a) Free Bend Test:
 The free bend test has been devised to measure the ductility of the weld metal deposited in a
weld joint.
 A test specimen is machined from the welded plate with the weld located in the centre.
 The ends of the specimen are then bent to form two 30 degree angles at approximately one-third of
the length inward from the ends. It is done to ensure that all bending occurs in the weld.
 Then final bending is performed till the crack appears on the weld face of critical length or failure
of the specimen.
 Due to inhomogeneity of the joint, there is a tendency for free bend test specimen to take up an
irregular shape, so that the actual radius at various points differs from the specified value.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

b) Guided Bend Test:
 In the guided bend test, guided bending is performed by placing the weld joint over the die.
 It offers better controlled conditions of the specimen and of the loading.
 It is costlier than the free-bend test.

Mandrel
Weld

Clamp
Top View

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Summary:

 Destructive inspection techniques are generally much easier to carry out, yield
more information, and are easier to interpret than non-destructive testing.
 Destructive tests include chemical, corrosion, metallographic and mechanical
tests.
 In this lecture, chemical, corrosion, metallographic, and some of the mechanical
tests (tensile and flexural tests) have been discussed.
 Destructive tests like tensile and bend tests are also used for quality control of
weldments.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 04: Destructive Inspection-II

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Classification of Destructive Testing:
Qualitative Analysis
Chemical Test
Quantitative Analysis
Corrosion Test
Tensile & Bend Test Discussed in
lecture 03.
Destructive Testing Metallographic Test
Hardness Test

Impact Test
Mechanical Test
Will discuss in
Fracture Toughness Test this lecture.

Fatigue & Creep Test

Nick-break Test

2
3. Hardness Tests:
• Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or penetration, to resist abrasive wear
when a compressive force is applied.
• The ease with which the hardness test can be made has made it the most common method of
inspection for metals and alloys.
• The principal purpose of the hardness test is to determine the suitability of a material for a given
application, or the particular treatment to which the material has been subjected.

Classification of Hardness Tests (on the basis of amount of load applied):

• Depending upon the amount of load applied through indenter, hardness testing practices are divided into
two categories: Macrohardness and Microhardness.

 Macrohardness - It refers to testing with applied loads on the indenter of more than 1 kg.
For example, the testing of tools, dies, and sheet material in the heavier gages.
 Microhardness - In microhardness testing, applied loads are 1 kg and below, and material being tested is very thin
(down to 0.0125 mm, or 0.0005 in.). Applications include extremely small parts, thin superficially hardened parts,
plated surfaces, and individual constituents of materials.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Classification of Hardness Tests (on the basis of type of indenter used):
Rockwell Hardness Test

On the basis of type and size of the indenter, four most widely Brinell Hardness Test
used scales for hardness measurement are: Vickers Hardness Test
Knoop Hardness Test
a) Rockwell Hardness Tests:
• The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness because they are
so simple to perform and require no special skills.
• The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load
(F0) followed by a major load (F1).
• Indenters include:
1 1 1 1
 Spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of , , , and in.
16 8 4 2
 Conical diamond (Brale) indenter, which is used for the hardest materials.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

• There are two general classifications of the Rockwell test:
i. Rockwell Hardness Test
ii. Rockwell Superficial Hardness test.
• The significant difference between the two test classifications is in the test forces
i.e. minor loads that are used.
• The initial minor load (preliminary test force) F0 is 10 kg for the Rockwell hardness
test and 3 kg for the Rockwell superficial hardness test.

From possible combinations of various indenters and different loads, several

different scales are derived, which permit the testing of virtually all metal
alloys (as well as some polymers).

• When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardness, both hardness number

and scale symbol must be indicated.
• The scale is designated by the symbol HR followed by the appropriate scale
identification.
• For example: 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale, and 60
HR30W indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the 30W scale.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Test Procedure:
 The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the following procedure:
 Step 1: The indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen, and the preliminary test force F0 is applied.
After holding the preliminary test force for a specified dwell time, the baseline depth of indentation is measured.
 Step 2: The force on the indenter is increased at a controlled rate by the additional test force F1 to achieve the
total test force F. The total test force is held for a specified dwell time.
 Step 3: The additional test force is removed, returning to the preliminary test force. After holding the preliminary
test force for a specified dwell time, the final depth of indentation is measured.
 The Rockwell hardness value is derived from the difference h in the final and baseline indentation
depths while under the preliminary test force.

h = Distance measurement taken

representing difference between preload
and major load position.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Calculation of Rockwell Hardness:
• The unit measurement for h is mm. From the value of h, the Rockwell hardness number is
calculated as:
 For scales using a diamond spheroconical indenter:
ℎ
Rockwell Hardness = 100 −
0.002
ℎ
Rockwell Superficial Hardness = 100 −
0.001
 For scales using a ball indenter:
ℎ
Rockwell Hardness = 130 −
0.002
ℎ
Rockwell Superficial Hardness = 100 −
0.001

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

b) Brinell Hardness Tests:
• This test consist of impressing a special hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball into the
specimen under test, using a definite load for a definite time and accuracy.
• The load for steel is generally 3000 kg and for softer metals, 500 kg.
• The diameter of the impression is measured by the eye, using a special high power
Brinell microscope (graduated in tenth of millimetres).

Test Precautions:
 The surface to be tested should be flat and scratch free.
 Impressions should be taken at the representative locations.
 The load applied must be normal to the surface of the specimen.
 The test should not be used on the specimen of thickness less than about ½ inch (13 mm).
 Impressions should not be taken closer than about two diameters from each other, else the cold work
caused by the previous impression will produce wrong data.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Test Procedure:
 Step 1: The indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen in a direction perpendicular to the
surface, and the test force F is applied. The test force is held for a specified dwell time and then
removed.
 Step 2: The diameter of the indentation is measured in at least two directions perpendicular to each
other. The Brinell hardness value is derived from the mean of the diameter measurements.
𝟐𝑭𝒌𝒈𝒇
𝐁𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 (𝐇𝐁𝐖) =
𝝅𝑫 𝑫 − 𝑫𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐

Symbols and Designations:

D = Diameter of the ball, mm
d = Average diameter value of the indentation, mm
F = Test force, N
Fkgf = Test force, kgf
Fkgf = F/g, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

 Indenters for the Brinell hardness test shall be tungsten carbide balls
of four allowed diameters (1, 2.5, 5 and 10 mm).
 Brinell Hardness Scales - The combinations of indenters and test
forces define the Brinell hardness scales.
 Some of the standard Brinell hardness scales are given in the table.

Designation of Brinell Hardness Values:

• Brinell hardness numbers shall be followed by the
symbol HBW, and be supplemented by an index
indicating the test conditions in the following order:
 Diameter of the ball, mm.
 A value representing the test force, kgf. Examples:
 Applied force dwell time, s, if other than 10 s to 15 s. 220 HBW = Brinell hardness of 220 determined with a
ball of 10 mm diameter and with a test force of 29.42 kN
• For HBW 10/3000 scale with 10 s to 15 s dwell time, (3000 kgf) applied for 10 s to 15 s.
Brinell hardness scale designation can be reported 600 HBW 1/30/20 = Brinell hardness of 600 determined
with a ball of 1 mm diameter and with a test force of
simply as HBW. 294.2 N (30 kgf) applied for 20 s.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

c & d) Knoop and Vickers Microindentation Hardness Tests:
• Two other hardness-testing techniques are Knoop and Vickers (sometimes also called diamond pyramid).

• For each test a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the
specimen.

• Applied loads are much smaller than for Rockwell and Brinell, ranging between 1 and 1000 g.

• The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured; this measurement is then converted into a
hardness number.

• Careful specimen surface preparation (grinding and polishing) may be necessary to ensure a
well-defined indentation that may be accurately measured.

• The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are designated by HK and HV, respectively, and hardness scales for
both techniques are approximately equivalent.

• Knoop and Vickers are referred to as microindentation-testing methods on the basis of indenter size.

• Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen regions; furthermore, Knoop is used
for testing brittle materials such as ceramics.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Vickers indenter: Square-based pyramidal diamond
with face angles of 136°.

Knoop Indenter: Rhombic-based, pyramidal diamond

with longitudinal edge angles of 172.5°and 130°.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Test Procedure:
 Step 1: The applicable specified indenter is brought into contact with the test specimen in a direction
normal to the surface, and the test force F is applied. The test force is held for a specified dwell time and
then removed.
 Step 2:
 For the Vickers hardness test, the lengths of the two diagonals are measured and the mean
diagonal length is calculated, which is used to derive the Vickers hardness value.
 For the Knoop hardness test, the length of the long diagonal is measured, which is used to derive
the Knoop hardness value.

Calculation of Vickers hardness value:

𝑭(𝒌𝒈𝒇)
𝑯𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟒 ×
𝒅𝑽 𝟐

F(kgf) = Test force (kgf).

dv = mean Vickers indentation diagonal length (mm).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Calculation of Knoop hardness value:
𝑭(𝒌𝒈𝒇)
𝑯𝑲 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝟗 ×
𝒅𝑲 𝟐

F(kgf) = Test force (kgf).

dK = Knoop indentation long diagonal length (mm).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

4. Impact Tests:
• Prior to the advent of fracture mechanics as a scientific discipline, impact testing
techniques were established so as to ascertain the fracture characteristics of materials.
• Impact testing determines the relative toughness of a material, where toughness is
defined as the resistance of a metal to fracture after plastic deformation has begun.
• In an impact test, this plastic deformation is begun and finished by swing of a weighted
pendulum which strikes the test piece as it swings through its path along an arc.
• The energy that is required to fracture the test piece is recorded in Joules on the scale.
• Two major tests for determining impact toughness are:
Izod Test

Charpy Test

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Charpy and Izod Test:
• The Charpy and Izod, are used to measure the impact energy, sometimes also termed notch toughness.
• For both Charpy and Izod, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square cross section, into which a V-notch is
machined.
• In Izod impact test, the specimen is supported as a cantilever beam.
• In Charpy impact test, the specimen is supported as a simple beam with load applied at the center.
• The notch in Izod test specimen is off the centre to facilitate holding in vice whereas the notch is in the centre of the
specimen for charpy test.
• V- notch in Izod specimen faces the load whereas it is opposite to loading in Charpy test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

 Charpy and Izod Test Procedure:
It comprises of following steps:
i. Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge position and note the energy
stored in the hammer.
ii. Locate the test specimen on the machine supports.
iii. Release the hammer from a fixed height ℎ. The hammer will break the
piece and shoot up the other side of the specimen.
iv. Note the residual energy indicated on the scale by the hammer.
v. Impact strength of the test specimen is the difference of the initial energy
stored in hammer and the residual energy.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

5. Fracture Toughness Tests:
• Fracture toughness is defined as fracture resistance of a material in the presence of cracks.
• It is used to refer the fractures as either ductile or brittle.
• Fracture toughness study of brittle materials is now fairly well established by Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics (LEFM) and critical crack lengths for given stress condition.
• In LEFM the critical value of stress intensity factor (K) is referred to as the fracture toughness.
• The corresponding fracture toughness value for the materials of elastic-plastic region is referred to as
Jc, which is a measurement of the energy required to grow a thin crack.

KIc- Test Technique:

• Experimental determination of the critical stress intensity factor (K1c) is most widely studied and developed.
• The critical stress intensity factor of a material depends on the thickness of the plate. However for a thick plate it is
independent of the thickness because the material in front of crack tip deforms in plane strain.
• The experiment should be controlled so as to have its loading in plain strain only.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Various Test Specimens:
 Four kinds of test specimens commonly used are:

Compact • Most widely used.

Tension (CT)

Single Edge
Notch Bend • Most widely used.
(SENB)

Arc-shaped • Convenient for cylindrical geometries

Tension (AT) such as pressure vessels or piping's.

Disc-shaped
• Suitable for circular
Compact blanks, round bars,
Tension cores.
(DCT)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

KIc- Test Procedure:
i. To begin with, K1c of the specimen is guessed.
ii. Then, the specimen is prepared following several dimensional constraints which are based on the guessed
value of K1c.
iii. The crack tip is made very sharp with a fatigue growth.
iv. The specimen is pulled in a tensile machine to obtain a relation between the load and the crack mouth opening
displacement. This relation provides the critical load PQ.
v. Accounting for the crack length and geometry of specimen, the stress intensity factor KQ corresponding to PQ
is determined using LEFM.
vi. If KQ satisfies all constraints on the geometry of the specimen and of fatigue growth, it becomes K1c.

 Other more popularly employed test methods for to determine the fracture toughness values for the elastic-plastic region are:
a) Charpy V-notch (Cv ) Test,
b) Drop Weight Nil-ductility Temperature (NDT) Test,
c) The Dynamite Tear (DT) Test,
d) Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Test.
 Cv and NDT test are ASTM standard methods, while DT test is a military standard and CTOD is a British standard test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

6. Fatigue Tests:
• Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g.,
bridges, aircraft, and machine components).
• Components subjected to repeated cyclic stress have a tendency to break at a stress considerably below
their ultimate tensile strength.
• The term “fatigue” is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of
repeated stress or strain cycling.
• Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals, estimated to comprise
approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also
susceptible to this type of failure.
• The stress under which such a failure take place is called fatigue strength and the number of cycles after
which failure occurs with the given conditions is called as fatigue life.
• Fatigue tests are designed to measure the effect of cyclic stress loading on the welded joint.
• Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

• The process of fatigue consists of three stages:
1. Crack Initiation - Initial fatigue damage leading to crack nucleation and crack initiation.
2. Crack Propagation - Progressive cyclic growth of a crack (crack propagation) until the
remaining uncracked cross section of a part becomes too weak to sustain the loads imposed.
3. Fracture - Final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross section.

Fatigue Test Procedure:

i. To perform a fatigue test a sample is loaded into a fatigue
tester or fatigue test machine.
ii. The specimen is first subjected to the pre-determined test
stress, then unloaded to either zero load or an opposite load.
The applied stress may be axial, flexural, or torsional in
nature.
iii. This cycle of loading and unloading is then repeated until the
end of the test is reached. The test may be run to a pre-
determined number of cycles or until the sample has failed
depending on the parameters of the test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Modes of Fluctuating Stress Cycles:
 Several parameters used to characterize the fluctuating stress cycle.
 Mean Stress: It is the average of the maximum and minimum stresses in the cycle.
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝈𝒎 =
𝟐
 Range of Stress: It is the difference between σmax and σmin.
𝝈𝒓 = 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
 Stress Amplitude: It is the half of the range of stress.
𝝈𝒓 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝈𝒂 = =
𝟐 𝟐
 Stress Ratio: The stress ratio R is just the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes.
𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝈𝑹 =
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 Reversed
Stress Cycle

Repeated
 In general, three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible. Stress Cycle
Random
Stress Cycle

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Reversed Stress Cycle:
 In this fatigue loading, the stress alternates from a
maximum tensile stress (+) to a maximum compressive
stress of equal magnitude.

Repeated Stress Cycle:

 In this stress cycle, maximum and minimum stresses are
asymmetrical relative to the zero-stress level.

Random Stress Cycle:

 In this stress cycle, no regular loading pattern is observed.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

S-N Curve:
• A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen to the stress cycling at a relatively large
maximum stress amplitude and the number of cycles to failure is counted.
• This procedure is repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing maximum stress amplitudes.
• Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles to failure for each of the
specimens.
• The values of S are normally taken as stress amplitudes (𝜎𝑎); on occasion, 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 or 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 values may be
used.
S-N Curve
 The typical curve or S-N line shows that the fatigue strength, i.e. the
stress at which the metal fail, drops as the number of stress cycles
increases. The greater the number of cycles, lower the fatigue strength.

 It also shows that, below a certain level of stress material does not fail
by cracking, no matter how many stress cycles is loaded. This is called
as endurance limit of the material.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Two distinct types of S–N behaviour are observed with engineering materials:
(a) A material that displays a fatigue limit, and
(b) A material that does not display a fatigue limit.

(a) (b)

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for different materials

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

7. Creep Rupture Tests:
• The gradual elongation or plastic deformation at higher temperature is called Creep, while the eventual
fracture is called Rupture.
• Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static mechanical stresses
(e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience centrifugal stresses, and high-
pressure steam lines).

Creep Test Procedure:

 A typical creep test consists of following two steps:
i. Subject a specimen to a constant load or stress while maintaining the temperature constant.
ii. Measure the deformation or strain and plot it as a function of elapsed time.
 Most tests are the constant load type, as constant stress provide a better understanding of the
mechanisms of creep.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Additional Information of Creep Rupture Tests:
• The test specimen used to determine creep rupture strength is similar to that used for the already described tension tests
• The test is conducted in an appropriate furnace and load is generally applied in the form of constant dead weights.
• Elongation can be monitored by the help of some attachments like extensometers or LVDT.
• The creep test is monitored up to a predetermined time and elongation is measured in this time period.
• In rupture test, the test is carried out up to the failure of the specimen.
• Creep and rupture data are most often reported as log-log plots of stress versus time to attain a specific percentage creep
elongation or time to rupture at a constant temperature.

Creep Rupture Elongation Curve:

A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages with different creep rates.
 Stage 1: On initial application of load, the creep rate is high and decreasing with
time. This is first stage creep or primary creep.
 Stage 2: The second stage of have minimum creep rate and the period is maximum in
creep.
 Stage 3: In the third stage, the creep rate is again increased and results as necking.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

8. Nick-Break Tests:
• A nick break test is a type of destructive testing that is used to evaluate the quality of a weld.
• This test shows up any centreline defects, such as lack of fusion, gas pockets, slag inclusion, incomplete
penetration and the degree of porosity in the weld bead.
• Fillet welds may be similarly tested by notching and bending. One requirement of the fillet nick-break
test is that there should be no tack welds on the other side of fillet weld.

Nick-Break Test Procedure:

i. To perform a nick break test, a specimen is prepared out of the
weld metal.
ii. An artificial notch or a groove (act as stress concentrator) is
intentionally introduced by a hacksaw or a cutting disc on the
weld face, along the primary axis of the weld.
iii. The specimen is then broken and the fracture surface is
observed at the conclusion of the nick break test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Example of Nick-Break Testing of
Fusion Weld:
• Cut a strip about 20 mm wide at right
angle to the weld axis.
• Make a saw cut down the centre line of
the weld 3 to 6 mm deep.
• By holding one-half of specimen in a vice
and giving the other half a sharp blow
with hammer or by bending in a machine,
the weld is broken.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 Mechanical testing techniques e.g. hardness tests, impact tests, fracture toughness
tests, fatigue tests, creep tests, and nick-break test have been discussed.
 The ease with which the hardness test can be made has made it the most common
method of inspection for metals and alloys.
 Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static
mechanical stresses, which requires to understand their creep behaviour.
 Nick-break test of weldment is performed to detect centreline defects, such as lack of
fusion, gas pockets, slag inclusion, incomplete penetration and the degree of porosity
in the weld bead.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 05: Testing of Composite Materials

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What are Composite Materials?

 Composite materials are multiphase materials (with measurable fraction of every phase),
obtained by artificial combination of different materials, so as to attain properties that the
individual components by themselves cannot attain.
 Composite materials are not the by-product of any chemical reaction between two or more
of its constituents.

 There are two major components in a composite:

I. Reinforcement (Discontinuous/dispersed phase):
 Material that provide strength to the matrix.
II. Matrix (Continuous phase):
 Material that holds the reinforcement in place.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Role of Matrix and Reinforcing Phases:
Matrix: In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
 Holds the fibres together.
 Protects the fibres from environment.
 Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.
 Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along
the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
 Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
 Classification of Matrix Material: Metal, Polymer, Ceramic.

Reinforcement:
 The role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the composite through prevention of matrix
deformation by mechanical restraint.
 Classification of Reinforcement: Particles, Fibers (including whiskers).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

 Examples:
 Naturally Occurring Composites:
 Bone: Collagen fibers embedded in
hydroxyapatite matrix.
 Wood: Cellulose fibers held together by
lignin matrix.
 Man-made Composites:
 Reinforced Concrete: Steel reinforcing bars
embedded in the concrete.
 Fibrous Composites: Variety of fibers
(glass, Kevlar, carbon, nylon, etc.) bound
together by a polymeric matrix.
 Cermets: Composite material composed of
ceramic and metal materials.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Classification of Composite Materials:
The composite materials are commonly classified based on the type of matrix material or
reinforcing material structure.
Metal Matrix Composites

Based on matrix material Polymer Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Composite Material

Particulate Composites

Based on reinforcing material

Fibrous Composites
structure

Laminate Composites

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Classification based on Matrix Material:

Based on the type of matrix material used to fabricate the

composites, they can be divided into three categories:

1) Metal Matrix Composites:

 They consist of fibers or particles surrounded by a metallic matrix.
 Most metals and alloys can be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials to be
stable over a range of temperature and should be non-reactive too.
 Processing of a metal-matrix composite tends to be much more expensive than that of a polymer-
matrix composite due to the high processing temperature required.
 Most common constituent materials used in this category are:
 Matrix Material: Al, Be, Mg, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, and Ag
 Reinforcement Material: SiC, Al2O3, B4C, TiC, TiB2, W, steel fibers, graphite, and a number of other ceramics.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Factors Affecting Properties of MMC's: Brake drums & Connecting rods
brake rotors

 Type of metallic matrix.

Cylinder liners Piston pins

 Reinforcement material.

 Reinforcement morphology. Diesel engine Applications Drive shafts

pistons

 Reinforcement volume fraction.

 Orientation.

 Matrix alloy composition.

 Heat treatment.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

2) Polymer Matrix Composites:
 Polymer matrix composite (PMC) is composed of a variety of short or continuous fibers
bound together by an organic polymer matrix.
 They are very popular due to their low cost and simple fabrication methods.
 Based upon the type of polymer matrix, they can be further classified into two parts:
• Thermoset polymers are used as matrix material, which
once cured into a solid form, cannot be returned to their
Thermoset
Composites: original uncured form.
• Examples of thermosets: Polyester, polyurethanes,
epoxy.

• Thermoplastic polymers, which can be moulded, melted

and remoulded without altering their physical properties,
Thermoplastic
Composites: are used as matrix.
• Examples of thermoplastics: Polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Applications:
• Aerospace and military aircraft.
• Automotive industry.
• Construction.
• Medical devices.

Drawbacks:
• Environmental degradation.
• Moisture absorption from environment causes swelling in the polymer as well as a decrease of Tg.
• The moisture absorption increases at moderately high temperatures. These hydrothermal effects
can lead to internal stresses in the presence of fibres in polymer composites.
• A thermal mismatch between polymer and fibre may cause cracking or debonding at the interface.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

3) Ceramic Matrix Composites:
 These materials are those in which one or more distinct ceramic phases are intentionally added to
another, in order to enhance some property that is not possessed by the monolithic ceramic
materials.
 Basic reinforcements which are included in the ceramic matrices are: carbon, glasses, glass-
ceramics, oxides and non-oxides.
 Ceramic matrix composites overcome the major demerits (such as brittle failure, low fracture
toughness and limited thermal shock resistance) of monolithic ceramics.
 Processing temperature for CMCs is extremely high compared to polymer or metal matrix
composites which leads to a very difficult and expensive processing.

Applications:
 Heat shield systems for space vehicles.
 Components for high temperature gas turbines.
 Brake disks and break system components.
 Slide bearings components.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Classification based on Reinforcing Material Structure:
• There are different types of reinforcements that go into the composite material e.g. fibers, particulate,
whiskers and layers. Particulate
Composites
On the basis of the structure of the reinforcing material, composites can Fibrous
be broadly classified into three parts: Composites
Laminate
Composites
1) Particulate Composites:
• Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed
phase in form of particles.
• Particulate composite are generally used to enhance performance at
high temperature.
• Particulate composite are not very fracture resistance unlike fibrous
composites.
• Particles tend to increase the stiffness of material but do not have so
much influence on composite’s strength.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

 Particulate composites can be further classified in to two parts on the basis of
orientation of particles.
a) Composites with random orientation of particles:
 Orientation of particle is randomly distributed in all directions (Example: concrete).

b) Composites with preferred orientation of particles:

 Particle orientation is aligned to specific directions (Example: extruded plastics with
reinforcement particles).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

2) Fibrous Composites:
• They have fibres of reinforcing materials suspended in binding matrix.
• Unlike particles, a fibre has high length to diameter ratio and further its diameter may be close to
its crystal size.
• These reinforcing phases may have random orientation where they are randomly distributed in all
direction or may have preferred orientation where these are aligned to a specific direction.

• On the basis of fiber length, they can be further classified as:

a) Short-fiber Reinforced Composites: They consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
form of discontinuous fibers (length < 100 × diameter).
i. Composites with Random Orientation of Fibers.
ii. Composites with Preferred Orientation of Fibers.
b) Long-fiber Reinforced Composites: They consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in
form of continuous fibers.
i. Unidirectional Orientation of Fibers.
ii. Bidirectional Orientation of Fibers.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

3) Laminar Composites:
 A laminar composite is composed of several two dimensional sheets/layers with
different fiber orientations cemented together.
Example: Adjacent wood sheets in
plywood are aligned with the grain
direction at right angles to each other.

 A laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of

directions in the two-dimensional plane.
 However, the strength in any given direction is, of course, lower
than it would be if all the fibers were oriented in that direction.
 A laminar composite often uses different materials in its layers
to gain the advantage of combining the particular properties of
each.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Types of Laminar Composites:
 There are three types of laminar composites generally found:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Testing of Composite Materials:
 Testing of material has got very much importance as it gives the required physical, mechanical
and other properties for the use of that material in given application.
 The quality assessment of the composites used in the specimens to be tested must be done prior to
the testing whenever possible.
 If the composite used in the specimens is of low quality with defects then the property measured
are spurious.
 It can mislead the design and analysis procedure and result in a premature and catastrophic failure
of the structure.
 Hence, the quality assessment of composites before it is used in specimen or actual structure
fabrication is essential. Broken
Voids
Fibers
The following quality assessment Quality of bond between
fiber & matrix
in composites is essential:
Matrix cracks Delamination's

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Physical Characterization of Composite Materials:
 Physical characterization is determination of all the physical properties of a given material
such as density, fiber volume fraction, void content, coefficient of thermal expansion, heat
conduction coefficients, moisture content, etc.
 Physical properties of the composite play an important role in the measured mechanical
properties.
 There is a direct dependence of mechanical properties on the physical properties.
 For example, the mechanical properties are directly dependent on fibre volume fractions.

Here, we will consider the following physical property measurements:

Fiber volume Moisture

Density Void content
fraction content

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

 Density:
 A material’s density is defined as mass of the material per unit of its volume.
 It is basically a measurement of the degree of compactness of a substance.
 One of the most common use of density is in how different materials interact when
mixed together. For example:
a) Wood floats in water because it has a lower density.
b) Anchor sinks in water because the metal has higher density.
c) Helium balloons float in air because the density of helium is lower than the
air.
 The procedure for measuring the density of a composite material is same as that used
for any other solid and is based on ASTM specification D792-86.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Test Procedure:
• The procedure consists of the following steps:
i. Weigh specimen in air to the nearest 0.1 mg.
ii. Attach specimen to analytical balance with a thin wire and weigh while the specimen and portion
of the wire are immersed in distilled water.
iii. Weigh wire alone, partially immersed up to the same point as in the previous step.
• The density of material at 23°C can be
calculated as follows:
𝒂
𝝆= × 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟓
𝒂+𝒘−𝒃
𝜌 = density, (in g/cm3)
𝑎 = weight of specimen in air,
𝑏 = apparent weight of fully immersed
specimen and partially immersed wire,
𝑤 = apparent weight of partially immersed
wire alone,
Density of distilled water at 23 °C (in g/cm3) =
0.9975 g/cm3

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

 Fiber Volume Fraction:
• It is the percentage of fiber volume in the entire volume of a fiber reinforced composite
material.
• A variety of methods exists for determination of fiber volume fraction, an important property
of a composite.
• Generally, fiber volume fraction ranges from 30% to 65%. The lower end depend upon the
significance of property contribution of the fibers whereas the upper depends upon the
effective, defect-free packing.
Methods to Determine Fiber Volume Fractions:
• There are four main methods to determine fiber volume fraction present in a composite:
1. Acid Digestion Method.
2. Optical Microscopy method.
3. Resin Burning-off Method.
4. Gravimetric Relation Method.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

1. Acid Digestion Method:
 This method involves the digestion of matrix material using an acid which does not attack the
fibers.

Procedure:
a. The matrix material is digested or dissolved by putting a measured volume of composite in an acid
bath.
b. Following digestion, the remaining fibers are washed, dried, and weighed.
c. Knowing the initial weight of the composite specimen as well as the density of the composite,
volume of the entire specimen can be calculated.
d. Thus, knowing the density and weight (step-2) of the fibers, the volume of fibers and the fiber
volume fraction can be determined.

 One should be careful to choose the liquid for digestion such that the fibers are not digested.
 Generally, hot nitric acid is used for carbon/epoxy composite.
 The ASTM standard used for digestion method are D3171-76 (1990) for polymeric composites
and D3553-76 (1989) for metal matrix composites.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

2. Optical Microscopy based Techniques:
• It involve potting sectioned samples of the laminate, polished using standard metallographic
techniques, and obtaining digital cross-sectional photomicrographs using an optical
microscope and magnifications between 100 and 2500.
• Digital images may be recorded at a number of locations along the length and through-the-
thickness of the laminate.
• Computer programs aid in the analysis of fiber ratio in the photomicrograph of the polished
composite specimen.
• This method is preferred as a non-destructive approach to determining fiber volume fraction.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

3. Resin Burning-off Method: 4. Gravimetric Relation Method:
• This method applies to composites with a
• This method determines the density of
reinforcement such as glass or ceramic
composites and then calculates the fiber
that is not affected by high-temperature
volume fraction knowing the density of the
environments or a reinforcement such as
fiber and the matrix.
carbon when the temperature can be
adequately controlled to minimize • When it can be confirmed that the
degradation of the fiber during burn off. composite material has zero or negligible
(less than 1%) porosity, the fiber volume
Test Procedure: fraction can be obtained from the densities
 Heat up the composite to a temperature at of the composite and the constituents by the
which resin will melt and fibers remain stable. following gravimetric relation:
 After burning off resin, weigh the fibers. Where,
𝝆𝒄 − 𝝆𝒎 Vf = Fiber volume fraction,
 Now, fiber volume fraction can be calculated 𝑽𝒇 = 𝜌𝑓 = Density of fiber,
from the initial weight of composite and 𝝆𝒇 − 𝝆𝒎
𝜌𝑐 = Density of composite,
fiber’s weight. 𝜌𝑚 = Density of matrix material

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

 Void Content:
• A void is a pore that remains unoccupied in a composite material.
• A void is typically the result of an imperfection from the processing of the material and
is generally deemed undesirable.
• Because a void is a non-uniformity in a composite material, it can affect the mechanical
properties and lifespan of the composite.
• Voids can act as a crack nucleation site as well as allow
moisture to penetrate the composite and contribute to
anisotropy of the composite.
• For aerospace applications, a void content of
approximately 1% is appropriate for performance while
other grades of composites can have between 3%-5%
void content.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Void Content Calculation:
 Consider a composite consisting of fiber and matrix. Take the following symbol notations:
𝑣𝑐,𝑓,𝑚 = volume of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
𝜌𝑐,𝑓,𝑚 = density of composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
 For composites with a certain volume of voids v𝑣 the volume fraction of the voids 𝑉𝑣 is defined as:
𝒗𝒗
𝑽𝒗 =
𝒗𝒄
 The total volume of composite (𝑣𝑐 ) with voids is given by:
𝒗𝒄 = 𝒗𝒇 + 𝒗𝒎 + 𝒗𝒗 … Eq. (1)
 By definition of the experimental density 𝜌𝑐𝑒 of a composite, the actual volume of the composite is:
𝒘𝒄
𝒗𝒄 = … Eq. (2)
𝝆𝒄𝒆

 By the definition of the theoretical density 𝜌𝑐𝑡 of the composite, the theoretical volume of the
composite is 𝒘𝒄
𝒗𝒇 + 𝒗𝒎 =
𝝆𝒄𝒕 … Eq. (3)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

 Substituting eq. 2 and 3 in 1 , we have
𝒘 𝒄 𝒘𝒄
= + 𝒗𝒗
𝝆𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒄𝒕
 The volume of void is given by:
𝒘𝒄 𝝆𝒄𝒕 − 𝝆𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒄𝒕 − 𝝆𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒗 = = 𝒗𝒄
𝝆𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒄𝒕 𝝆𝒄𝒕
 Now volume fraction of the voids is
𝒗𝒗 𝝆𝒄𝒕 − 𝝆𝒄𝒆
𝑽𝒗 = =
𝒗𝒄 𝝆𝒄𝒕

In general, if void content < 1% => good composite

if void content > 5% => poor composite

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

 Moisture Content:
• Moisture content or water content is the quantity of water contained in a material.
• Composite materials when exposed to the environment or water absorb moisture.
• Absorption of the moisture results in the expansion and affects the degradation of the
mechanical as well as thermal properties.
• Moisture content in a composite is given in terms of moisture by weight.
Procedure: To measure the moisture content, there are following steps as: Precautions:
i. A sample is weighed at the ambient conditions.  While drying, care should be taken to
ii. Then, sample is dried and weighed again. avoid excessively high drying
temperatures and high thermal
iii. The average amount of absorbed moisture in material can be excursions that may induce thermal
calculated, as follows: cracking, oxidation, or mass loss, or
M, % = Percentage moisture content,
𝑾𝒊−𝑾𝒐
combinations of the three in the
Wi = Initial specimen mass,
𝑴, % = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 material.
𝑾𝒐 Wo = Oven-dry specimen mass.
 Wear clean, non-linting gloves when
iv. The difference in these two weights per unit weight of the dry sample
handling specimens.
gives the weight change due to moisture content.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Mechanical Behaviour Testing of Composite Materials:
• In an effort to understand the mechanical behaviour of composites at the microscopic level, a
number of test techniques have been and continue to be developed.
• The principal aim of these tests is to evaluate the shear strength of fiber resin interface and any
frictional effects that may be present.
Fiber Pull-out
• These micro-mechanical test methods fall into three categories: Tests

Fragmentation Indentation
Tests Tests
a) Fiber Pull-out Tests:
 The fiber/matrix interface plays an important role in controlling the macroscopic mechanical
properties of fiber composites and it is often characterized by Fiber Pull-out Test.
 In this test, a single fiber is embedded in a thin sheet or film of matrix material and the force
required to pull the fiber out of the film is determined.
 Interfacial shear strengths are calculated using pull-out forces for fibers with a range of embedded
lengths.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Pull-out Test Procedure:
i. A length of the fibre is embedded in the matrix.
ii. Loading is applied at the free end and leads gradually to pull out of the
fibre.
iii. The Force displacement curve is recorded.

Pull-out Test: Load-displacement Curve

• Initially, the load increases linearly with displacement
• Matrix plasticity may lead to non linearities.
• After a maximum load value, there is a sudden drop which lasts until the pull
out of the fibre.
• The interfacial strength is defined as a function of the maximum load Pmax :
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 Where, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum pull-out load,
𝝉= 𝑙 = embedded length, and 𝑅 = fiber radius.
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝒍
• The maximum stress on the fiber 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 should not exceed its strength 𝜎𝑓𝑢 :
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ≤ 𝝈𝒇𝒖
𝝅𝑹𝟐

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Pull-out Test: Other Variations

Micro-droplet Test:
 This test include higher accuracy, simpler stress field of
cylindrical symmetry and elimination of size effect.
 The embedded fiber length can also be easily determined.

Micro-bundle Test:
 This test is used to account for the high fiber volume fraction
of real composites.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

b) Fragmentation Tests:
 This test is developed from the early work of Kelly and Tyson, who
investigated brittle tungsten fibers that broke into multiple segments
in a copper matrix composite.
 Each test specimen for the fragmentation test consists of one fiber
encapsulated in a chosen matrix and normally has a dogbone shape.

Fragmentation Test Procedure:

 Specimens are elongated in a tensile tester, which results in fiber breakage.
 Experiment is done under a light microscope so that fragmentation process can be observed in-situ.
 The fiber inside the resin breaks into increasingly smaller fragments at locations where the fiber’s
axial stress reaches its tensile strength.
 When the fiber breaks, tensile stress at the fracture location reduces to zero. Due to constant shear
in the matrix, tensile stress in the fiber increases roughly linearly from its ends to a plateau in
longer fragments.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

 The higher the axial strain, the more fractures will be caused in the fiber, but at some level (known as
saturation stage) the number of fragments will become constant as the fragment length is too short to
transfer enough stresses into the fiber to cause further breakage.

Calculation of Interfacial Shear Strength:

 To derive interfacial strength, the stress field must be defined. For constant shear, the average shear strength at
the interface is given by: 𝝈𝒇𝒖 𝒅
𝝉=
𝟐𝒍𝒄
Where, 𝜎𝑓𝑢 is the fiber strength at the critical length, 𝑑 is the fiber diameter and 𝑙𝑐 is the critical fragment length of the
fiber (the average fragment length at saturation stage i.e. no more breaks occur when applying further strain to the
specimen).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32

c) Indentation Tests:

 This test gives knowledge about damage from concentrated out-of-

plane forces, which is one of the major design concerns of many
structures made of advanced composite laminates.
 It is performed on a grinded and polished surface.
 A flat, square composite plate is subjected to an out-of-plane,
concentrated force by slowly pressing a hemispherical indenter into
the surface.
 The damage resistance is quantified in terms of a critical contact
force to cause a specific size and type of damage in the specimen.
 The damage response is a function of the test configuration;
comparisons cannot be made between materials unless identical test
configurations, test conditions, etc. are used.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 33

Indentation Damage in Composite Laminates:

 These figures summarize the sequence of damage events observed in indentation tests
along with its correlation with the load–displacement curve.
 The load displacement curve is plotted using four different colours, each colour
corresponding to the damage mechanism represented in another figure of the same colour.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 34

Failure Modes in Micro-mechanical Test Methods:
 Specimen configuration and loading conditions determine failure modes that may be present.
Test Specimen Load Failure Modes Present
Interfacial failure (cohesive or adhesive), matrix yielding, fiber end
Pull-out Single fiber Tension
surface loaded
Interfacial failure (cohesive or adhesive), matrix yielding, non-uniform
Micro-droplet Single fiber Tension
loading

Micro-bundle Single fiber in bundle Tension Interfacial failure (cohesive or adhesive), matrix failure, fiber failure

Progressive damage accumulation by fiber failure, local matrix yielding,

Fragmentation Single fiber Tension
local matrix cracking, fiber-matrix debonding

Indentation Single fiber in composite Compression Interfacial failure, fiber crushing

 Not all tests are appropriate for testing the properties of the three classes of composites and the primary limitation of
using a particular test is the fabrication of the specimen.
 PMC- Specimens for all the tests can be made.
 MMC- These are currently restricted to fragmentation and indentation tests.
 CMC- These are confined to the indentation test because of the low interfacial shear stresses in these systems.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 35

Summary:

 Composite materials, their types and applications have been discussed.

 The testing of composite material has got very much importance as it gives the
required physical, mechanical and other properties for the use of that material
in given application.
 Several physical and mechanical property measurement methods have also
been discussed.
 These test methods are used for quality assessment during the composite
materials development before it is used in actual structure.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 36

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 37
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 06: Nondestructive Inspection- Visual Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Nondestructive Inspection:
 Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials,
components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying
the serviceability of the part or system.

 Terms non-destructive examination (NDE), non-destructive inspection (NDI), and non-destructive evaluation (NDE)
are also commonly used to describe this technology.
 It is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and
research.
 Because it allows inspection without interfering with a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance
between quality control and cost-effectiveness.
 Non-destructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service inspections to ensure product integrity and
reliability, to control manufacturing processes, lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level.
 During construction, NDT is used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and
erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use continue to have the
integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

What are some uses of NDT Methods?

Forensic
Engineering Non-destructive evaluation can be conveniently
Medicine and Mechanical
divided into nine distinct areas:
Art Engineering
1. Flaw detection and evaluation.
2. Leak detection.

Uses 3. Metrology (measurement of dimension).

Aeronautical Petroleum
Engineering of Engineering 4. Location determination.
NDT
5. Structure or microstructure characterization.
6. Estimation of mechanical and physical properties.

Systems Civil 7. Stress (strain) and dynamic response determination.

Engineering Engineering
8. Signature analysis.
Electrical
Engineering 9. Chemical composition determination.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Selection of an NDT Method:
 Each NDT method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages and, therefore, some are better
suited than others for a particular application.
 The NDT technician or engineer must select the method that will detect the defect or make the
measurement with the highest sensitivity and reliability.
 The cost effectiveness of the technique must also be taken into consideration.

• Requirements regarding reliable and safe operation.

• Quality assurance level achieved.
When planning NDT testing one • Characteristics of manufacturing processes, properties
should take into account a
number of factors such as:
of materials used.
• Feasibility of NDT methods available.
• Economic criteria.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

When are NDE Methods Used?
 There are NDE application at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a
component.
 To assist in product development.
 To screen or sort incoming materials.
 To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes.
 To verify proper processing such as heat treating.
 To verify proper assembly.
 To inspect for in-service damage.

In-service
Design Processing Manufacturing
Monitoring
To screen or sort To verify proper assembly To inspect for in-service
incoming materials damage

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Benefits of Using NDT in Manufacturing:
 Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:
a) It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.
b) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials,
labour and energy.
c) It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.
d) It enables design of new products.

All of the above factors bring profitability to the manufacturer

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Non-destructive Inspection Techniques:
Visual Testing

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Magnetic Particle Testing

Popular NDT Techniques used Eddy Current Testing

are:
Radiography Testing

Ultrasonic Testing

Acoustic Emission Testing

Infrared Thermography

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Visual Inspection:
Visual Inspection is a non-destructive testing technique that provides a means of
detecting and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as corrosion,
contamination, surface finish, and surface discontinuities on joints (e.g., welds,
seals, solder connections, and adhesive bonds).

 It is the most cost effective method of detecting common defects in welding and castings.
 As it can be implemented easily throughout the progression of a job it is easy to eliminate simple
errors and problems preventing the follow on effect.
 It is also the most widely used method for detecting and examining surface cracks, which are
particularly important because of their relationship to structural failure mechanism.
 Even when other non-destructive techniques are used to detect surface cracks, visual inspection
often provides a useful supplement.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Visual Angle and Distance:
 It is general recommendation for operator to be
placed at a distance for his eye to be within 600
mm of the test surface at an angle not less than 30
degrees.
 The criterion set above is based on the eye’s
resolving power.

 Natural or artificial lighting of sufficient intensity and placement is needed to illuminate the
test areas and to allow proper reading of weld gauges and other equipment.
 The visual test resolution is considered adequate when the examiner, by combination of
lenses, access, lighting and angle of vision, can resolve a 0.8 mm wide black line or an
artificial flaw located on the surface to be examined.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Classification of Visual Testing:

Three Types of Visual Testing

Direct Unaided Visual Direct Aided Visual

Remote Visual Testing
Testing Testing

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

1. Direct Visual Testing:
 Direct visual examination is the type of examination made in situations where there is an access to
the area of interest without any possibility of injury to the inspectors.
 There is no interruption between the eye and the object.
 Defects can be detected are: cracks, corrosion layer, physical damage,
surface porosity, misalignment of mated parts, etc.
Examples:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

2. Direct Aided Visual Testing:
 The nature of the image is not modified.
 Modification of the image is only allowed by:
 Magnification with for example a mirror, a lens, an endoscope;
 Spectral or density filtering by a filter lens.

Examples:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

3. Remote Visual Testing:
 The nature of the image is modified.
 For example: The optical image is converted into
an electronic image by a camera.
 Equipment used: Camera, robotic devices, fiber optics, portable video probes, etc.
Examples:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Basic Procedure for Visual Inspection:
• It generally comprises of three steps as:

1) Clean the inspection surface properly.

 (Contaminants such as oil, grease, scale, sand (on casting surface), etc. may
interfere with interpretation of results).

2) Adequately illuminate the specimen with light.

 (Human eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light, with a wave length of 5560 Å).

3) Examine the specimen with eyes or take the assistance of light sensitive devices such
as photocells.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Visual Testing Equipment:
 Different kinds of equipment are used to improve the inspection quality.
 These equipment can be classified into two parts:
I. Optical Aids
Magnifiers
II. Mechanical Aids (magnifying
glasses,
microscopes)
I. Optical Aids:

Most widely used

optical aids are:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

a) Lighting:
 The inspection surface illumination is of extreme importance.
 Adequate illumination levels should be established in order to ensure effective visual
inspection.
 While designing lighting for an inspection system, we must consider what the inspection
system should do:
 Look for a defect in a part,
 Measure a part's dimensions, or
 Determine the presence or absence of a feature.
 While devising lighting for product’s inspection, following things should be taken into
account:
 Optical properties of product’s surface.
 Inspection surface geometry.
 Colour of product’s surface.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Optical Properties of Product’s Surface:
Specular Reflection

• The surfaces of products have optical properties that fall Diffuse Reflection
into one of three general reflectance categories:
Directional Reflection

Specular Reflection:
 The specular reflection is a phenomenon where
the incidence angle of light is equal to the angle
of reflection.
 Specular surfaces are mirror like smooth and
highly polished surfaces.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Diffuse Reflection:
 It is the reflection of light from a surface such that a ray incident on the
surface is scattered at many angles rather than a just one angle as in the
case of specular reflection.
 A surface built from a non-absorbing powder such as plaster, or from
fibers such as paper, or from a polycrystalline material such as white
marble, reflects light diffusely with great efficiency.
 Diffuse surfaces are rough and have a dull lustre.
 Many common materials exhibit a mixture of specular and diffuse
reflection.

Directional Reflection:
 Directionally reflective surfaces typically contain fine grooves that
reflect light generally in a preferred direction depending on the
incidence angle.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Surface Geometry of Inspection Surface:
 In addition to a part’s reflective properties, the surface’s geometry must also be considered.
 Flat Surface: Flat surface is self-explanatory, and achieving uniform illumination across it is
typically easier than other geometries.
 Curved Surface: The changing slope of a curved part can often pose a lighting problem that
manifests itself as uneven illumination across the part. If the curved surface is specular or
directionally reflective, glinting can occur, too.
 Prismatic Surface: Prismatic parts contain sharp edges or steep slopes, and such parts can be
difficult to illuminate because lighting can produce shadows or glints.
Colour of Inspection Surface:
 Contrasting colours may help your inspection system distinguish parts from backgrounds.
 If contrast differences are small, we can use colour filters or selective-wavelength
illumination to enhance the contrast for our inspection system.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

 Illumination Techniques:
i. Front Illumination:
 Front illumination involves placing a light source and a
camera/observer on the same side of a product to provide overall
illumination.
ii. Oblique Illumination:
 Placing a light source nearly perpendicular to a camera/observer
provides oblique illumination.
 This technique is used to find surface irregularities such as burrs.
iii. Coaxial Illumination:
 It is another form of front lighting, which directs light down a
camera’s/observer's line of sight.
 Because this technique provides uniform illumination across your
field of view, it can reduce shadows and some glinting.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

iv. Diffuse Back Illumination:
 The object is illuminated from the behind.
 It gives edge contrast to objects as well as
aid in identifying defects or imperfections
within translucent or opaque surfaces.
v. Collimated Back Illumination:
 It is a variation of back lighting, which
uses collimated light to produce images
with sharp edges, even for curved surfaces
such as those on a cylinder or ball.
vi. Directional Front Illumination:
 Directional lighting lets an inspection
system measure shadows and calculate the
heights of components.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

b) Inspection Mirrors:
• Inspection mirrors are used to improve the angle of vision.
• Inspection mirrors allow the inspectors to look inside piping, threaded and
bored holes, inside castings, and other hardest to see places.

c) Magnifiers:
• Magnifying systems are used for evaluating surface finish, surface shapes
(profile and contour gauging), and surface microstructures.
• An inspector with eye fatigue is likely to miss defects that would otherwise
be detected.
• Therefore, it is important to ensure that the possibility of eye fatigue is
minimized by using appropriate levels of magnification for the job.
• The equipment should have proper ergonomic function such as adjustability
and positionability.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

d) Borescopes:
• Borescopes are visual aids used for illuminating and observing internal, closed or otherwise
inaccessible areas.
• They are designed for remote viewing in difficult to reach areas such as jet engines, cylinders,
tanks, and various enclosed chambers.
• They are available in many different diameters and lengths, and are classified as rigid or flexible.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

e) Other Equipment:

Portable Video Probes-

• Portable video probes allow inspectors to remotely perform examinations in closed chambers
which are inaccessible by convention inspection means.
• Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad
tank cars, sewer lines.

Robotic Devices-
• Robotics have been developed whereby cameras can be affixed to crawlers
and submersibles.
• Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
• Retrieval tools can be affixed to robotics to remove foreign objects.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

II. Mechanical Aids:
 Several mechanical gauges are also used to assist the visual inspection examinations.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Mechanical Aid for Weldments:
 Welding Gauges:
 Welding fabrication uses fillet gauges to determine the width of the weld fillet, undercut
gauges, angle gauges, skew fillet weld gauges, pit gauges, contour gauges, and a host of
other specialty items to ensure product quality.
Examples
Fillet Weld Gauge:
Universal Welding Gauge:
 It allows measuring of concavity or
 It allows measuring of: convexity of fillet weld.
 Height of flat weld
 Height of fillet weld bead
 Thickness of fillet weld
 Bevel angle of weldment
 Undercut depth of weld seam
 Vertical misalignment

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Advantages of Visual Inspection:
 It is a routine procedure.
 The cost of visual inspection is low.
 It can be very effective where examination is made before, during and after manufacturing
process.
 Testing is simple and testing speed is high.
 Testing is possible while test object is being used.
 Permanent records are available when latest equipment are used.

Limitations of Visual Inspection:

 The scope is limited to surface defects, as internal and sub-surface defects can not be found.
 Limited to the visual acuity of the observer/inspector.
 Eye fatigue may cause the defects to remain undetected.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Summary:

 Non-destructive inspection is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and technology
industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.
 It is divided into various methods, each based on a particular scientific principle.
 Visual inspection is the most common and widely used non-destructive testing technique and it is
normally the first step in the examination process.
 Various optical and non-optical equipment are used to further assist and improve the visual
inspection examinations.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 07: Dye Penetrant Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Dye Penetrant Inspection:
 Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrate inspection (LPI) or penetrant testing
(PT).
 It is widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface breaking defects in all
non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
 This technique is used to detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline
cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

History of Penetrant Testing:

Before 1900’s:
 A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on glazed pottery,
whereby the carbon black would settle in surface cracks rendering them visible.
 Later, it became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel components by the
"Oil and Whiting" method.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

1900’s - Oil and Whiting Method:
 In this method, a heavy oil commonly available in
railway workshops was diluted with kerosene in large
tanks so that locomotive parts such as wheels could be
submerged.
 After removal and careful cleaning, the surface was
then coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol
so that a white surface layer was formed once the
alcohol had evaporated.
 The object was then vibrated by being struck with a
hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks
to seep out and stain the white coating.
 It is then carefully examined with magnifying glass.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

1940 - Visible Dye Penetrant Method:
 More effective penetrating oils containing highly visible dyes were then developed to enhance
flaw detection capability. This method, known as the visible or colour contrast dye penetrant
method, is still used quite extensively today.

1942 - Fluorescence Dye Penetrant Method:

 In 1942, fluorescent dyes were added to the liquid penetrant.

 These dyes would then fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light (sometimes referred to as
"black light") rendering indications from cracks and other surface flaws more readily visible to
inspectors.

 Many of these early developments were carried out by Magnaflux in Chicago, IL, USA in
association with Switzer Bros., Cleveland, OH, USA.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Principle of Dye Penetrant Inspection:
 DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry
surface-breaking discontinuities.

Capillary Action:
 Also known as capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or
wicking.
 It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like
gravity.
 It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid
and surrounding solid surfaces.
 If the diameter of tube is sufficiently small, then combination
of surface tension and adhesive forces between the liquid and
container wall act to propel the liquid.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Test Procedure:
 Basic processing steps of dye penetrant inspection are as follows:

Surface Penetrant
Penetrant Dwell
Preparation Application

Indication Developer Excess Penetrant

Development Application Removal

Inspection Post Cleaning

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Step-1: Surface Preparation
 Most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection.
 The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may
prevent penetrant from entering flaws.
 The sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining,
sanding, or grit blasting have been performed because these operations can smear
metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from entering.

Step-2: Penetrant Application

 Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant material is
applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.

Step-3: Penetrant Dwell

 The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much penetrant
as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect.
 Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part
surface.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Step-4: Excess Penetrant Removal

 This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the
excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample
while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.

 Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve

cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the
part with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.

Step-5: Developer Application

 A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw

penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be
visible.

 Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by

dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Step-6: Indication Development

 The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period

of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant
out of any surface flaws.

 This development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes.

Significantly longer times may be necessary for tight cracks.

Step-7: Inspection/Evaluation

 Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect

indications from any flaws which may be present.

Step-8: Post Cleaning

 The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of

defects, especially if post-inspection coating processes are
scheduled.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Penetrant Materials:
 The penetrants are mixtures of organic solvents, which are characterized by their ability to wet
materials, spread rapidly and penetrate into minute.
 These materials used today are much more sophisticated than kerosene and whiting first used by
railroad inspectors near the turn of 20th century.
 Today's penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector.

 To perform well, a penetrant must possess a number of important characteristics.

 It should spread easily over the surface being inspected.
 It should be easily drawn into discontinuities by capillary action.
 It should not be harmful to the inspector or the material being tested.
Characteristics
of  It should possess high indicating capability &less dwell time.
Liquid  It should remain in fluid state.
Penetrants  It should not affect the physical and chemical properties of the testing material.
 It should be cohesive, adhesive and relatively low in cost.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Classification of Penetrant Materials:
Penetrant Materials

On the basis of Physical On the basis of Penetrant On the basis of Strength of

Properties Removal Technique Indication

Fluorescent Penetrants Solvent Removable Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity

Visual Penetrants Water Washable Level 1 – Low Sensitivity

Post Emulsifiable Level 2 – Medium Sensitivity

Level 3 – High Sensitivity

Level 4 – Ultra High Sensitivity

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Classification of Penetrants on the basis of their Physical Properties:
 On the basis of their physical properties, penetrants are classified as:

Visible Liquid Penetrants:

 They are usually red in colour and produces a contrasting indication against the
white developer back ground.
 They do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an
inspection.
 They are also less vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid
that can significantly reduce the strength of a fluorescent indication.

Fluorescent Penetrants:
 They are generally green in colour and contain dye that glows brightly when
exposed to UV lights.
 These systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is
drawn to the glow of the fluorescing indication.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Classification of Penetrants on the basis of Removal Technique:
 On the basis of method used to remove the excess penetrant from the part. There are four methods:

Method A : Method B: Method C: Method D:

Post-Emulsifiable, Post-Emulsifiable,
Water Washable Solvent Removable
Lipophilic Hydrophilic

 Method A: Water Washable

• Also called as self-emulsifying systems, can be removed from part by rinsing with water alone.
• These penetrants contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash the penetrant from the
part surface with water alone.
 Method B: Post-Emulsifiable, Lipophilic
• In this, lipophilic systems (Method B), penetrant is oil soluble and interacts with oil-based emulsifier to make
removal possible.
 Method C - Solvent Removable
• Solvent removable penetrants require the use of a solvent to remove the penetrant from the part.
 Method D - Post-Emulsifiable, Hydrophilic
• Post-Emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems (Method D), used an emulsifier that is a water soluble detergent which
lifts the excess penetrant from the surface of part with a water wash.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Classification of Penetrants on the basis of their Strength of Indication:
 Penetrants are also formulated to produce a variety of sensitivity levels.
 The higher the sensitivity level, the smaller the defect that the penetrant system is capable of detecting.
 The five sensitivity levels are:
 Level ½ - Ultra Low Sensitivity
 Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
 Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
 Level 3 - High Sensitivity
 Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
 As the sensitivity level increases, so does the number of non-relevant indications.
 Therefore, a penetrant needs to be selected that will find the defects of interest but not produce too
many non-relevant indications.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Properties of Good Penetrant:
1) Capillarity:
• It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of
external forces. This property helps the penetrant to fill a void.
2) Surface Energy (Surface Wetting Capability):
• One of the important characteristics of a liquid penetrant material is its ability to
freely wet the surface of the object being inspected.
• One way to quantify a liquid's surface wetting characteristics is to measure the
contact angle of a drop of liquid placed on the surface of an object.
• The contact angle is the angle formed by the solid/liquid interface and the
liquid/vapour interface measured from the side of the liquid.
• Liquids wet surfaces when the contact angle is less than 90 degrees.
• For a penetrant material to be effective, the contact angle should be as small as
possible. In fact, the contact angle for most liquid penetrants is very close to
zero degrees.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

3) Viscosity:
• It is the internal resistance of a liquid to flow.
• A fluid that is highly viscous has a high resistance and flows slower than a low-
viscosity fluid. e.g. Liquids such as water that flow easily, have a lower viscosity than
do liquids such as honey.
• It has little effect on the ability of a penetrant material to enter a defect but it does have
an effect on the speed at which the penetrant fills a defect.
• The penetrants with less viscosity fill the cracks in less time.
4) Specific Gravity:
• It is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of distilled water at 40 F (4 °C).
• Most commercial penetrants have a specific gravity of less than one, primarily because they are made up of
organic materials having low specific gravities.
• For this reason, water contamination sinks to the bottom of the penetrant tank.
5) Water Washable Penetrant Thermal Stability:
• It is the ability of water washable penetrants to resist physical changes under normal operating conditions.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

6) Volatility:
• Volatility is characterized by the vapour pressure or boiling point of a liquid.
• It is associated with the evaporation rate of liquids and it is desirable for penetrant materials to have a low
volatility i.e. a high boiling point.
• High volatility results in a loss of penetrant in open tanks.
• A high volatile material will dry on the part during the penetrant dwell, leaving
a film that is difficult to remove.
• Entrapped penetrant having high volatility would also have a tendency to dry
or lose its liquid properties, resulting in failure to bleed back out of a
discontinuity to produce an indication.

7) Fluorescent Dye Thermal Stability:

• The dye used in fluorescent-dye penetrants lose their brightness or colour when subjected to elevated
temperature. This loss is termed “heat fade”.
• Aerospace Material Specification (AMS) 2644 specifies the maximum allowable brightness loss as a function
of penetrant sensitivity.
• Thermal stability is an important consideration during hot air drying before or after developer application.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

8) Flash Point:
• Flash point is the temperature at which sufficient flammable vapour is given off a liquid to form an
explosive mixture in air over the liquid.
• The flash point does not affect the performance of a penetrant.
• High flash points are desirable to reduce the hazard of fire.
9) Removability:
• This term describes two conflicting requirements for a penetrant:
a. The ability to be removed from a surface leaving little or no residual background.
b. Resistance to being removed from discontinuities.
• In order to meet the first requirement, the penetrant must maintain the dyes in solution even when in the
form of a thin film on the surface of a part and without its more volatile components that have been lost
during the dwell time.
• The second requirement is met by the penetrant in discontinuities resisting the removal process.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Developer:
• It’s role is to pull the trapped penetrant material out of defects and spread it out on the surface of the
part so it can be seen by an inspector.
• It also provide a light background to increase contrast when visual penetrant is used.
• Fine developer particles both reflect and refract the incident ultraviolet light, allowing more of it to
interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence.
• Developers also create a white background so there is a greater degree of contrast between the
indication and the surrounding background.

o It should have good absorption characteristics.

o It should be chemically inert with test material.
Characteristics o It should be able to uniformly cover the surface with thin smooth coating.
of
o It should provide a good contrast background for bright and clean indications.
Good Developer: o It should be non-toxic.
o It should be easy to remove after inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Classification of Developers:
 Developer classification is based on the method that the developer is applied.
 There are four forms of developers in general use:
i. Water Soluble Developers
ii. Dry Powder Developers
iii. Water Suspendable Developers
iv. Non-aqueous Developers

 Water Soluble Developers:

• They consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved in water and form a developer layer
when the water is evaporated away.
• The best method for applying water soluble developers is by spraying it on the part.
• Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these
methods are less desirable.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

 Dry Powder Developer:
• Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is inexpensive to use and easy to
apply.
• Dry developers are white, fluffy powder that can be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways.

Applications:
Advantage:
 The developer can be applied by:
 When a dry developer is
 Dipping parts in a container of developer,
used, indications tend to
stay bright and sharp since  Using puffer to dust parts with developer.
the penetrant has a limited  Using electrostatic powder spray guns.
amount of room to spread.
 Placing part in a dust cabinet where
developer is blown around and allowed to
Limitations: settle on the part.
 Since dry powder developers only stick to the area where penetrant is present, the dry developer does not provide a uniform
white background as the other forms of developers do.
 Having a uniform light background is very important for a visible inspection to be effective and since dry developers do not
provide one, they are seldom used for visible inspections.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

 Water Suspendable Developers:
• Water suspendable developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in water.
• Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the particles from settling out of
suspension.
• Water suspendable developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water soluble developers.
• Parts coated with a water suspendable developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water soluble
developers are forced dried.
• The surface of a part coated with a water suspendable developer will have a slightly translucent white coating.
 Non-aqueous Developers:
• Non-aqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically applied with a spray gun.
• Non-aqueous developers are commonly distributed in aerosol spray cans for portability.
• The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by solvent action.
• Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Common Uses of Dye Penetrant Inspection:
 Dye penetrant inspection is one of the most widely used non-destructive evaluation methods.
 Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility.
 DPI offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a large variety of
applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components.
 DPI can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or
porous.
 Materials that are commonly inspected using DPI include the following:
o Metals (aluminium, copper, steel, titanium, etc.)
o Glass
o Many ceramic materials
o Rubber
o Plastics

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Types of Discontinuities that can be Detected via DPI:
 Dye penetrant inspection can detect all discontinuities that are open to the surface.
 Rolled products- cracks, seams, laminations.
 Castings- cold shuts, hot tears, porosity, blow holes, shrinkage.
 Forgings- cracks, laps, external bursts.
 Welds- cracks, porosity, undercut, overlap, lack of fusion, lack of penetration, pin holes.
 Others- Fatigue cracks, quench cracks, grinding cracks, overload and impact fractures.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Typical Penetrant Indications:
• The size of the indication, or accumulation of penetrant, will show the extent of defect and the
brilliance will be a measure of its depth.
• Deep cracks will hold more penetrant and will be broader and more brilliant.
• Very fine openings can hold only small amounts of penetrants and will appear as fine lines.

Defect Penetrant Indications

Casting porosity Spherical surface indications
Casting cold shut Dotted lines
Cracks Straight continuous surface lines
Hot tears Ragged line of variable width
Heat treat cracks Multiple irregular lines
Thermal cracks Interconnecting lines
Lack of fusion Broken line of varying width
Fatigue cracks Continuous line in parts
Very tight crack Series of very small dots in continuous form

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

False Indications:
• It is an accumulation of penetrant caused by a drop of penetrant left on the workpiece.
• There are two conditions which may create accumulations of penetrant that are sometimes
confused with the true crack and discontinuities.

1) Indications due to inadequate removal of penetrant

during rinse process or contamination from work area
or hands.

2) Non-relevant indications caused by actual surface

discontinuities that are present by design (e.g. raised
lettering to identify part, press fit parts, etc.)

• These types of indications can be identified since they are regular in form and shape.
ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26
Safety Precautions in DPI:
• When proper health and safety precautions are followed, liquid penetrant inspection
operations can be completed without any harm to inspection personnel.
• Some of the most common safety concerns are:

Chemical Safety Ultraviolet Light Safety

 Flammability:  Lamps get hot:
• Use exhaust fans to disperse vapours. • So be cautious.
• Ignition sources must be avoided.  Report missing or cracked filter on lamps.
 Skin Irritation: • UV rays can cause sunburn and eye
• Wear gloves to protect hands. damage if filters not used or not
functional.
• Wear safety glasses to protect eyes
from splashing.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Typical Applications of DPI:
1. Aerospace:
 Typical components that are checked by this method include turbine, rotor disc, blades, aircraft
wheels, castings, forgings and welded assemblies.
2. Automobiles:
 Many automotive parts particularly aluminium, castings and forging including pistons and
cylinder heads are subjected to this form of quality checks before assembly.
3. Railways:
 DPI to detect fatigue cracking is also used for the regular in service examination of the bogie
frames of railway locomotive and the rolling stock.
4. Tools and dies:
 Drill bits, drill pipes, castings and drilling equipment are inspected by this method.
5. Inspection on reactors and tanks:
 Tanks, vessels, reactors, piping, dyers in the chemical and petro-chemical industries.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Advantages of DPI:
 This method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
 The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
 Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
 Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
 Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
 Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
 Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Limitations of DPI:
 Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
 Only materials with a relatively nonporous and smooth surface can be inspected.
 Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapour blasting must be
removed prior to DPI.
 The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
 Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
 Multiple process operations must be performed under controlled conditions.
 Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
 Chemical handling (due to toxicity and flammability) and proper disposal is
required.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 Dye penetrant inspection is the one of the most widely used low cost inspection
method.
 It can be used to locate all kinds of surface breaking flaws in all non-porous
materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
 Penetrants are classified on the basis of their physical properties, removal
techniques, and their strength of indication.
 Developers are classified on the basis of the method of their application.
 Proper health and safety precautions must be followed while performing this test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 08: Magnetic Particle Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What is Magnetic Particle Inspection?
 It is a non-destructive testing process for detecting surface and shallow subsurface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their alloys.

History:  MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part

surface preparation is not as critical as it is for
 The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect some other NDT methods.
an object took place as early as 1868. Cannon  It uses magnetic fields and small magnetic
barrels were checked for defects by particles (i.e. iron filings) to detect flaws in
magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic components.
compass along the barrel's length.  The method is used to inspect a variety of
 In the early 1930s, magnetic particle inspection product forms including castings, forgings, and
was quickly replacing the oil-and-whiting weldments.
method as the method of choice by the railroad  Many different industries use magnetic particle
industry to inspect steam engine boilers, inspection for determining a component's
wheels, axles, and tracks. fitness-for-use.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Principle of Magnetic Particle Inspection:
Magnetic Flux Leakage:
• Magnetic moments in a ferromagnetic material have the tendency to become
aligned parallel to each other under the influence of a magnetic field. However,
unlike the moments in a paramagnet, these moments will then remain parallel
when a magnetic field is not applied.
• This phenomenon is observed below a critical temperature called as Curie
Temperature, above which the material behave like a paramagnetic material.
• When a homogenous ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, it gets
magnetized and forms a continuous circuit from pole to pole through the material.
• If any surface or sub-surface discontinuity is present, the magnetic flux leaks out
of the material since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as
metals.
• As it leaks, magnetic flux will collect ferromagnetic particles (iron powder),
making the size and shape of the discontinuity easily visible.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Basic Steps for MPI:
 There are five steps for magnetic particle inspection as:

1. Part preparation: Component pre-cleaning/degreasing and demagnetizing.

2. Introduction of magnetic field.

3. Application of fine magnetic particles on the test surface.

4. Examination of the component surface for defect.

5. Demagnetization of the component.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

1) Part Preparation:
• When inspecting a test part with the magnetic particle method, it is essential for the particles
to have an unimpeded path for migration to both strong and weak leakage fields alike.

• The part’s surface should be clean and dry before starting the inspection.

• Contaminants such as oil, grease, or scale may not only prevent particles from being
attracted to leakage fields, they may also interfere with interpretation of indications.

• Thin nonconductive coatings, such as paint in the order of 0.02 to 0.05 mm will not normally
interfere with the formation of indications, but they must be removed at all points where
electrical contact is to be made for direct magnetization.

• If the part/piece holds a residual magnetic field from a previous magnetization that will
interfere with the examination, the part must be demagnetized.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

2) Introduction of the Magnetic Field:
• There are a variety of methods that can be used to introduce a magnetic field in a component
for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection.
• These magnetizing methods are classified as: Direct Indirect
Magnetization Magnetization

a) Direct Magnetization (Magnetization Using Direct Induction):

 It is also called as current flow method, the magnetizing current flows through the part,
thereby, completing the electric circuit.
 Magnetic field formed during this method is at right angle to the direction of current flow.
Thus we can locate the defect at right angles to the applied magnetic field direction.
 When using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good electrical contact is
established and maintained between the test equipment and the test component.
Precautions:  Improper contact can result in arcing that may damage the component.
 It is also possible to overheat components in areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas
of small cross-sectional area.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Types of Direct Magnetization Techniques:
 There are two main methods through which direct magnetization is accomplished. They are:

(i) Head shot Technique (ii) Using Prods or Clamps Technique

i. Head Shot Technique:

 Here magnetizing current is passed through the component directly by clamping the
component between two electrical contacts.
 Magnetizing current produces circular magnetic field in and around the component
that creates poles on either side of any crack or discontinuity which runs parallel to
the length of the part.
 The pole attract magnetic particles, which form an indication of the discontinuity.
 When magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic field will remain within
the component.
 The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current
passed through the component.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

 ii. Using Prods or Clamps Technique:
 Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against
the surface of the component being inspected to make
contact for passing electrical current through the metal.
 The passing current between the prods create a circular
magnetic field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection.
 Prods are made from copper and have an insulated
handle to help protect the operator.
 One of the prods has a trigger switch so that the current
can be easily and quickly turned on/off.
 Sometimes two prods are connected by an insulator to
facilitate one hand operation.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

b) Indirect Magnetization (Magnetization Using Indirect Induction):
 It is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to establish a magnetic field
within the component.
 There are several ways that indirect magnetization can be accomplished, some of the common
and useful methods are:
Using
Using Permanent Using central Using coils or
electromagnet
magnets conductor solenoids
yoke

 Using Permanent Magnets:

• Permanent magnets use is a low cost method of establishing a magnetic field in a part.
• Their use is limited due to lack of control of field strength and the difficulty of placing
and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.
• These magnets are used to make inspection under water and explosive environments
where electromagnets cannot be used.
• They can also be used in those congested areas where electromagnet cannot be used or
where a source of electric power is not available.
• Two types of permanent magnets most commonly are: Bar Magnets & Yoke Magnets.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

 Using Electromagnet Yoke:
• Electromagnets yoke use electric current to produce
magnetic field for magnetic particle inspection.
• They eliminate the problems associated with permanent
magnets and are used extensively in industry.
• This yoke is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil
around a piece of soft iron core.
• Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux when electric
current is flowing around the soft iron core.
• The design of an electromagnetic yoke can be based on the
use of either direct or alternating current or both.
• When the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is established between the north and
south poles of the magnet.
• The legs of the yoke can be either fixed or adjustable.
• Adjustable legs permit changing the contact spacing and relative angle of contact to accommodate
irregularly-shaped parts.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Positioning of Electromagnetic Yoke on Test Surface:
 In general, discontinuities to be disclosed should be centrally located in the area between pole and
pieces and oriented perpendicular to an imaginary line connecting them.
 Here are some examples to know, how we can use magnetization yoke to make better magnetic particle
inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

 Using Central Conductor:
• Another way of indirectly inducing a magnetic field in a material is by using
the magnetic field of a current carrying conductor.
• A circular magnetic field can be established in cylindrical components by
using a central conductor.
• In this technique, a conductor carrying high amperage current are passed
through the cylindrical components which induces a circular magnetic field
in the component to reveal radial and longitudinal defects.
• The effective region of examination when using an offset central conductor
is equal to four times the diameter of the conductor as indicated.

 Using Coils or Solenoids:

• When the length of a component is several times larger than its diameter,
then we can produce longitudinal magnetic field using coil.
• In this method, the component is placed longitudinally in the concentrated
magnetic field that fills the centre of a coil.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Direction of the Magnetic Field:
 The basic principle of magnetization is to produce magnetic lines of force across the
expected direction of cracks.
 Two general types of magnetic fields may be established within the specimen:
1. Longitudinal Magnetization
2. Circular Magnetization
1. Longitudinal Magnetization:
 It has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of
the part.
 Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be
accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by a coil or
solenoid.
 Flexible coil method is useful for large or irregularly shaped
parts for which standard solenoids are not available.
 It can also be accomplished using permanent magnets or
electromagnets.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

2. Circular Magnetization:

 It has magnetic lines of force that run

circumferentially around the perimeter of a part.

 A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by

either passing current through the component or by
passing current through a conductor surrounded by
the component.

 This type of magnetization will locate defects

running approximately parallel to the axis of the
part.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability:
• Orientation of the crack relative to the magnetic lines of force determines if the crack can or cannot be
detected.
• An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an
indication.
• Since defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is normally magnetized in two
directions at right angles to each other.

Example:
With circular magnetization, discontinuity that have
a significant dimension in the direction of the
current (longitudinal defects) are detectable, while
transverse-type defects will not be detectable.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Magnetizing Current:
 Electric current used to establish the magnetic field in components during magnetic particle inspection
is known as magnetizing current.
 Current flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part.
 The types of magnetizing currents commonly used are:
a) Direct Current (DC)
b) Alternating Current (AC) a) Direct Current (DC):
c) Rectified Alternating Current  Direct current flows continuously in one direction at a constant
voltage.
 DC is very desirable when inspecting for subsurface defects
because DC generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper
into the material.
 In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC
generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the component.
 Conversely, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

b) Alternating Current (AC):
 Alternating current reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60
cycles per second.
 Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is
convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle
inspection.
 When AC is used to induce a magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be limited
to narrow region at the surface of the component.

 This phenomenon is known as the "skin effect" and occurs because the changing magnetic field
generates eddy currents in the test object.
 The eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the primary field, thus reducing the net
magnetic flux below the surface. Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the
inspection is limited to surface defects.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

c) Rectified Alternating Current:
 With the use of rectifiers, the reversing AC can be converted to a one directional
current, which is known as rectified alternating current.
 The three commonly used types of rectified current are:

Three Phase Full Wave

Rectified Alternating
Full Wave Rectified Current
Alternating Current
Half Wave Rectified (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Alternating Current
(HWAC)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC):
• When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in only
one direction.
• The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced.
• The HWAC repeats at same rate as the unrectified current. Since half of the current is blocked out, the
amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
• This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC.
• The pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the particles and
giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important when using dry particles.
• The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to
power electromagnetic yokes.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase):
• Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than blocking it out.
• This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses.
• Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current.
• While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the
subsurface magnetic field is improved.

Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current:

• Three phase current is often used to power industrial
equipment because it has more favourable power
transmission and line loading characteristics.
• This type of electrical current is also highly desirable for
magnetic particle testing because when it is rectified and
filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles direct
current.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

3) Application of Magnetic Particle:
 Particle Characteristics: Particles used in MPI are made of finely divided ferromagnetic
materials, have the following characteristics:
• High Magnetic Permeability:
 It is important because it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from
discontinuities.
• Low Retentivity:
 It is important because the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so they do not stick
to each other or the surface of the part.
• Others:
 Other properties of importance that affect the sensitivity of the MPI are the size, shape, density,
mobility, and visibility or contrast of the particles.

 There are two basic forms of magnetic particles used in magnetic particle inspection (MPI):
a) Dry Magnetic Particles
b) Wet Magnetic Particles

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

a) Dry Magnetic Particles:
• Dry particles are primarily used for the examination of welds and castings where the detection of
discontinuities lying slightly below the surface is considered important.
• They are provided in powder form and available in red, black, yellow, and grey colours.
• Magnetic properties, particle size and shape, and coating method are similar in all colours making the
particles equally efficient.
• Choice of powder is then determined primarily by which powder will give the best contrast and visibility
on the parts being examined and the degree of sensitivity desired.
Limitations:
Advantages:  Not as sensitive as the wet method for
 Excellent for locating discontinuities which are slightly very fine and shallow cracks.
below the surface.  Not easy to cover all surfaces properly,
 Easy to use for large objects and for field examinations with especially of irregularly-shaped or large
portable equipment. parts.
 Good mobility when used with alternating current or  Slower than the wet particles for large
HWDC. numbers of small parts.
 Not as messy as the wet particles, and  Difficult to adapt to an automated test
 Equipment usually less expensive. system.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

b) Wet Magnetic Particles:
• Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil.
• These particles are available in two forms: visible and fluorescent magnetic particles.
• When exposed to near ultraviolet light (black light) fluorescent dye coated magnetic particles glow with a
highly visible yellow-green colour.
• Fluorescent particles are particularly useful for corners, key ways and deep holes type discontinuities.

Advantages:
 This method is more sensitive than dry because the suspension provides the particles with more mobility and
makes it possible for smaller particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced
or eliminated.
 It quickly and thoroughly covers all surfaces of irregularly-shaped parts, large or small, with magnetic particles.
 It is the fastest and most thorough method for the examination of large numbers of small parts.
 It is easy to measure and control the concentration of particles in the suspension, which makes for uniformity
and accurate reproducibility of results.
 It is readily adaptable to automated examination.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Limitations:
o Usually wet particles are as reliable of finding discontinuities lying below the
surface as dry particles.
o It is messy to work with, especially when used in the field testing.
o A recirculation system is required to keep the particles in suspension.
o It sometimes presents a post-examination cleaning problem.

Application of Fine Magnetic Particles on the Test Surface:

o Dry Particles Application: Fine magnetic particle in dry powder form are dusted
over the test surface.
o Wet Particles Application: Fine magnetic particles suspended in kerosene or any
other liquid are sprayed over the test surface after magnetization.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

4) Examination of the Surface:
• When fine particles of magnetic material are applied on the surface of test material, the leakage
field attracts particles which forms a outline of the discontinuity and indicate the location, size,
extent and shape of the discontinuity.
• Visible particles clusters formed at specimen surface are viewed under
white light, whereas fluorescent particles are viewed under black light.
Examples:
 Visible Wet/Dry Particle Method

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

 Fluorescent Wet Particle Method

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

5) Demagnetization:
• Parts inspected by the magnetic particle method may sometimes have an objectionable
residual magnetic field that may interfere with subsequent manufacturing operations or
service of the component. Magnetic characteristics of component.

Geometry of the component.

Retained magnetic field depends upon:
Direction of the magnetization.

Strength of the magnetic field.

Effects of Residual Magnetism:
 It affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.
 Interfere with navigational instruments that are sensitive to magnetic fields if placed in close
proximity.
 Create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may cause the weld arc
to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
 Cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase wear.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Methods of Demagnetization:
 There are two methods of demagnetization as:

Heating Method: Electrical Method:

 This random orientation of magnetic domains  Subjecting the component to a reversing and
can be achieved most effectively by heating decreasing magnetic field will return the
the material above its curie temperature. dipoles to a nearly random orientation
 When part is heated above its curie throughout the material.
temperature, it loses its magnetic properties.  To demagnetize a part, the current or
 When it is cooled back down, it will go magnetic field needed has to be equal to or
through a reverse transformation and will greater than the current or magnetic field
contain no residual magnetic field. used to magnetize the part.

 The material should also be placed with it long  The current or magnetic field is then slowly
axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any reduced to zero, leaving the part
influence of Earth's magnetic field. demagnetized.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Advantages, Limitations & Applications of Magnetic Particle
Inspection:
Advantages:
 Rapid and economical compared to other NDT methods.
 Staff can be trained quite rapidly to operate a procedure.
 It can detect both surface and near sub-surface discontinuity.
 It can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
 Pre-cleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some other inspection methods.
 Inspection and indications are fast and visible directly on the specimen surface.
 Very portable method especially when used with battery powered equipment.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Limitations:
 It can only be used on ferromagnetic materials. Unable to inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminium,
magnesium or most stainless steels.
 It is only effective for seeking surface breaking or near-surface defects.
 Components or materials must be magnetized in at least two directions for complete coverage.
 Components or materials often must be demagnetized after magnetic particle testing.
 Weldments with different magnetic characteristics of base metal and weld metal are difficult to inspect.
 Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.

Applications:
 Industries that use MPI are structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries.
 Underwater inspection is another area where MPI may be used to test items such as offshore
structures and underwater pipelines.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 Magnetic particle inspection is a fast and relatively easy NDT method for
surface/subsurface flaw inspection in ferromagnetic materials.
 It is based on the magnetic flux leakage caused by material discontinuities, which
collects magnetic particles (either dry or in a wet suspension) to form indications.
 Different types of direct/indirect methods are used to magnetize the component to
perform the inspection.
 After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to
demagnetize the component as it may interfere with manufacturing processes or
service.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 09: Eddy Current Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Eddy current inspection has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831.
 Its development as an non-destructive testing technique for industrial applications was carried out
during World War II in Germany.
 Eddy current testing (ECT) is widely used in aerospace industry and in other manufacturing and
service environments that require inspection of thin metal for potential safety-related or quality-
related problems.

What is Eddy Current?

 Eddy currents are electrical currents induced within a
conductor by a varying magnetic field.
 They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a
liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when
conditions are right.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Properties of Eddy Currents:
 They flow in closed loops within conductor.
 They flow in a plane that is parallel to coil winding or material surface.
 They attenuate and lag in phase with depth.

Basic Principle of Eddy Current Testing (ECT):

 Eddy current testing works on the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in
conductive materials.
Electromagnetic Induction:
 When the magnetic flux through a conductor changes, induced
currents are set up in close paths on the surface of the
conductor.
 These currents are in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
flux and are called Eddy Current.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

How It Works?
Step-1: Generation of Eddy Currents
• In order to generate eddy currents for an inspection a “probe” is used.
• Inside the probe is a length of electrical conductor which is formed into
a coil.
• Alternating current is passed through the coil, which generates an
oscillating magnetic field.
• The probe and its magnetic field are brought close to a metal test piece.
• A circular flow of electrons known as an Eddy Current will begin to
move through the metal.

Step-2: Secondary magnetic field is set up in opposite direction

• Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own “secondary”
magnetic field which will oppose the coil’s “primary” magnetic field.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Step-3: Impedance of the coil is changed
• Changes in metal thickness or defects like near-surface cracking will interrupt or alter the amplitude and
pattern of the eddy current and the resulting magnetic field.
• This in turn affects movement of electrons in coil by varying the electrical impedance of the coil.

Step-4: Change in impedance is analysed

• Eddy current instrument plots changes in the impedance amplitude and
phase angle, which can be used by a trained operator to identify changes in
the test piece.

Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response:

Geometric Factors:
Electromagnetic Factors: • Coil parameters: loop area, number of turns, diameter of wire.
• Lift-off: Proximity of excitation or pickup coil to the sample
• σ: Electrical conductivity of the sample. (implies coupling efficiency).
• µ: Magnetic permeability of the sample. • Sample Geometry: Thickness compared to skin depth, shape,
• f : Excitation frequency. lateral dimensions.
• Probe proximity to sample edges.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Eddy Current Density and Depth of Penetration:
 Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength
decreases with distance from the coil.
 Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the
Skin Effect.
What causes the Skin Effect?
 Skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux and
causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases.

Factors Affecting o Frequency of the excitation current.

Depth of Penetration: o Electrical conductivity of the specimen.
o Magnetic permeability of the specimen.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Standard Depth of Penetration:
 The depth that the eddy currents are only 𝟏Τ𝒆, or about 37% as
strong as they are on the surface is known as the standard
depth of penetration or skin depth.
 It can be calculated by using following equation:
Where:
𝟏 𝛿 =Standard depth of penetration (m)
𝜹≈ 𝑓 =Test frequency (Hz)
𝝅𝒇𝝁𝝈 𝜇 =Magnetic permeability (H/m)
𝜎 =Electrical Conductivity (S/m)

Working with this Equation:

 If relative permeability (𝜇𝑟 ) is given, it must be converted to an absolute permeability (𝜇) as: 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝟎
where, 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 H/m (permeability of free space).
 As per the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), electrical conductivity values are often expressed as a
percent of the conductivity of pure annealed copper measured at 25oC, which can be converted to siemens/meter as:
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 = % 𝑰𝑨𝑪𝑺 × 𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 Where, 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 5.8 × 107 S/m

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Eddy Current Equipment:
 Equipment for eddy current inspection are very diversified and proper equipment selection is
important if accurate inspection data is desired for a particular application.
 As a minimum, at least three basic pieces of equipment are needed for any eddy current
examination:

1. Instrumentation 2. Probes 3. Reference Standards

1. Instrumentation
• Eddy current instruments are available in a large variety of configurations and they are
commonly classified by the type of display used to present the data.
• The common display types are:
a) Analog Meter
b) Digital Meter
c) Eddy Scope(Impedance Plane Display)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

a) Analog Meters:
 They are used for many different inspection applications such as crack detection,
material thickness measurements, nonconductive coating measurements or conductive
coating measurements.
b) Digital Meters:
 They are designed to examine conductivity of test component or nonconductive coating thickness.
 A digital meter contains an analogue-to-digital converter (to change the input voltage to a number) and a digital
readout to display this number
 These meters tend to have slightly higher accuracy than analog devices.
c) Eddy Scopes (Impedance Plane Display):
 Eddy scopes are another category of instrumentation and they present the inspection data in the form of an
impedance plane diagram.

On the impedance diagram, the total impedance is displayed by plotting its resistance component and
inductive reactance component at 90° to each other.
• Resistance: It is the opposition offered by a substance to the flow of current.
• Inductive Reactance: It is the opposite reaction of the coil against the alternating current (changing
current) flowing through it.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Impedance Plane Trajectory of a Coil Over a Nonferromagnetic Specimen With and Without
Discontinuity:

 If the eddy current probe is balanced in air and then placed on

a non-ferromagnetic specimen:
 The resistance component will increase (because eddy
currents are being generated in the specimen and this takes
energy away from the coil, which shows up as resistance)
 The inductive reactance of the coil decreases (because the
magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's
magnetic field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to
produce inductance).
 The presence of discontinuity or inhomogeneity in the test
specimen causes a reduction as well as a redistribution of the
eddy currents; consequently, the changes in the coil impedance
are reduced.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

2. Eddy Current Probes:
• Eddy current probes are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes.
• One of the major advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed
for a wide variety of applications.
Configuration of Test Coils
• Eddy current probes are classified on the basis of:
Mode of Operation

Classification of Eddy Current Probes on the basis of Configuration:

• The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best
"couple" to the test area of interest.
• Some of the common classifications of probes based on their configuration include:
i. Surface Probe
ii. Bolt Hole Probes
iii. Inside Diameter or Internal Bobbin Probes
iv. Outside Diameter or Encircling Probes

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

i. Surface Probes:
 Surface probe or Pancake probe, usually a spring mounted flat probe or a pointed pencil type probe,
allows determining the exact location of a defect.
 The probe may be hand held, may be mounted on automated scanners or may even be rotated around to
get e.g. a helical scan in tube/rod inspections.
 Usually ferrite cores (absolute cylindrical as well as split-D differential types) and shields are used for
enhanced sensitivity and resolution.
 This coil configuration is good for detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented perpendicular to the
test surface.
 Discontinuities, such as delamination's, that are in a parallel plane to the test surface will likely go
undetected with this coil configuration.

Applications:
 Crack detection
 Weld inspection
 Detection of corrosion/exfoliation in hidden layers

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

ii. Bolt Hole Probes:
• They are intended exclusively for bolt hole testing with manual probe guidance.
• The main application field for these probes lies in testing bores on aircraft.
• They have a surface coil that is mounted inside a housing that matches the diameter of the hole
being inspected.
• The probe is inserted in the hole and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

iii. Inside Diameter (ID) or Internal Bobbin Probes:
 They consist of a coil arrangement in the form of a winding over a bobbin, which passes through
components such as tubes and scans the entire inside surface in one-go.
 The ID probes have a housing that keep the probe centered in the product and the coil(s) orientation
somewhat constant relative to the test surface.
 The directional properties of these probes are identical to encircling probes.

Applications:
 High-speed multi-frequency inspection of heat exchanger tubes in-situ for
detection of cracks, wall thinning and corrosion in tubes as well as under
support plate regions.
 In some instances, bobbin type probes are employed for inspection of bolt
holes.
 Hollow products, such as pipes, to inspect from the inside out.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

iv. Outside Diameter (OD) or Encircling Probes:
 They are similar to ID probes except that the coil(s) encircle the material to inspect from the
outside in.
 In an encircling probe the coil is in the form of a solenoid into which the component is placed.
 In this arrangement, the entire outside circumferential surface of the component covered by the
coil is scanned at a time, giving high-inspection speeds.
 These probes may not detect circumferential defects as the eddy currents flow parallel to them
without getting distorted.

Applications:
 Popular industrial application of encircling probes is high-speed
inspection of tubes from outside during the manufacturing stages.
 Encircling probes are used to inspect solid products, such as rods,
tubes and wires.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Classification of Eddy Current Probes on the basis of Mode of Operation:
• Mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment.
• The mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories:
i. Absolute Mode Probe
ii. Differential Mode Probe
iii. Reflection Mode Probe
iv. Hybrid Mode Probe

i. Absolute Mode Probe:

 Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents
and sense changes in the eddy current field.
 Absolute probes provide an absolute voltage signal.
o Flaw detection
o Conductivity measurements
Applications: Absolute coils can be used for: o Lift-off measurements
o Thickness measurements

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Important Consideration for Absolute Mode Probes:
 Absolute probes are sensitive to things such as conductivity, permeability lift-off and temperature.
 Steps must be taken to minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being
performed.

Example:
 Commercially available absolute probes
have a voltage compensation using an
additional reference coil that compensates
for ambient temperature variations.
 A null voltage signal is measured when
there is no defect which increases the
instrument’s dynamic range.
 Furthermore, they are less sensitive to
temperature changes than non-
compensated probes.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

 ii. Differential Mode Probe:
 Differential probes consist of two coils that compare two adjacent parts of the inspected material.
 The detecting coils are wound in the opposite directions to one another in order to equalize the
induced voltages originated by the excitation primary field.

Signal From Differential Probe:

 The output voltage of the differential coil probe is zero when there
is no crack inside the probe.
 Cracks in the test material, which moves at a constant speed, alter
the balance, and two pulses in the voltage signal are detected.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Eddy Current Signal Responses to Local and Gradual Defects:

 Differential coils have the advantage of

being able to detect very small
discontinuities.
 However, differential coils do no detect
gradual dimensional or composition
variations of the test piece, as the coils are
typically very close.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

iii. Reflection Probe:
 Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe,
but one coil is used to excite the eddy currents and the other is
used to sense changes in the test material.
 Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as send-receive
or driver-pickup probes.
 The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and pickup
coils can be separately optimized for their intended purpose.
 The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and
uniform flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the
pickup coil can be made very small so that it will be sensitive
to very small defects.
 The through-transmission method is sometimes used when
complete penetration of plates and tube walls is required.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

iv. Hybrid Probe:
 These eddy current probes are specially designed for a specific inspection application and they
work on two or more than two different operating modes.
 This type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks.
 Example: Split D, Differential Probe
 It has a driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing coils.
 It operates in the reflection mode but additionally, its sensing coils operate in the differential
mode.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Selection of Eddy Current Probes:
 Probes selection is critical in acquiring adequate inspection data.
• Material penetration requirements (surface vs. subsurface)
• Sensitivity requirements
Several factors to • Type of probe connections on eddy current instrument
consider include: • Probe and instrument impedance matching (will probe work with instrument)
• Probe size
• Probe type (absolute, differential, reflection or hybrid)

Some Tips for Selection of Eddy Current Probes:

o Surface probes for plates and encircling probes for tubes, bars.
o Small diameter probes for shallow and fine defects on smooth surfaces (smaller probes penetrate less).
o Large diameter probes for sub-surface defects and rough surfaces.
o Differential coils are used for temperature compensation and drift.
o Probes with wear resistant coatings and ceramic insulation are used for high temperature applications.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Reference Standards:
 In order to give the eddy current inspector useful data while conducting an inspection, signals generated
from the test specimen must be compared with known values.
 In almost all cases, eddy current inspection equipment are configured using reference standards.
 Reference standards are typically manufactured from the same or very similar material as the test
specimen.
 Many different types of standards exist for due to the variety of eddy current inspections performed.
Examples:
Material thickness standards:
 Material thickness standards used to help determine
material thinning caused by corrosion or erosion.

Non-conductive Coating Standards:

 Nonconductive coating (paint) standard with
various thickness of paint on aluminium substrate.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Applications of Eddy Current Inspection:
 One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is
Material
the variety of inspections and measurements that can be Crack detection thickness
performed. measurements

 In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

Non-conducting
Coating Conductivity
thickness measurements
1) Crack Detection: measurements
 It is the primary uses of eddy current
inspection.
 Cracks cause a disruption in the circular flow
patterns of the eddy currents and weaken their
strength.
 This change in strength at the crack location
can be detected.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

2) Material Thickness Measurement:
 Thickness measurements are possible with eddy current inspection within certain limitations.
 Only a certain amount of eddy currents can form in a given volume of material.
 Therefore, thicker materials will support more eddy currents than thinner materials.
 The strength (amount) of eddy currents can be measured and related to the material thickness.

Industrial Applications:
 Eddy current inspection is used in aviation industries to detect material loss due to corrosion and erosion.
 It is used to inspect tubing at power generation and petrochemical facilities for corrosion and erosion.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

3) Non-conducting Coating Measurement:
 Nonconductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates can be measured very
accurately with eddy current inspection.
 The coating displaces the eddy current probe from the conductive base material and this
weaken the strength of the eddy currents.
 This reduction in strength can be measured and related to coating thickness.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

4) Conductivity Measurements:
 This technique involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing the probe in contact with
the sample surface.
 For nonmagnetic materials, the change in impedance of coil can be correlated directly to the
conductivity of the material and hence conductivity of material can be measured.
Applications of Conductivity Measurement Technique:
Some important points to consider for
 The value of the electrical conductivity of a metal depends conductivity measurements:
on several factors like chemical composition and the stress  It is important to control factors that can affect
state of its crystalline structure. the results such as inspection temperature and
 So, electrical conductivity information can be used for: the part geometry.
o Material identification.  Conductivity changes with temperature so
o Sorting magnetic materials from non-magnetic measurements should be made at a constant
materials. temperature.
o Heat damage detection.  Thickness of specimen should generally be
o Case depth determination. greater than three standard depths of
penetration.
o Heat treatment monitoring.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Advantages & Limitations of ECT:
Advantages: Limitations:
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects. • Only conductive materials can be inspected.
• Detects surface and near surface defects. • Surface must be accessible to the probe.
• Inspection gives immediate results. • Skill and training required is more extensive
• Equipment is very portable. than other techniques.
• Method can be used for much more than flaw • Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
detection. • Reference standards needed for setup.
• Minimum part preparation is required. • Depth of penetration is limited.
• Test probe does not need to contact the part.
• Flaws such as delamination's that lie parallel
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of to the probe coil winding and probe scan
conductive materials. direction are undetectable.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Summary:

 Eddy-current testing uses the principle of electromagnetic induction, to detect and

characterize surface and sub-surface flaws in conductive materials.
 Eddy current probes used for inspection can be custom designed for a wide variety of
applications.
 A variety of inspections and measurements (e.g. crack detection, thickness and
conductivity measurements) can be performed using this method.
 It is widely used in automotive and aircraft manufacturing, and it is an integral part of
inspection and maintenance in the power generation and aircraft industries.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 10: Ultrasonic Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Ultrasonic Inspection is a non-destructive test method that uses ultrasonic waves to conduct
examinations and make measurements.
 Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,
material characterization, and more.
What are Ultrasonic Waves?
 Ultrasonic waves are high (“ultra”) frequency sound (“sonic”) waves.
 They vibrate at a frequency above the upper audible limit of human hearing i.e. 20,000
vibrations per second, or 20 kHz.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Properties of Ultrasonic Waves:
 Ultrasonic waves are no different from 'normal' (audible) sound in its physical properties, except in
that humans cannot hear it.
 They have the following properties:
 Ultrasonic waves cannot travel through vacuum.
 These waves travel with speed of sound in a given medium.
 Their velocity remains constant in homogeneous media.
 They are reflected and refracted just like light waves.
 Their velocity mainly depends on the density and Young’s modulus of material.
 Speed of ultrasonic waves is more in more dense media: 𝒗𝒈𝒂𝒔 < 𝒗𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 < 𝒗𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Principle of Ultrasonic Inspection:
Acoustic Impedance:
 Acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its density (ρ) and acoustic
velocity (V): 𝒁 = 𝝆𝑽
 Ultrasound travels in a very straight line and get reflected when it strikes an
interface between materials with different speeds of sound (acoustic
impedance).
 An interface between materials with a larger difference in acoustic impedance
reflects ultrasonic waves more strongly.
 Interface with smaller difference in acoustic impedance reflects them less
strongly and lets part of them travel through.
𝟐
The fraction of the incident wave intensity 𝒁 𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 Where, Z1 and Z2 are the acoustic
that is reflected can be calculated as: 𝑹= impedances of medium 1 and 2
𝒁 𝟐 + 𝒁𝟏 respectively.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

How it works?
• A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that is used to produce high voltage electrical pulses.
• Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy.
• The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves.
• When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected
back from the flaw surface.
• Reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by transducer and is displayed on a screen.

Plot of Electrical Signal vs Time:

 Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance
that the signal travelled.
 From the signal, information about the reflector location,
size, orientation and other features can sometimes be
gained.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Ultrasonic Transducers:
 These are also called Probe or search unit which generate and receive ultrasound of
all frequencies and intensity.
 Transducers for flaw detection come in a wide variety of sizes, frequencies, and case
styles, but most have a common internal structure.
 In selecting a transducer for a given application, it is important to choose the desired
frequency, bandwidth, size and in some cases focusing which optimizes the inspection
capabilities.

Use of Couplant Material:

 Couplant material (usually liquid) is used to facilitate the transmission of ultrasonic
energy from the transducer into the test specimen.
 It is necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and test specimen
is large.
 The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the
test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Working Principle of Transducer:
• The active element of the transducer is a thin disk of piezoelectric ceramic or piezocomposite that works on the
phenomenon of piezoelectricity.
What is Piezoelectricity or Piezoelectric Effect?
 When crystals of some materials are subjected to a mechanical pressure in a certain
direction, charges of opposite sign develop on their faces, normal to the direction of the
applied pressure.
 This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.
 It is a reversible process: means electrical signal can be converted into mechanical
vibrations.

What causes Piezoelectric Effect?

 This effect works because of the movement of atoms in the crystal's molecules.
 Piezoelectric crystals are composed of positive and negative ions in an alternating
fashion.
 Tension and compression, push and pull these positive and negative away from
either other, creating an energy gradient across the crystal and allowing an electric
current to flow.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Ultrasound Generation with Transducer:
• A piezoelectric element in the transducer converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Ultrasonic Wave Propagation:
 Ultrasonic waves propagate through a medium due to vibratory or oscillatory motions of its
particles.
 In solids, molecules can support vibrations in multiple directions, hence, a number of wave modes
are possible.
 Two predominant types of waves, or wave modes generated within a material with ultrasonic waves are:
 Longitudinal Waves (L-waves):
 L-waves compress and decompress the material in the direction of motion,
much like sound waves in air.
 They propagate in all kind of materials.
 Shear Waves (S-waves):
 S-waves vibrate particles at right angles compared to the motion of the
ultrasonic wave.
 They only propagate in solid bodies.
 The velocity of shear waves through a material is approximately half that of
the longitudinal waves.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Ultrasonic Wave Mode Conversion:
• The angle in which the ultrasonic wave enters the material determines whether
longitudinal, shear, or both waves are produced.
Example:
 Ultrasonic transducer transmits an ultrasonic wave through water into a block
of steel.
i. When the direction of the ultrasonic wave is at 90° angle with the surface of
the steel block.
 No refraction occurs and the L-wave is preserved.
ii. When the transducer is rotated at an angle (5° in this case).
 The longitudinal from the transducer is converted into two modes, longitudinal
and shear, and both wave modes are refracted.
 L-waves and S-waves have different angles of refraction because they have
dissimilar velocities within the same material.
Angles that create two wave modes are not appropriate because they cause the ultrasonic
transducer to receive multiple echoes, making it difficult to analyse the data.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Critical Angle:
 Critical angle is one of the parameter used to avoid the problem of two wave mode generation.
i. First Critical Angle:
• As the angle of the ultrasonic transducer continues to increase, L-waves move closer
to the surface of the test specimen.
• The angle at which the L-wave is parallel with the surface of the test specimen is
referred to as the first critical angle.
• This angle is useful for two reasons:
i. Only one wave mode is echoed back to the transducer, making it easy to interpret
the data.
ii. Also, this angle gives the test system the ability to look at surfaces that are not
parallel to the front surface, such as welds.
ii. Second Critical Angle:
• The second critical angle is an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for
the shear wave 90°.
• At this point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following
shear wave or shear creep wave.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Classification of Transducers (Probes):
 Piezoelectric transducers can be classified on the basis of coupling mechanism, the beam
orientation, the environment where used, and in other ways.
 Some of the most common classifications are:

Types of Transducer

On the basis of coupling On the basis of beam On the basis of number of

mechanisms orientation elements

Contact Normal Beam Single Element

Immersion Angled Beam Dual Element

Air-coupled

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Classification of Transducer on the Basis of Coupling Mechanisms:
a) Contact Transducer:
• They appear to come into direct contact with the test specimen.
• They require some form of liquid or dry couplant to adequately
couple the ultrasound to and from the test specimen.
b) Immersion Transducer:
• Immersion transducers operate in a scanning tank where the
specimen and the transducer are fully immersed with in the fluid
(typically water).
c) Air-coupled Transducer:
• Air-coupled transducers require a special layer of material
(impedance matching layer) to help send a pulse through air to the
sample.
• This layer should have an impedance that is intermediate between
the acoustic impedances of the transducer and the air.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Classification of Transducer on the Basis of Beam Orientation:
a) Normal Beam Transducer:
• Normal beam transducers transmit a wave normal to the face of the
transducer.
b) Angled Beam Transducer:
• Angled beam transducers transmit a wave at an angle (not normal)
to the face of the transducer.
• Angled beam or refracting transducers are usually just longitudinal
normal-beam transducers attached to a wedge (often made of
plastic).
• Wedge angles are designed to operate between the first and second
critical angle, to create only a mode-converted shear wave.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Classification of Transducer on the Basis of Number of Elements:
a) Single Element Transducer:
• Single element transducer contain one active ceramic element.
• This often results in reduced cost and simplicity in design.

b) Dual Elements Transducer:

• Dual-element transducers contain separate transmitter and receiver
elements housed in a common case.
• This arrangement improves near surface resolution because the
second transducer does not need to complete a transmit function
before listening for echoes.
• Dual elements are commonly employed in thickness gauging of
thin materials.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Basic Test Techniques:
 Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method and inspections can be accomplished in a
number of different ways.
 It depends on the nature of product, manufacturing process, surface condition, geometry and
accessibility of the scanning area.

Classifications of Test Techniques:

Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into three primary classifications as follows:
a) Pulse-echo and Through Transmission Technique:
• (Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used).
b) Contact and Immersion Technique:
• (Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article).
c) Normal Beam and Angle Beam Technique:
• (Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Pulse-echo Technique:
• Pulses of ultrasonic waves (by the transducer) are transmitted into the material under test.
• Reflected waves (or echo) by discontinuities are received by the same or other transducer
and displayed on the CRT.
• The relative size and depth of the discontinuity in term of amplitude and appropriately
calibrated form are displayed on the CRT.
• The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one side of the material is
possible.

Through Transmission Technique:

• Two transducers located on opposite sides of the test
specimen are used.
• One transducer acts as a transmitter and other as a receiver.
• Through transmission is useful in detecting discontinuities
that are not good reflectors, and when signal strength is
weak.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Contact Mode Testing:
• In contact mode of testing, the transducer is kept in contact with the
test object with a couplant.
• A thin film of oil, glycerine or water is generally used as couplant
between the transducer and the test surface.
• It is commonly used for manual inspection.

Immersion Technique:
• In immersion testing, the specimen and the transducer are immersed
in a water bath.
• This arrangement allows better movement of the transducer while
maintaining consistent coupling (i.e. water).
• Immersion testing is employed to achieve high speed and automatic
scanning with enhanced flaw detection efficiency.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Normal Beam Inspection:
• In normal beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the test article at 90° to the surface.
• Location of a discontinuity in a part or structure is found by accurately measuring the transit time of
ultrasonic pulse.
• The results are expressed by using the following well-known relationship:
𝒗×𝒕
𝒅=
𝟐
Where,
𝑑 = distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece,
𝑣 = the velocity of sound waves in the material,
𝑡 = is the measured round-trip transit time.

Angle Beam Inspection:

• In angle beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the test article at some angle other than 90°.
• This technique is typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material.
• An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from the side, thereby improving detectability of
flaws in and around welded areas.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Angle Beam Inspection Calculations:
 Nodes - Surface points where sound waves reflect.
 Skip Distance - Surface distance of two successive nodes.
 Leg 1 (L1) - Sound path in material to 1st node.
 Leg 2 (L2) - Sound path in material from 1st to 2nd node.
 𝜽𝑹 − Angle of Refraction and 𝑻 − Material Thickness

Flaw Location (1st Leg):

Surface Distance = sin 𝜃𝑅 × 𝐿1
Depth = cos 𝜃𝑅 × 𝐿2

Flaw Location (2nd Leg):

Surface Distance = sin 𝜃𝑅 × 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
Depth = 2𝑇 − cos 𝜃𝑅 × 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Data Presentation:
 Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in a number of differing formats.
 The three most common formats are: A-scan B-scan C-scan
Presentation Presentation Presentation
Data Presentation: A-scan:
• A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of time.
• The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and the elapsed time is displayed along the
horizontal axis.
• Relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal amplitude to that from a known reflector.
• Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal sweep.

Example:
 Initial pulse generated by transducer is represented by the
signal IP, which is near time zero.
 As transducer is scanned along the surface of part, four other
signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Data Presentation: B-scan
• B-scan presentation is a profile view (cross-sectional) of a test specimen.
• In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical axis and the linear
position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
• From the B-scan, depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
• It almost represent a photographic type of image of the defect.
Scanning Procedure:
 The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan.
 Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the B-scan.

Example:
 In the given B-scan, line X is produced as the transducer is
scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen.
 When transducer moves to right of this section, the backwall
line BW is produced.
 When transducer is over flaws Y and Z, lines that are similar
to length of flaws and at similar depths within the material
are drawn on B-scan.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Data Presentation: C-scan
• It displays a plan type view of the test specimen and discontinuities by mechanically or electrically scanning a
X-Y plane.
• C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when depth determination is desired.

Scanning Procedure:
 Typically, a data collection gate is established
on the A-scan and amplitude of the signal is
recorded at regular intervals as transducer is
scanned over the test piece.
 Relative signal amplitude is displayed as a
shade of gray or a colour for each of the
positions where data was recorded.
 C-scan presentation provides an image of the
features that reflect and scatter sound within
and on surfaces of the test piece.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Data Presentation: D-scan
• It displays the through thickness view showing a cross-section of the test object perpendicular to the scanning
surface.
• The D- scan is similar to the C-scan, but the echo time of flight (depth) in relation to probe position is recorded.
• Actually the D-scan is a '3-D visualization' of the object.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Calibration Standards:
 Calibration is a operation of configuring the ultrasonic test equipment to known values.
 This provides the inspector with a means of comparing test signals to known measurements.
 Calibration standards are typically manufactured from materials of the same acoustic properties as those
of the test articles.
To ensure consistent performance of UT (Ultrasonic Testing)
instrument.

To check the sensitivity, resolution and characteristics of

Purpose ultrasonic probe.
of
Calibration: To evaluate discontinuities for their size and location.

To provide a common basis for expressing the test result.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Calibration Standards (Ultrasonic Reference Blocks):
Calibration Blocks for Parallel Inspection :
a) Thickness Calibration Standards:
 Thickness calibration standards may be flat or curved for pipe
and tubing applications, consisting of simple variations in
material thickness.
b) Distance/Area Amplitude Standards:
 Distance/Area Amplitude standards utilize flat bottom holes or
side drilled holes to establish known reflector size with
changes in sound path form the entry surface.
c) NAVSHIPS Test Block:
 Used for distance amplitude correction, sensitivity levels and
flaw depth information.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Calibration Blocks for Non-parallel Inspection:
 There are also calibration standards for use in angle beam inspections when flaws are not parallel to
entry surface.
 These standards utilized side drilled holes, notches, and geometric configuration to establish time
distance and amplitude relationships.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Qualification Standards:
 Qualification standards are used to asses the proficiency/qualification of equipment or NDT
personnel for specific codes and standards.

 IOW Beam Profile Block:

 Used for beam profile measurement of angle beam transducers and
measurement of transducer angles.
 AWS Resolution Block:
 Used for checking resolution capabilities of angle beam transducers.
 DS Test Block:
 Used to check the horizontal linearity and the dB accuracy as per
requirements of AWS.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Applications:
Applications for which ultrasonic testing is employed include:
 Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.).
 Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging.
 Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed components.
 Estimation of void content in composites and plastics.
Some of the typical
 Measurement of case hardening depth in steels. examples are:
 Estimation of grain size in metals.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Advantage & Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing:
Advantages: Limitations:
 Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and  Surface must be accessible to transmit
internal. ultrasound.
 Depth of penetration for flaw detection or
 Skill and training is more extensive than with
measurement is superior to other methods.
some other methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.  Normally requires a coupling medium to promote
transfer of sound energy into test specimen.
 High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.  Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very
 Volumetric scanning ability of objects. small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are
 Detailed images can be produced with automated
difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission
systems.
and high signal noise.
 Ultrasonic inspection can be used to know not only that
a flaw exists, but also the severity of the damage.  Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound
beam may go undetected.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements.
 The sound energy reflected due to any discontinuity is detected and accordingly its position,
shape and size is determined.
 A typical UT inspection system consists of pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices.
 Transducer is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy (vibrational energy) and
vice versa.
 Computers can be programmed to inspect large, complex shaped components, with one or
multiple transducers collecting information.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 11: Acoustic Emission Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction to Acoustic Emission Method:
Acoustic Emission Inspection:
 It is considered as quite unique among the non-destructive testing methods.
 Materials “talk” when they are in trouble: Many materials make an audible noise when they fail
(paper, wood, cloth etc.).
 Using Acoustic Emission equipment we can “listen” to the sounds of cracks growing, fibers
breaking and many other modes of active damage in the stressed material.
 In contrast to other NDT methods, Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) is usually applied during
loading, while most others are applied before or after loading of a structure.

 It is often used to detect a failure at a very early stage, long before a structure
completely fails.
How AEI is
 Unlike conventional ultrasonic testing, AE tools are designed for monitoring acoustic
used ?
emissions produced by the material during failure or stress, and not on the material's
effect on externally generated waves.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Inspection Compared with Other Methods:
 Acoustic emission inspection has many features that distinguish it so sharply from other methods:

Acoustic Emission Other NDT Methods

• Detects movement of defects • Detects geometric form of defects
• Require stress • Do not require stress
• Each loading is unique • Inspection is directly repeatable
• More material-sensitive • Less material-sensitive
• Less geometry-sensitive • More geometry-sensitive
• Requires access only at sensors • Require access to whole area of inspection
• Tests whole structure at once • Scan local regions in sequence
• Main problems: noise related • Main problems: geometry related

 AE inspection method is particularly useful when used in combination with other NDT methods.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

A Brief History of AE Testing:

• Word 'crack' is onomatopoeic ("sounds like") being based on a description of a sound

that material makes as it fails.
• Probably the first practical use of AET was by pottery makers. As early as 6500 BC,
potters were known to listen for audible sounds during the cooling of their ceramics, to
asses the quality of there products.

• In metal working, the term "tin cry" (audible emissions produced by the mechanical
twinning of pure tin during plastic deformation) was coined around 3,700 BC.

• 60 years ago, Josef Kaiser showed that metals also make very low amplitude sound as they fail.
• Today, AE is widely used in materials research programs, for corrective Maintenance of
machinery and assessment of structural integrity.
• In 1960's, research at Boeing identified that by detecting signals with sensors resonant at high frequency (up to
90 kHz) it was possible to clearly see incipient aero engine failure.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Principle of Acoustic Emission Inspection:
Acoustic Emission (AE):
 It is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic (elastic) waves in solids that occurs when a material
undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure.
How It Works?
• When crack formation or plastic deformation occurs due to aging,
temperature gradients or external mechanical forces, accumulated
elastic energy in material or on its surface is released rapidly.
• This results in the generation of elastic or stress waves within the
material.

• Understanding the physical nature of AE waves helps to detect, locate and characterize the damage.
• The waves generated by sources of AE are of practical interest in structural health monitoring (SHM), quality
control, system feedback, process monitoring and other fields.
• AE method is considered to be a “passive” non-destructive technique, because it usually identifies defects only
while they develop during the test.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Comparison of Two Different Kinds of NDT Techniques:
Active Techniques:
 The source emitting the waves is generally applied externally to
the material in active methods.
Example: Ultrasonic Inspection
 It detects the defect in a specimen using an artificially
generated source signal and receiver.

Passive Techniques:
 In passive methods, sources are within the material; no input signal
is required from the operator.
Example: Acoustic Emission Inspection
 It detects the elastic waves radiated by a growing fracture.
 Sources of acoustic emissions can have widely varying
characteristics due to significant differences in the source signals.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Acoustic Emission Instrumentation:
 Acoustic emission testing can be performed in the field with portable instruments or in a
stationary laboratory setting.
 Typical AE apparatus consist of the following components:
 Sensors:
 Used to detect AE events.
 Contact type sensor (a piezoelectric element in
a protective housing) is normally employed.
 Preamplifiers:
 Amplifies initial signal.
 Signal Processor:
 Performs filtration, data analysis and charting.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Installation of Sensors on Structure:
 The sensor is coupled to the test piece with a fluid couplant.
 Type of installation and choice of couplant material is defined by a specifics of application such as:
o Glue (superglue type) is commonly used for piping inspections.
o Magnets usually used to hold sensors on metal pressure vessels. Grease and oil then used as a couplant.
o Bands used for mechanical attachment of sensors in long term applications.
o Waveguides (welded or mechanically attached) used in high temperature applications.
o Rolling sensors are used for inspection rotating structures.
o Special Pb blankets used to protect sensors in nuclear industry.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Waves:
 Fracture in material takes place with the release of stored strain energy, which is consumed by nucleating new
external surfaces (cracks) and emitting elastic waves, which are defined as AE waves.
 AE waves are not sonic waves, but elastic waves in a solid.
 Radiation pattern is same as ultrasonic waves i.e. they radiate energy in all directions.
 AE waves are generally broad band and the received frequencies cover a wide range from audible to 1200 kHz.

Types of AE Signal:
Two types of AE signals are detected in AE sensors:
i. Burst Type AE Signal:
 They are transient signals generated due to yielding, deformation,
dissolution, solidification, cracking, and fracture failure of materials.
ii. Continuous AE Signal:
 They are generated when multiple transients overlap so that they cannot be
distinguished and the envelope of the signal amplitudes becomes constant.
 It is detected due to friction and leakage on the crack surface.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Wave Propagation:
 The following phenomena take place as AE waves propagate along the structure:
 Attenuation: The decrease in AE amplitude as a stress wave propagate along
a structure due to energy loss mechanisms, from dispersion, diffraction or
scattering.
Dispersive Wave
 Dispersion: A phenomenon caused by the frequency dependence of speed for
waves. Sound waves are composed of different frequencies hence the speed
of the wave differs for different frequency spectrums.
Non-dispersive Wave
 Diffraction: The spreading or bending of waves
passing through an aperture or around the edge of a
barrier.
 Scattering: The dispersion, deflection of waves encountering a
discontinuity in the material such as holes, sharp edges, cracks
inclusions etc.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

AE Signal Parameters:
• They are features of an AE waveform, which are frequently used during the analysis of AE data.
• For locating or characterizing the type of damage within the material, different parameters of AE
signal are evaluated.

Duration
Rise Time MARSE

Peak
Amplitude Counts

AE Hits Count
AE Signal Rate
Parameters

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

 AE Hits:
o These are transient portions of the measured AE waveform which satisfy a given detection criterion.
o Purpose of the detection criterion is to detect the presence of transient AE and discriminate it from background
noise, or continuous AE.
o In earlier figure, the waveform corresponds to one “hit”.
 Peak Amplitude:
o It is the greatest measured voltage or maximum amplitude in a waveform.
o This is an important parameter in acoustic emission inspection because it determines the detectability of the
signal.
o Signals with amplitudes below the operator-defined, minimum threshold will not be recorded.
 Rise Time:
o The time from the first threshold crossing to the maximum amplitude of the signal.
o This parameter is related to the propagation of the wave between the source of the acoustic emission event and
the sensor.
 Duration:
o Time from the first threshold crossing to the end of the last threshold crossing of the signal.
o Duration can be used to identify different types of sources and to filter out noise.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

 MARSE (Measured Area under the Rectified Signal Envelope):
o MARSE is the measure of the area under the envelope of the rectified linear voltage time signal from the
transducer.
o MARSE is sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the signal, but does not use counts or user defined
thresholds and operating frequencies.
 Counts:
o Counts refers to the number of pulses emitted by the measurement circuitry that exceeds the threshold
o Depending on the magnitude of the AE event and the characteristics of the material, one hit may produce one or
many counts.
o While this is a relatively simple parameter to collect, it usually needs to be combined with amplitude and/or
duration measurements to provide quality information about the shape of a signal.
 Count Rate:
o The number of times the signal amplitude has exceeded the threshold in a specified period of time.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Background Noise:
 It significantly affects the result of AE testing and need to be considered and controlled.
 Types of Noise:
• Hydraulic Noise: Cavitation's, turbulent flows, boiling of fluids and leaks.
• Mechanical Noise: Movement of mechanical parts in contact with the structure e.g. fretting of pressure
vessels against their supports caused by elastic expansion under pressure.
• Cyclic Noise: Repetitive noise such as that from reciprocating or rotating machinery.
• Electro-magnetic Noise: It causes the disruption of operation of an electronic device when it is in the
vicinity of an electromagnetic field.
 Control of Noise Sources:
 Rise Time Discriminator: There is significant difference between rise time of mechanical noise and
acoustic emission.
 Frequency Discriminator: Frequency of mechanical noise is usually lower than an acoustic emission burst
from cracks.
 Floating or Smart Threshold: Varies with time as a function of noise output, used to distinguish between
background noise and acoustic emission events under conditions of high, varying background noise.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

AE Source Mechanisms in Metals:
 AE can originate from any mechanisms which causes a rapid release of elastic energy.
 Sources of AE in metallic structures which have been identified in the past are:

Microcrack formation
Plastic deformation Phase transformations
and growth

Fatigue crack growth Corrosion Crack-face rubbing

Cavitation

 AE sources can also originate from external stimuli like impact of

an external body on the structure under investigation or rubbing of
joints, bolts and frames.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

AE Source Mechanisms in Composites:
 Due to the fact that their material compositions are so different from one another, composite materials
have AE sources which are not shared by metals.
 Plastic deformation and phase transformation do not occur in composites.
 AE sources experienced by composites but not metals are:

Fiber matrix- Matrix

Fiber failure Fiber pull-out Delamination
debonding cracking

Analysis of AE Signals:
• Signals originated from a loaded structure are identified as desired and undesired signals on the basis of following:
 Desired Signal:
o Which are released directly from the damage mechanisms in a tested structure
o Which contribute positively towards the detection of damage.
 Undesired Signal:
o Any signal (electrical or acoustic) that interferes with the reception, interpretation, or processing of
desired signals.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Factors that Tend to Increase/Decrease the Amplitude of AE:
Increase Decrease
• High strength • Low strength
• High strain rate • Low strain rate
• Low temperature • High temperature
• Anisotropy • Isotropy
• Heterogeneity • Homogeneity
• Thick sections • Thin sections
• Brittle failure (cleavage) • Ductile failure (shear)
• Material containing discontinuities • Material without discontinuities
• Martensitic phase transformations • Diffusion controlled phase transformations
• Crack propagation • Plastic deformation
• Cast materials • Wrought materials
• Large grain size • Small grain size
• Mechanically induced twinning • Thermally induced twinning

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Source Location Concepts:
 Locating the source of acoustic emissions is often accomplished by one of three methods:
I. Linear Location Technique
II. Point Location Technique
III. Zonal Location Technique

I. Linear Location Technique:

• It is a time difference method commonly used to locate AE source on linear structures such
as pipes.

• It is based on the arrival time difference between two

sensors for known velocity.
• Sound velocity is evaluated by generating signals at
known distances.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

 Distance of AE source from first hit sensor (𝑑) is given by:
𝟏
𝒅= 𝑫 − ∆𝑻 × 𝑽
𝟐
Where, D = distance between sensors, 𝑉 = wave velocity,∆𝑇 = time difference of wave arrivals
between two sensors.

II. Point Location Technique:

• In order for point location of AE source to be justified, signals must be detected in a minimum
number of sensors: two for linear, three for planar, four for volumetric.
• Accurate arrival times must also be available.
• Arrival times are often found by using peak amplitude or the first threshold crossing.
• The velocity of wave propagation and exact position of the
sensors are necessary criteria as well.
• Equations can then be derived using sensor array geometry or
more complex algebra to locate more specific points of interest.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Two Dimensional Source Location:
 For location of an AE source on a plane two sensors are used.
𝐷 = distance between sensor-1 and 2, We have, 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 = 𝑉 × ∆𝑇1,2

∆𝑇1,2 = time difference between sensor-1 and 2, 𝑍 = 𝑅2 sin 𝜃

𝑉 = wave velocity, 𝑍 2 = 𝑅1 2 − 𝐷 − 𝑅2 cos 𝜃 2

𝑅1 = distance between sensor-1 and source, ⇒ 𝑅2 2 sin 𝜃 2 = 𝑅1 2 − 𝐷 2 + 2𝐷𝑅2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑅2 2 cos 𝜃 2

𝑅2 = distance between sensor-2 and source, ⇒ 𝑅2 2 = 𝑅1 2 − 𝐷 2 + 2𝐷𝑅2 cos 𝜃

𝜃 = angle between R2 and D, ⇒ 𝑅2 2 + 𝐷 2 − 2𝐷𝑅2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅1 2
𝑍 = line perpendicular to D. Substituting for 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 + 𝑉 × ∆𝑇1,2 ,
𝑅2 2 + 𝐷 2 − 2𝐷𝑅2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅2 2 + 𝑉 2 ∆𝑇1,2 2 + 2𝑅2 . 𝑉. ∆𝑇1,2
⇒ 𝐷 2 − 𝑉 2 ∆𝑇1,2 2 = 2𝐷𝑅2 cos 𝜃 + 2𝑅2 . 𝑉. ∆𝑇1,2
1 𝐷2 −𝑉 2 ∆𝑇1,2 2
⟹ 𝑅2 = 2 𝐷 cos 𝜃+𝑉∆𝑇1,2

Source is situated on a curve represented by above equation, which is a hyperbola.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

 Three sensors are used to locate a source to a point by intersecting two hyperbolae using the same
technique as two sensors.
 If the distances R1, R2 and R3 are known, then the point of intersection of three circles of respective
radius and centered at the location of the sensors will be the location of the source.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

III. Zonal Location Technique:
• It aims to trace the AE source to a specific zone or region around a
sensor.
• Zones can be lengths, areas or volumes depending on the dimensions of
the array.
• It is based on the principle that the sensor with the highest amplitude or
energy output will be closest to the source.
• With additional sensors added, a sequence of signals can be detected
giving a more accurate result using time differences and attenuation
characteristics of the wave.

The source can be assumed to be within the

region and less than halfway between sensors.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Activity of AE Sources in Structural Loading:
 AE signals generated under different loading patterns can provide
valuable information concerning the structural integrity of a
material.
 Relationship between the loading history and AE events in a
particular interval is described by two effects:
a) Kaiser Effect:
• It is the absence of detectable AE at a fixed sensitivity level, until
previously applied stress levels are exceeded.
b) Felicity Effect:
• It is the presence of AE, detectable at a fixed predetermined
sensitivity level at stress levels below those previously applied.
• This effect is used in testing of fiberglass vessels and storage
tanks.
• It can be quantified using the Felicity Ratio, which is defined as:
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝑭)
𝑭𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑫)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Advantages and Disadvantages of AET:
Advantages of AE Testing:
 Damage processes in materials being tested can be observed during the entire load history, without any
disturbance to the specimen.
 The sensors can be fixed to the surface of the specimen for the duration of the test and do not have to be
moved for scanning the whole structure point by point.
 Access to both sides of an object, which is necessary for all through-transmission methods, is not required in
AET.
Disadvantages of AE Testing:
 A particular test is not perfectly reproducible due to the nature of signal source, e.g. the sudden and sometimes random
formation of a crack.
 Energy released by AE signals are usually several magnitudes smaller compared to signals used in ultrasonic
techniques. This requires much more sensitive sensors as well as reliable amplifiers and pre-amplifiers.
 It also has problems related to the influence of ambient noise, the attenuation of signals and resulting low signal-to-
noise ratio.
 It requires sophisticated data processing techniques to detect acoustic emissions, to localize them and to apply other
advanced techniques or inversions.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Applications:
 Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather information about a
material or structure.
 It is applied to inspect and monitor  In-process weld monitoring.
pipelines, pressure vessels, storage  Detecting tool touch and tool wear during
automatic machining.
tanks, bridges, aircraft, and bucket
trucks, and a variety of composite and  Detecting wear and loss of lubrication in
rotating equipment, and tribological studies.
ceramic components.
 Detecting loose parts and loose particles.
 A few examples of AET applications,  Detecting and monitoring leaks, cavitation,
where AE techniques are used for are: and flow.
 Monitoring chemical reactions, including
corrosion processes, liquid-solid
transformations, and phase transformations.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Summary:

 The acoustic emission inspection is a reliable, extensively used and well-established

dynamic NDT method.
 It detects the acoustic (elastic) waves produced due to different modes of active
damage within the stressed material to receive a warning long before it completely
fails.
 The three major applications of AE techniques are:
1. Source location – determine the locations where an event source occurred.
2. Material mechanical performance – evaluate and characterize materials or
structures.
3. Health monitoring – monitor the safe operation of a structure.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 12: Radiography Inspection

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Term radiography usually implies a radiographic process that produces a permanent
image on film or paper.
 Radiography is a non-destructive inspection technique where many types of
manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and
integrity of the specimen.
 Radiography has seen expanded usage in industry to inspect not only welds and
castings, but to radiographically inspect items such as airbags and canned food
products.
 The objects which can be examined can range in sizes and shapes from micro-
miniature electronic parts to mammoth missiles or power plant structures.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

History of Radiography:
 Radiography started with the discovery of X-rays by W. C. Roentgen in 1895, and radioactivity
by Becquerel in 1896.

 By using radioactive sources such as radium, far higher photon energy could be obtained than
those from normal X-ray generators.

 Soon X-rays and gamma rays found various applications.

 These rays were put to use very early, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered.

 After Word War II new isotopes such as caesium-137, iridium-192 and cobalt-60 became
available for industrial radiography, and the use of radium and radon decreased.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Basic Principle of Radiography:
• The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of
film.
• The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
• The unabsorbed radiation exposes the film emulsion, similar to the
way light exposes the film in photography.
• Development of the film produces an image that is two
dimensional shadow picture of the object.
• Variations in the density, thickness or composition of the object
being inspected, causes variations in the development of film.
Evaluation of the radiograph is based on a comparison of the differences in the
photographic density with known characteristics of the object itself or defects present
in the test object.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Essential Elements for Radiography Testing:

1. A source of penetrating radiation, such as an X-ray machine.

2. The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment or casting.
3. A recording or viewing device, usually photographic film enclosed in a light tight
holder.
4. A qualified radiographer trained to produce a satisfactory exposure.
5. A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Penetrating Radiation:
 The radiation used in Radiography testing are: X-rays and Gamma rays.
 They are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light.
 Unlike light, however, they have higher energy (shorter wavelength) and the ability to penetrate, travel
through, and exit various materials such as carbon steel and other metals.
 When the components are subjected to radiography, these radiations travel and are transmitted through
them in different amounts by different materials, depending upon their radiological densities.
 Radiological density is determined by both the density and the atomic number (the number of protons in
an atom’s nucleus) of the material being imaged.

Spectrum Table of X-rays and Gamma Rays

Wavelength Frequency (Hz) Photon Energy (eV)

X-Rays 0.01 – 10 nm 3 × 1016 Hz to 3 × 120 eV – 120 keV

1019 Hz
Gamma Less than 0.01 More than 1019 Hz More than 100 keV
Rays nm

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

X-rays:
 They are form of electromagnetic radiation having wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nm.
Production of X-rays:
• X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons emitting from heated
filament by thermionic emission, are suddenly brought to rest by
colliding with matter.
• Electrons are accelerated through a potential difference and directed
towards a target material.
• When these electrons strike on target with very high velocity, X-rays
are produced at the point of impact and radiate in all directions.
• The kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons can be converted in three different ways:
i. A very small fraction, i.e. less than 1%, is converted into X-radiation.
ii. Approximately 99% of energy of electrons is converted into heat by increasing the thermal vibration of the
atoms of the target.
ii. Some of the electrons have sufficient energy to eject orbital electrons from the atoms of the target material
which are ionised.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Mechanism of X-ray Generation:
 There are two different atomic processes that can produce X-ray photons:
i. Bremsstrahlung
ii. K-shell Emission
i. Bremsstrahlung:
 Bremsstrahlung is a German term meaning “braking radiation”.
 In this process, a high speed electron traveling in a material is slowed or completely
stopped by the forces of any atom it encounters.
ii. K-shell Emission:
 When incoming electron give enough energy to knock K-shell electron out of its energy
state, then electron of higher energy can fall into the K shell.
 The energy lost by the falling electrons shows up in an emitted X-ray photon.
 Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the outer shell,
and so on.
 K-shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray
photon comes out at a single wavelength.

Both atomic processes can occur in the heavy atoms of tungsten, which is often the
material chosen for the target or anode of the x-ray tube.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

High Energy X-Radiation:
• Examination of thicker sections is carried out using high energy X-rays whose energy value is 1MeV or
more.
• Using high energy X-rays, possibility of large distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly low
geometrically distortion, short exposure times and high production rate can be achieved.
• Also, small focal spot size and reduced amount of high angle scattered X-ray reaching the film result in
radiographs with good contrast, excellent penetrameter sensitivity and good resolution.
Example: High-energy X-ray radiography is currently used to scan intermodal freight cargo containers
in many countries.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Gamma Rays:
 They are the electromagnetic radiation of the shortest
wavelength and highest energy.
 They are identical to X-Rays, except that X-Rays are artificially
produced and Gamma rays are naturally occurring.
 Gamma rays are emitted from an unstable nucleus.
 Each isotope with unstable nucleus will have characteristic
nuclear energy levels and intensities for the emitted radiation.
 In contra-distinction to X-ray machines which emit a broad band
of wavelengths gamma ray sources emit one or few discrete
wavelengths.
 The gamma ray energy levels remain constant for a particular
isotope but the intensity decays with time as indicated by the half
time.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Gamma Ray Sources:
• Most of the radioactive material used in industrial radiography are artificially produced by subjecting
stable material to a source of neutrons in a special nuclear reactor.
• In this activation process, an extra neutron is introduced to the atoms of the source material.
• As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is released in the form of gamma rays.
• Selection of radioisotopes for the purpose of radiography is usually done on the basis of:
 Half life
 Intensity of gamma rays produced
 Cost of production
• The four most popular radiographic sources are:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Production of Gamma Ray Isotopes:
• Co-60, Ir-192 and Th-170 are produced by (n, γ) reaction; e.g. for Co-60
𝟏
𝟎 𝐧 + 𝟓𝟗𝐂𝐨 → 𝟔𝟎
𝐂𝐨 ⟹ 𝛄 + 𝛄
• Cs-137 is separated out from the fission products of the irradiated reactor fuel.

Important Characteristics of Most Popular Radiographic Sources:

Characteristics Cobalt-60 Iridium-192 Caesium-137 Thulium-170

Half life 5.27 yrs. 74.3 days 30.1 yrs. 129 days

Energy (MeV) 1.33-1.17 0.3-0.6 0.66 0.08-0.05

Radiation output (Rhm/Ci) 1.35 0.55 0.34 0.003

Size (dia.mm) 2.5 2.5 10 2.5

Steel thickness which can be 200 mm 75 mm 40-100 mm 10 mm

radiographed

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Common Properties of X-rays and Gamma Rays:

 They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
 They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
 Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
 They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different materials.
 They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic particle.
 Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are traveling
through.
 They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

 Important Factors for Proper Imaging

Energy of the Penetrating Radiation Geometric Factors of the Inspection System

 Energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power.

Following geometric conditions must fulfil for sharpest
 Higher energy radiation can penetrate thicker and more true shadow of the object:
dense materials.  Source size should be as small as possible.
 Radiation energy and/or exposure time must be  Source should be as far as possible from object.
controlled to properly image the region of interest.
 The film should be closest to the object.
Example:  X-rays should be directed perpendicular to the recording
surface.
 Plane of the object and film should be parallel.
 The volumetric extension of the defect or flaw
orientation should be parallel to the direction of
projection (Explained on next slide).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Flaw Orientation:
 Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting cracks.
 Penetrating radiations “see” a crack as a thickness variation and the larger the variation, the easier
the crack is to detect.
 When the path of the rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack
may not be visible.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Imaging Modalities:
 Several different imaging methods are available to display the final image in industrial
radiography:
o Film Radiography.
o Digital Radiography - It includes:

Computed Radiography (CR)

Real-time Radiography (RTR)

Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)

Computed Tomography (CT)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Film Radiography:
• It is most widely used and oldest imaging mediums in industrial radiography is radiographic film.
• In this method, a two-dimensional latent image from the projected radiation is produced on a sheet of
film that has been exposed to the unabsorbed radiation passing through the test piece.
• Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film,
hence it is loaded in a “light proof” cassette in a darkroom.
• This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of radiation.
• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be
“developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similar to
photographic film development.
• Film processing can either be performed manually in open
tanks or in an automatic processor.
• Once developed, the film is typically referred to as a
“radiograph.”

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Structure of Radiographic Film:
• Composition of radiographic film is similar to that of a photographic film and contains several layers:
 Top Coat Layer:
o To prevent emulsion from scratches, pressure or contamination during use.
 Emulsion Layer:
o Radiation sensitive emulsion layer is coated on transparent film base.
o The emulsion consists of gelatin containing light sensitive silver halide crystals such as AgBr and AgCl.
o The light sensitive crystals change shape when exposed to light, which are then converted to a dark
metallic silver, giving us the image that we see.
 Adhesive Layer:
o To achieve firm attachment of the emulsion and backing layer with film base.
 Film Base:
o To provide support for emulsion layer & to transmit light to view
image.
 Backing Layer:
o To prevent film curling due to swelling of emulsion during
processing.
o To prevent reflection of stray light from the film support material
back into the light-sensitive area.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Digital Radiography:
 One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging is “Digital Radiography”.
 Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are captured using either special phosphor screens or flat
panels containing micro-electronic sensors.
 No darkrooms are needed to process film, and captured images can be digitally enhanced for increased
detail.
 Images are also easily archived (stored) when in digital form.
 There are a number of forms of digital radiographic imaging including:
i) Real-time Radiography (RTR)

ii) Computed Radiography (CR)

iii) Direct Radiography (DR)

iv) Computed Tomography (CT)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

i. Real Time Radiography (RTR):
• RTR or real-time radioscopy, is a non-destructive test (NDT) method whereby an image is
produced electronically rather than on film so that very little lag time occurs between the item
being exposed to radiation and the resulting image.
• Because image acquisition is almost instantaneous, radiographic images can be viewed as the part
is moved and rotated.

Advantages:
 Manipulating the part can be advantageous for several
reasons:
• It may be possible to image the entire component with
one exposure.
• Viewing the internal structure of the part from
different angular prospective can provide additional
data for analysis.
• Time of inspection can often be reduced.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Working Procedure of Real-time Radiography:
 Fluorescent screen uses materials that fluoresce when struck by radiation and produces luminescence
during the period of irradiation coming from the test object.
 Image intensifier converts x-rays/gamma rays coming from fluorescent screen into visible light at
higher intensity.
 A special camera, which is very sensitive to a variety of different light intensities, captures the light
output of the image intensifying screen.
 The captured image is then processed and viewed on the display device (monitor).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

ii. Computed Radiography (CR):
• It uses a phosphor imaging plate that replaces film in conventional radiography techniques.
• CR requires several extra steps compared to direct radiography:
 First, it indirectly captures the image of a component on a phosphor plate,
 Then converts the image into a digital signal that can be visualized on a computer monitor.
• Image quality is fair but can be enhanced using appropriate tools and techniques (i.e. adjusting
contrast, brightness, etc. without compromising integrity).
• It’s important to know how tools, such as adjusting contrast, effect the image.
• Care should also be taken to make sure minor defects are not hidden after enhancements are made.

Working Procedure:
 As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted where X-rays or
gamma rays stimulated the phosphor during exposure.
 The emitted light is then converted to a digital value using analog-to-
digital converter.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

iii. Direct Radiography:
• Direct radiography (DR) is a form of real-time radiography that uses a special flat panel detector.
• The panel works by converting penetrating radiation passing through the test specimen into
minute electrical charges.
• The panel contains many micro-electronic capacitors. The capacitors form an electrical charge
pattern image of the specimen.
• Each capacitor’s charge is converted into a pixel which forms the digital image.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

iv. Computed Tomography:

 Classic digital radiography techniques cannot

deliver any depth information of defects in their
radiographic images as they are purely two
dimensional.

 Computed tomography is a powerful technique for

producing 2-D and 3-D cross-sectional images of
an object.

 It uses a real-time inspection system employing a

sample positioning system and special software.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Working Principle:
• “Tomography” means imaging an object by taking measurements from “slices” of its cross-section.
Example: Radiographic Inspection of Tensile Specimen:
 Step-1: CT slices through several locations of a tensile specimen are
captured using CT inspection system.
 Step-2: A number of slices through the object can be reconstructed to
provide a 3-D view of internal and external structural details.
 Step-3: The resultant 3-D image can then be manipulated and sliced in
various ways to provide thorough understanding of the structure.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

Interpretation of Radiographs:
 To identify the discontinuity on the radiograph and correlate them with their appearance and location in the actual
object, the essential steps in interpretation are as follows:
i. Determine the accuracy of the identification of the radiograph.
ii. Determine the work piece material and the manufacturing processing setup.
iii. Verify the radiographic setup and procedure.
iv. Review the film under good viewing conditions.
v. Determine if any false or irregular indications are present on the film.
vi. Identify any surface irregularities and verify their type.
vii. Evaluate relevance of discontinuities with code or specification requirement and Prepare radiographic report.

Defects Appearance on radiographs

Porosity Round or elongated smooth dark spots

Interpretation of Radiographs Slag inclusion Dark irregular shapes

in Weldments: Incomplete penetration Continuous or intermitted dark lines in the middle of the weld.
Lack of fusion Thick dark line
Tungsten inclusion White areas of round or irregular shapes.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Advantages and Limitations of Radiography Testing:
Advantages: Limitations:
• Information is presented pictorially. • Possible health hazard.
• Permanent record is provided which may be viewed • Need to direct the beam accurately for two-
at a time and place distant from the test. dimensional defects.
• Useful for thin sections. • Film processing and viewing facilities are
• Access into small cavities. necessary.
• Technique is not limited by material type or density. • Not suitable for automation.
• Can inspect assembled components. • High initial cost.
• Minimum surface preparation required. • Many hours of technician training prior to use.
• Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, • Access to both sides of sample required.
cracks, and material density changes. • Orientation of equipment and flaw can be
• Detects both surface and subsurface defects. critical.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Comparison between X-ray and Gamma Ray Radiography:
• No electrical or water supplies needed.
• Equipment smaller and lighter.
Advantages of Gamma Ray • More portable.
Radiography Over X-ray • Equipment simpler and more robust.
Radiography: • More easily accessed.
• Less scatter & Greater penetrating power.
• Equipment initially less costly.

• Poorer quality radiographs.

• Exposure times can be longer.
Disadvantages of Gamma • Sources need replacing.
Ray Radiography Over X-
• Radiation cannot be switched off.
ray Radiography:
• Poorer geometric unsharpness.
• Remote handling necessary.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Radiation Safety:
 Ionizing radiation (X-rays or gamma rays) is an extremely important NDT tool but it can pose a hazard
to human health.
 For this reason, special precautions must be observed when using and working around ionizing
radiation.
 Complicating matters further is the fact that Gamma and X-ray radiation are not detectable by the
human body.
 However, the risks can be minimized when the radiation is handled and managed properly.

There are three basic methods of providing protection:

1. Introducing absorbing material around the source.
2. Increasing the distance between the source and personnel (the radiation dose-rate at any point
depends inversely on the square of the distance from the source).
3. Reducing the time that it is necessary for personnel to be near the source.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

Radioactive Source-Handling Equipment:
 Pellet of radioactive material cannot be safely handled except by special methods.
 Apart from hazards of radiation from source there would be contamination
hazards from particles of radioactive matter wiped off by anything touching the
pellet.
 Artificial radioactive sources for gamma-radiography are always supplied as
“sealed sources” in a capsule by the atomic energy authority of the supplying
country.
 There should be no need for the industrial radiographer ever to encounter the
problems of handling unsealed sources.
 For transportation and handling the radioactive capsule must either be supported
by
 A mass of material which absorbs sufficient radiation for the dose-rate on the outside of
the container to be reduced to a safe level.
 Using long tongs, a long rod or by other remote-control handling equipment, so that the
distance between source and handler reduces the dose-rate to a safe value.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 Radiography testing involves using penetrating gamma or X-radiation on materials and

products to look for defects or examine internal or hidden features.
 An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used as the source of radiation and radiation is
directed through a part, onto a film or other detector.
 The resulting shadowgraph shows the internal features and soundness of the part.
 Material thickness and density changes are indicated as lighter or darker areas on the film or
detector.
 Radiographic examination finds many application in inspecting casting, welding, structures
etc. for internal soundness.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 13: Leak Testing

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What is a Leak?
 Leakage implies the escape of liquid or gas from a pressurised or evacuated enclosure or
system (via an imperfection such as a hole, crack or bad seal).

 Leaks require a pressure difference to generate the flow; they always flow from higher
pressure to lower pressure.

 Leaks are usually pictured as going from positive pressure (inside an object) to outside (at
atmospheric pressure).

 This is not always the case (a leak could be from

atmosphere to inside an evacuated object), but it
helps to think about it this way because the units and
terminology are based on this model.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

What is Leak Testing?
 Leak testing is a process used to detect manufacturing defects which helps verify the integrity of
products and improve consumer safety.
 Manufacturers that produce parts that contain gas or liquid, need to know if their products include
any defects that could allow leakage.
 The objective of the leak test is locate and/or measure the amount of leak-liquid or gas flowing
through a discontinuity.
Reasons for Leak Testing:
Economic: • To prevent material loss that interferes with system operation.

Safety: • Prevent fire, explosion, and environmental contamination.

Reliability: • Detect unreliable components, and those with leakage rates that exceed standards.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Steps in Leak Testing:
1) Locating the leak.

2) Measuring the rate of leakage.

3) Monitoring the leakage for maintenance of the system.

Units of Leakage:
• Leak rates are generally measured in terms of quantity of a gas leaking in one second.
• Most commonly used units of leakage rates are:
 Standard cubic centimetre per second (std.cm3/s).
 Standard atmosphere cubic centimetre per second (atm.cm3/s).
 For vacuum leak test torr litre per sec. (torr l/s) is used.
 SI unit is Pascal cubic meter per second (Pa m3/s).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Acceptable Leakage:
Use of Leak Testing Techniques:
Substance Acceptable leakage (std.cm3/s)  Used extensively in industry,
Water 1 x 10-3 construction, and municipal
infrastructure to ensure the safety of
Gasoline from storage tanks 1 x 10-4 gas lines, boilers, oil pipelines, and
Gas from pipelines 1 x 10-5 many other high-pressure and
hazardous material storage
Leakage in a tanker 1 x 10-6
applications.
 Testing for hydrogen gas lines is
Factors Affecting Leakage: much more complex due to the
i. Type of fluid. small size of a hydrogen molecule,
ii. Geometry of discontinuity. so electronic sniffing and sampling
devices are often used for this
iii. Sensitivity of the instruments. application.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Leak Testing Systems:
 The four general classes of systems commonly leak tested are:
a) Hermetic (Airtight) Enclosures and Components:
• They are tested to prevent the entrance of contamination or
preserve internally contained fluids.
• Examples: Electronic devices, integrated circuits, sealed relays and
motors, pull-tab can ends, and connector multipin feedthroughs.

b) Hermetic Systems:
• They are leak tested to prevent the loss of contained fluids or gases.
• Examples: Hydraulic and refrigeration systems; Plant valves,
piping, and vessel systems in chemical and petrochemical
industries.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

c) Evacuated Enclosures and Components:
• They are leak tested to assure that there is not too rapid a deterioration of the vacuum system with
time.
• Examples: Electronic tubes, including TV picture tubes, sensing bellows, and vacuum-packaged
items.

d) Vacuum Systems:
• These are tested to assure that leakage has been minimized
so that optimum gas removal can be achieved at any given
vacuum (absolute pressure) rating.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Methods of Leak Detection:
 Different methods can be used for leak testing:
1. Ultrasonic Leak Testing
2. Bubble Leak Testing
3. Dye Penetrant Leak Testing
4. Ammonia Colorimetric Leak Testing
5. Pressure Change Leak Testing
6. Differential Pressure Leak Testing
7. Mass Flow Leak Testing
8. Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing
9. Radioisotope Tracer Leak Testing

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

1. Ultrasonic Leak Testing:
• Ultrasonic leak testing has been specifically developed for detecting gas leaks in high-
pressure lines.
• Depending on the nature of the leak, escaping gas produces ultrasonic sound that can be
detected with an approximate sensitivity of 10−3 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑐𝑐 Τ𝑠.

What produces ultrasound in a leak:

 Gas passing through a restricted orifice (leak) moves from
pressurized laminar flow to low pressure turbulent flow
 Turbulence creates broad spectrum of sound called “white
noise”
 Some components of “white noise” are ultrasonic
 The larger the leak, the greater the ultrasound level.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Applications:
 Ultrasonic leak detectors are used by a number of industries for detecting gas leaks in:
o Internal combustion engine valving and piston blow-by, gaseous piping, and ducting;
o Air brake systems;
o Bearings;
o Seals in refrigerated van bodies, clean rooms, and air ducts;
o Various hydraulic components, and other items.
 Leaks can also be detected in overhead piping systems and at other locations from a considerable
distance.
 The ultrasonic leak detector has the advantage that it is not sensitive to audible background noise.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

2. Bubble Leak Testing:
• It also known as water immersion or air bubble observation test.
• The uppermost surface of the specimen shall be covered by not less than 1 in. (25 mm) of fluid.
• Bubble leak testing is more qualitative than quantitative.
• Small leaks produce numerous small bubbles, but it is difficult to determine the actual leak rate.
• The size of the bubbles and the emission frequency depend on:
 the type of gas flow,
 the size of the leak,
 the surface tension of the liquid.
• Sensitivity of bubble leak tests has been estimated at 10−3 𝑡𝑜 10−4 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑐𝑐 Τ𝑠.
Types of Bubble Leak Testing:
 It is classified into three parts on the basis of how the liquid used for detection is applied:
Liquid Foam
Liquid Film
Immersion Application

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

 Disadvantages:
• This method is not reliable due to following reasons:
Advantages:
 The leak size cannot be easily quantified.
• Simple to use, rapid application, and  Component requires drying after test.
inexpensive.
 Extensive floor space required, low throughputs.
• Enables the observer to locate the  High dependency on the reliability of the operator.
exit point of leaks very accurately  Problems with bubbles:
(compared to Pressure Change Test).  Get trapped in the component structure
• Very large leaks and small leaks can  Not produced because the leak is too small
be detected.  False bubbles can be produced by air trapped in the
component structure during its immersion in water
• Safe to apply BLT with proper inert  Unpleasant working conditions (water can wet
gases, and testing liquids, in floors, operators, etc.)
combustible areas.
 Operational and maintenance costs (cleaning the
water, lighting, etc..

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

3. Dye Penetrant Leak Testing:
• Dye penetrant also provides an economical leak
testing method.
• Special dyes can be sprayed on the high-pressure
side of suspected leak areas.
• If a leak is present, the differential pressure of the
system will cause the dye to seep through the leak
and appear on the low-pressure side of the object.
• This method can take an hour or more for a leak
test sensitivity of 10−4 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑐𝑐 Τ𝑠.
• Because of the long time involved, this test method
is infrequently used.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

4. Ammonia Colorimetric Leak Testing:
• It is used to detect a leak in double wall tanks, pressure and vacuum vessels.
• Colorimetric leak testing generally employs two chemical agents:
 Ammonia as tracer gas
 Developer
• The tracer gas (e.g. Ammonia) is introduced into the vessel at a predetermined
pressure and a thin coat of indicator developer powder is applied on the outer surface
of object around suspected areas like seams and welds.
• Over a period of time, the tracer gas diffuses into the system.
• The gas escaping from the leak react with developer powder and changes its colour,
indicating the location of the leak.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

5. Pressure Change Leak Testing:
• Pressure change leak tests are also called pressure hold tests, pressure decay tests, or pressure
loss tests.
• It is the most widely used method of leak testing in manufacturing production lines.

Working Procedure:
 The part under test is pressurized by filling it with air or other gas
until it reaches a set pressure.
 An isolation valve is then used to disconnect the part from the
supply pressure.
 The pressure within the part is then monitored using a pressure 𝑷𝟏 −𝑷𝟐 ×𝑽
Leak rate = 𝑸𝑳 =
sensor, and as the air (or gas) leaks out, the pressure drops. 𝒕
Where, 𝑃1 = initial pressure,
 The leak rate can then be calculated based on the change in 𝑃2 = final pressure,
pressure over a certain period of time. 𝑉 = volume of test part,
𝑡 = measurement time period.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

6. Differential Pressure Leak Testing:
• It is a more accurate variant of the pressure-decay method.
• This method requires measuring pressure at two points in time to obtain a pressure change
reading.
• It is an indirect method of measuring leakage rate because the time and pressure data must be
converted into leakage rate.

Working Procedure:
 With valves 1 and 2 open, the test item and reference volume
are pressurized and then isolated by closing valve 1.
 The reference volume is then isolated from the test item by
closing valve 2.
 The pressure differential between the non-leaking reference
volume and the test item is then measured by a transducer
over time.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

7. Mass Flow Leak Testing:
• Mass flow leak-testing system uses mass-flow sensors, which can provide fast and accurate
testing over a much wider range of leak/volume ratios and testing.

Working Procedure:
 In this method, a part is pressurized along
with a reference volume.
 Then the amount of air that flows into the part
to replace a leakage flow is measured (in
standard cm3/minute) using mass-flow sensor.
 A number of error proofing techniques are
also used to guarantee test system reliability.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

8. Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing:
• Helium mass spectrometer leak detector (MSLD) is the most versatile of the industrial and
laboratory leak detector methods.
• This method was developed in 1940s to meet the strictest requirements in the development
of nuclear devices.
• The main part of the device is mass spectrometer, a sensor for different gas masses.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Operating Principle of Mass Spectrometer:
• In very low pressure (or vacuum) the molecules of rest gasses are transformed in ions by electron
impact.
• These ions are accelerated by passing them into a powerful electric field.
• Ions of different atoms have different amounts of electric charge, and the more highly charged ones are
accelerated most, so the ions separate out according to the amount of charge they have.

• Then, this ion beam is made to enter into magnetic field.

• When moving particles with an electric charge enter a magnetic
field, they bend into an arc, with lighter particles (and more
positively charged ones) bending more than heavier ones (and more
negatively charged ones).
• Now, separating the ionized particles of different charge to mass
ratios (𝑞/𝑚) it is possible to state the masses of present gases.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Reasons of Using Helium as Tracer Gas:
• Helium is an inert, nontoxic, non-condensable gas that is plentiful and relatively
inexpensive.

• It is also a very small molecule and light, and therefore easily slips through very
small leaks.

• There is only a low concentration of helium naturally present in the atmosphere

(~ 5 ppm), so normally occurring background levels are manageable.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Mode of Operation:
• This test can be carried out in two ways:
 Sniffer Probe Mode:
 The test item is pressurized with helium gas and the exterior is scanned with a sniffer probe
connected to the mass spectrometer to localize the leak.
 This method is slow, non-quantitative but has the advantage of localizing the leak.
 Accumulation Mode:
 The part is pressurized with helium and the chamber is evacuated down to less than 0.1 mbar
absolute to eliminate background effects.
 The presence of helium leaking into the chamber is then detected by the mass spectrometer.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Applications:
• Helium mass spectrometer leak detectors are used in production line industries of:
o Refrigeration and air conditioning systems
o Automotive parts
o Carbonated beverage containers
o Food packages
o Aerosol packaging
o Steam products
o Gas bottles
o Fire extinguishers
o Tire valves
o All vacuum systems

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

9. Radioisotope Tracer Leak Testing:
• In this method, short-life radioisotopes are used to leak test hermetically
sealed cavities and closed piping systems.
• A radioactive isotopes is injected into the pipe.
• Then the outside of the pipe is checked with a Geiger-Muller detector to
find areas of high radioactivity.
• These are the points where the pipe is leaking.
• This is useful for underground pipes that are hard to get near.

Properties of Radioisotope Used:

 It must have a short half-life so the material does not become a
long term problem.
 It must be gamma emitter so that it can be detected through the
metal and the earth where the pipe leaks.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

How to Choose the Test Method:
 The correct method for a given application is selected on the basis of following information:
o How many points must be tested?
o What is the pass/fail leak rate? (or how much time must the product last?)
o What are the dimensions of the product to test?
o What is the required test cycle time?
o Does it have to be an automated system or manual?
o What is the budget?
o What is the test pressure?

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Summary:

 Leak testing is a non-destructive technique used to ensure quality control which

helps verify the strengths of the product and guarantee customer safety.

 Over the years, many methods have been developed for detecting and measuring
leaks.

 Some of the most commonly used leak testing methods have been discussed along
with their operating principle.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 14: Thermographic Nondestructive Testing

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Thermographic non-destructive testing is also known as thermal inspection, thermography,
thermal imaging, thermal wave imaging and infrared thermography testing.
 It was first developed for military purposes in the late 1950s and 1960s by Texas Instruments,
Hughes Aircraft, and Honeywell.
 It involves the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures as heat flows to, from and/or
through an object.
 The simplest thermal measurements involve making point measurements with a thermocouple.

Usefulness of Thermographic Inspection:

 This NDT method is useful in locating hot spots, such as a bearing that
is wearing out and starting to heat up due to an increase in friction.

Application of Infrared thermography for space shuttle maintenance.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Principle of Thermography:
 Principle of thermography is based on the physical phenomenon that any body of a temperature above
absolute zero (-273.15 °C) emits electromagnetic radiation.
 The emitted infrared energy is a function of the object’s temperature and its relative efficiency of
thermal radiation, known as emissivity.
 Two dissimilar materials, possessing different thermophysical properties, would produce two
distinctive thermal signatures that can be revealed by an infrared sensor (Thermographic Camera).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Thermographic Camera:
 It is also known as infrared camera or thermal imaging camera.
 It is a device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation, similar
to a common camera that forms an image using visible light.
 Instead of the 400–700 nm range of the visible light camera, infrared
cameras operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm.

Thermographic Camera Construction:

 The focusing lenses of IR cameras are not made of glass, as glass blocks long-wave infrared light.
 Special materials such as Germanium or Sapphire crystals are used for this purpose.
 Germanium lenses are also quite fragile, so often have a hard coating to protect against accidental
contact.
 The higher cost of these special lenses is one reason why thermographic cameras are more costly.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Types of Thermographic Camera:
 Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types:
 Cooled infrared detectors
 Uncooled infrared detectors

• They are typically contained in a vacuum-sealed case and cryogenically cooled.

Cooled Infrared • The cooling is necessary for the operation of the semiconductor materials used.
Detectors
• Typical operating temperatures range from 4 K to just below room temperature.

• Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor stabilized at a temperature close to

ambient using small temperature control elements.
Uncooled Infrared • Modern uncooled detectors use sensors that work by the change of resistance,
Detectors voltage or current when heated by infrared radiation.
• They have lower sensitivity than the cooled IR detectors.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Types of Thermographic Inspection:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY:
 In active thermography, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the
feature of interest and the background.
 The active approach is adopted in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in
equilibrium with the surroundings.
 Example: a specimen with internal flaws.

Energy Sources in Active Thermography:

• A wide variety of energy sources can be used to induce a thermal contrast between defective and
non-defective zones.
• These energy sources can be categorized as:
o External Energy Sources
o Internal Energy Sources

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

External Excitation:
• Energy is delivered to the surface and then propagated through the material until it
encounters a flaw.
• Examples:
o Photographic flashes (for heat pulsed stimulation)
o Halogen lamps (for periodic heating)
Externally Excited Thermographic Methods:
 Externally applied active thermographic methods are further classified as:

a) Pulsed b) Lock-in
Thermography Thermography

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

a) Pulsed Thermography:
 In pulsed thermography (PT), the specimen surface is submitted to a heat pulse using a high
power source such as photographic flashes.
 A heat pulse can be thought as the combination several periodic waves at different
frequencies and amplitudes.
Working Procedure:
 Two photographic flashes are used to
heat up the specimen’s surface, after
what, the thermal changes are recorded
with an infrared camera.
 A synchronization unit is needed to
control the time between the launch of
the thermal pulse and the recording
with the IR camera.
 Data is stored as a 3D matrix, where 𝒙 and 𝒚 are the spatial coordinates, and 𝒕 is the time.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Processing of Pulsed Thermography Data:
• The data is analysed on the basis of assumption that:

“Temperature profiles for non-defective

pixels should follow the decay curve given by
the one-dimensional solution of the Fourier
equation”.

 Temperature decreases approximately as 𝑡 (as per

Fourier equation), except for the defective areas, where
the cooling rate is different.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Advantages:
 Pulsed thermography is fast and easy to deploy.
 It’s experimentation time varies from a few seconds for high conductivity materials to a few minutes
for low conductivity materials.
 Since a heat pulse can be seen as a set of several periodic thermal waves launched at once, several data
points (amplitude or phase) can be extracted from a single experiment.
 Pulsed thermography is sensitive to voids and inclusions in the material which are difficult to detect.

Disadvantages:
 The data processing of pulsed thermography technique is complex as compared to lock-in.
 The results are affected by non-uniform heating, emissivity variations, environmental reflections and
surface geometry.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

b) Lock-in Thermography:
 In lock-in thermography (LT) is also known as modulated thermography.
 In this method, a small surface spot is periodically illuminated by an intensity modulated laser
beam to inject thermal waves into the specimen.
 Sinusoidal thermal waves are typically used in LT.
 The periodic wave propagates by radiation through the air until it touches the specimen surface
where heat is produced and propagates through the material.
 Internal defects act as barrier for heat propagation,
which produces changes in amplitude and phase of
the response signal at the surface.
 The thermal response is recorded using an infrared
detector and decomposed by a lock-in amplifier to
extract the amplitude and phase of the modulation.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Selection of Working Frequency for Inspection of Different Materials:
• The rate of decay of the thermal wave as it penetrates through the material depends upon the
thermal diffusion length (𝜇).
• Thermal diffusion length is defined as:

𝟐𝜶 𝜶 Where, 𝛼 = thermal diffusivity of the material being inspected.

𝝁≡ =
𝝎 𝝅. 𝒇 𝑓 = frequency of the thermal wave.

• From above relation, it is established that:

 Thermal waves propagate deeper in more diffusive materials.
 Information about deeper features is available when lower frequencies are used.
• These two aspects are important to correctly select the working frequency and to determine the
depth of internal defects.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Processing of Lock-in Thermography Data:
 Four Point Methodology (for sinusoidal waveform):
• For sinusoidal input signal, four point methodology is used for amplitude and phase delay
estimation by lock-in thermography.
• Input and output have the same shape when sinusoids are used, there is only a change in amplitude
and phase that can be calculated as follows:
• If 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 are four equidistant data points in a complete period then, the phase (ϕ) and
amplitude (A) is given by:

𝑨= 𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟑 𝟐 + 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟒 𝟐

𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟑
𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟒

 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) Method (for any waveform):

• The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) can also be used to extract amplitude and phase information
from LT data.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Advantages: Applications:
 Energy required to perform an LT experiment is generally
less than in other active techniques, which is helpful:
o If a low power source is to be used,
Determination
Detection of
o If special care has to be given to the inspected part, of coatings
delamination's.
thickness.
e.g. cultural heritage pieces, works of art, frescoes,
etc.

Disadvantages:
Determination
 It is in general slower than other approaches such as of local fiber
Detection of
pulsed thermography. corrosion.
orientation.

 Extra hardware, i.e. lock-in amplifier, is needed in order

to retrieve the amplitude and phase of the response.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Internal Excitation:
• Energy is injected into the specimen in order to stimulate exclusively the defects.
• Vibrothermography technique uses internal excitation to perform the inspection.

Vibrothermography (VT):
 It is also known as ultrasound thermography or thermosonics.
 The ultrasound wave is produced within specimen by a
transducer made of a stack of piezo elements and concentrated
in a titanium horn that acts like a hammer.
 After the elastic waves are injected to the specimen, they travel
through the material and dissipate their energy mostly at the
defects so heat is locally released.
 The thermal waves then travel by conduction to the surface,
where they can be detected with an IR camera.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Configurations of Vibrothermography Testing:
• There are basically two configurations for VT (similar to the optical methods discussed earlier):
a) Burst Vibrothermography (analogous to Pulse Thermography)
b) Lock-in Vibrothermography (analogous to Lock-in Thermography)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Advantages:
 In either lock-in or burst configuration, VT is extremely fast.
 Defect detection is independent from of its orientation inside the specimen, and both internal and open
surface defects can be detected.
 It is the most appropriate technique to inspect some types of defects, e.g. micro cracks, delamination's.
 There is only minimal heating of the inspected specimen since energy is usually dissipated mostly at
the defective areas.

Disadvantages:
 It is necessary to relocate the transducer to cover a large area for inspection. Hence, VT is only
suitable for relatively small objects.
 The most inconvenient aspect of VT is the need of a coupling media between the sample and the
transducer, and the need of holding the specimen.
 A bad coupling implies a poor ultrasound transmission but more seriously it creates unwanted heat
in the vicinity of the ultrasound injection point.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

PASSIVE THERMOGRAPHY:

 In passive thermography, the features

of interest are naturally at a higher or
lower temperature than the background.

Example: surveillance of people on a

scene.

 All objects above absolute zero emit

thermal infrared energy, so thermal
cameras can passively see all objects,
regardless of ambient light.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Important Applications of Passive Approach:
• Passive thermographic inspection has several applications in different sectors:
Production:
 Inspection of printed circuit boards (PCBs) to detect solder bridges and
overheating components.
 Seam tracking in arc welding.
 In the production of metals, recording of temperature profiles enables
monitoring of steel quality in continuous casting.
 In the paper industry, infrared thermography monitors quality in the
production of high-gloss paper.
Maintenance:
 Inspection of turbine blades in jet engines.
 Thermal insulation of building envelopes, heated floors, furnace walls.
 Estimation of liquid level in tanks.
 Early detection of transformer overheating.
 Visualisation of gas leaks.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Medicine:
 Evaluation of patients with disorders of the musculoskeletal system.
Monitoring of Road Traffic:
 In the case of monitoring of road traffic, infrared thermography enables moving road vehicles, which
will be hotter than their surroundings.
Detection of Forest Fires:
 Safety of forest areas through early detection of smouldering fires
Astronomy:
 Satellites with infrared imaging capabilities are also used to monitor the Earth’s weather,
o To study vegetation patterns, and geology
o To measure surface, ocean and cloud temperatures
Military:
 Revealing the presence of potential targets in poor visibility conditions (e.g. at night or in fog).
 Air-to-air detection of incoming enemy missiles or aircraft from their hot exhaust gases.
 Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Advantages & Disadvantages of Thermographic Inspection:
Disadvantages:
Advantages:  Quality cameras often have a high price range
due to the expense of the larger pixel array.
 It is capable of catching moving targets in
 Fewer pixels reduce the image quality making
real time. it more difficult to distinguish proximate
 It is able to find deterioration, i.e., higher targets within the same field of view.
temperature components prior to their failure  Accurate temperature measurements are
 It can be used to measure or observe in areas hindered by differing emissivities and
inaccessible or hazardous for other methods reflections from other surfaces.
 It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes,  Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse in
and other metal or plastic parts. measurement of temperature and are not as
accurate as contact methods.
 It can be used to detect objects in dark areas.
 Methods and instruments are limited to directly
detecting surface temperatures.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Summary:

 Thermographic Non-destructive Testing is a modern method for inspecting

surface layers and thin parts made of various materials.
 Defects or foreign particles in an inspected part can be detected if their thermal
properties are different from the inspected material.
 Two approaches are being followed in thermography:
i. Active Thermography
ii. Passive Thermography
 Several methods have been developed for active thermography for non-
destructive evaluation.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24
 INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 15: Advanced Nondestructive Testing Techniques, NDT Standards, Safety
in NDT
Dr. Kaushik Pal
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 In response to increasing demands for speed, accuracy, and reliability of NDT inspections,
advanced techniques are being developed.
 These techniques have extended the range of components that can be inspected.
 Some of the advanced NDT methods (Acoustic Emission, Thermography, etc.) already have
been discussed in previous lectures.
 Other advanced NDT methods used in different industries are:

 Neutron Radiography and Neutron

 RFT (Remote Field Testing )
Radioscopy

 IRIS (Internal Rotational  Terahertz Non-destructive

Inspection System) Testing Evaluation

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Neutron Radiography (NR):
• It is an advance technique for Non-destructive testing of materials, which provides images similar to X-
ray radiography.
• Neutron is a subatomic particle without a net charge, consequently electrostatic forces have no effect on
it, when it travels through matter.
• The difference between neutron and X-ray interaction mechanisms produce significantly different and
often complementary information.
• Unlike gamma ray and X-ray, neutron only interacts with atomic nuclei. Therefore, the attenuation
pattern of thermal neutron is different from X-ray.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

History:

 The history of neutron radiography with thermal neutrons can be traced shortly
after the discovery of neutron by Chadwick, in 1932.

 Thewlis and Derbyshire produced the first reactor based neutron radiographs in
1956, using a reactor beam of the 8 MW BEPO reactor at Harwell.

 Commercial interest in neutron radiography began in mid 1960’s and today this
technique, finds extensive applications in nuclear, aerospace and other industries.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Neutron Beam vs X-ray Beam:
 The mass absorption coefficients for neutrons abruptly change and present a random picture when
plotted against regularly increasing atomic number of absorber.
 On the other hand, the X-ray mass absorption coefficients increase with atomic number in a
regular fashion.
 The differences in absorption coefficients between the neutrons and
X-rays suggest a number of possible applications for NR, such as:
1. Examination of dense materials like uranium, lead etc.
2. Detection of light materials enveloped in denser materials.
3. Differentiating between isotopes of same elements.
4. Examination of radioactive material due to availability of
image detection methods, which are not sensitive to the
associated gamma rays.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Neutron Radiography vs X-ray Radiography:
 X-rays are absorbed by dense materials, such as metals, whereas neutrons readily penetrate metals but
are absorbed by materials containing hydrogen.
 X-rays interact with orbital electrons and are strongly tied to the physical density of the examined
object.
 Neutrons interact with an object’s nucleus rather than its orbital electrons, so there is usually no tie to the
object’s electron density, but rather its elemental composition.

Comparison between Neutron Radiograph and X-Radiograph of

Turbine Blade:
 The internal structure, air pathways and blockages or inclusion in metal
alloy turbine blades can be imaged very clearly using neutron radiography.
 Even areas surrounded by several centimeter thickness material, such as
turbine blade root holes can be imaged very effectively.
 X-radiography is more suited to imaging metals inside of other materials.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

Principle of Neutron Radiography:
• All radiographic methods (X-rays, gamma rays, or neutron radiography) are based on the same
general principle:
“Radiation is attenuated on passing through matter”.

Experimental Set-up:
 The NR arrangement consists of:
i. a neutron source,
ii. a pin-hole type collimator which forms the beam,
iii. a detecting system.
 The object under examination is placed in the incident neutron
beam.
 After passing through, the beam that remains enters a detector.
 Any inhomogeneity in the object or an internal defect will show
up as a change in neutron beam intensity reaching detector.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

Neutron Sources:
 The neutron sources available for radiography fall conventionally into three classes namely:
i. Accelerator
ii. Radioactive Sources
iii. Nuclear Reactor

Intensity of Thermal Neutrons from Different Sources:

Neutron Source Neutron Flux or Intensity

Accelerator 107 to 1010 n/cm2/s
Radioactive Sources 105–109 n/cm2/s
Nuclear Reactor 1010 to 1015 n/cm2/s

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

i. Accelerator:
• Small neutron generators using the deuterium-tritium fusion reactions are the most common
accelerator based neutron sources.
• They offer the benefit of intermittent operation and portability.
• In these systems, deuterium and tritium ions are accelerated towards a target also containing the
same isotopes.
• Fusion of deuterium atoms (D + D) results in the formation of a He-3 ion and a neutron with a
kinetic energy of approximately 2.5 MeV.
𝑫 + 𝑫 → 𝒏 + 𝟑𝑯𝒆 𝑬𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽
• Fusion of a deuterium and a tritium atom (D + T) results in the formation of a He-4 ion and a
neutron with a kinetic energy of approximately 14 MeV.
𝑫 + 𝑻 → 𝒏 + 𝟒𝑯𝒆 𝑬𝒏 = 𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝒆𝑽
• The DT reaction is used more than the DD reaction because the yield of the DT reaction is 50–100
times higher than that of the DD reaction.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

ii. Radioactive Sources:
• Radioisotope based neutron sources are attractive due to their portability and ease of
operation.
• However, they have a lower strength than accelerator based neutron sources and
consequently produce poor quality radiographs during same exposure time.
• The two important reactions in radioactive neutron sources are:
 𝜶, 𝒏 Reaction Where,
Am = Americium, Np = Neptunium, Be = Beryllium,
Example: 𝟐𝟒𝟏
𝟗𝟓𝑨𝒎 →
𝟐𝟑𝟕 𝟒
𝟗𝟑𝑵𝒑 + 𝟐𝜶 Sb = Antimony, Te = Tellurium, C = carbon
Q = energy released by that reaction
𝟒 𝟗 𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝟐𝜶 + 𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟔𝑪 + 𝟎𝒏 + 𝑸
 𝜸, 𝒏 Reaction
Example: 𝟏𝟐𝟒
𝟓𝟏𝑺𝒃 →
𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝟎 𝟎
𝟓𝟐𝑻𝒆 + −𝟏𝜷 + 𝟎𝜸
𝟎 𝟗 𝟖 𝟏
𝟎𝜸 + 𝟒𝑩𝒆 → 𝟒𝑩𝒆 + 𝟎𝒏 + 𝑸

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Characteristics of Radio-isotopic Neutron Sources:

Neutron Energy
Source Half-life Reaction Neutron Yield (n/s.g)
(MeV)
124Sb-Be 60 d Gamma/neutron 2.7 × 109 0.024
210Po-Be 138 d Alpha/neutron 1.28 × 1010 4.3
241Am-Be 458 y Alpha/neutron 1 × 107 approx. 4
226Ra-Be 1620 y Alpha/neutron 1.3 × 107 approx. 4
227Ac-Be 21.8 y Alpha/neutron 1.1 × 109 approx. 4
228Th-Be 1.91 y Alpha/neutron 1.7 × 1010 approx. 4
252Cf 2.65 y Fission 2.34 × 1012 2.3

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

iii. Nuclear Reactor:
• Control of a nuclear reactor is achieved by simply
removing neutrons from the process and thereby stopping
the chain reaction.
• The neutrons are removed by inserting a neutron absorbing
material into the reactor core and regulating the extent of
the insertion in order to maintain the reactor at a steady
operating power.
• It is a very intense neutron source (1010 to 1015 n cm-2 s-1)
for neutron radiography.
• Their neutron yields can usually be changed by several
orders of magnitude.
• In general, the neutrons are produced as a result of the fission of U-235.
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝒏 + 𝑼 → 𝒂𝑭𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 + 𝟐. 𝟒 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Moderator:
 The neutrons born in the sources possess high energies with a
continuous spectrum of energies peaking from 0.85 MeV from
fission (in reactors) up to 14 MeV (in accelerators).
 Conventional neutron radiography, however, requires neutrons in the
thermal/epithermal energy range of 0.025 eV–10 keV.

 Thus, some form of moderator with low neutron absorption cross section (to maximize flux) and high
scattering cross section (to maximize energy loss) is required to slow down the neutrons to this energy
range.
 The often-used moderator materials of water, heavy water, graphite, beryllium, and polyethylene meet
these criteria.
 The nuclear reactor has an inherent advantage:
 the moderation of its core already produces a low-energy spectrum resulting in fewer neutrons lost
in the moderation process.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Collimator:
 In the moderator, neutrons travel in many different directions, whereas they should be collimated to produce a
good image.
 To accomplish this, an aperture (an opening that will allow neutrons to pass through it surrounded by neutron
absorbing materials), limits the neutrons entering the collimator.
 The most common collimator design is a divergent collimator with a small entrance aperture and a larger exit.
 This maximizes the neutron flux and permits a larger field at the imaging plane.

Collimation Ratio:
Where,
 The most important parameter of an NR facility is the collimation ratio. L = distance between the incident aperture of the
 It is defined as: 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 𝑳Τ𝑫 collimator and the imaging plane,
D = diameter of the entrance aperture.
 A shorter collimation system or larger aperture will produce a more intense
neutron beam but the neutrons will be traveling at a wider variety of angles.
 A longer collimator or a smaller aperture will produce more uniformity in
the direction of travel of the neutrons, but significantly fewer neutrons will
be present.
 A trade off exists between image quality and exposure time.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Neutron Detection and Imaging:
 Neutrons are not directly ionizing radiation and hence have no effect on the conventional films used in
industrial radiography.
 Neutron detector consists of two mediums:
a. Converter (which emits an alpha, beta, gamma, or light when neutrons are absorbed)
b. Sensor (to detect the emitted radiation)

Working Mechanism:
 The converter screens are often metallic foils.
 The emissions from these foils can be either charged particles or electromagnetic radiation, which
produce the image on the film/screen.
 When the image recorder is film, one possible converter material is a gadolinium foil which emits an
electron with every absorbed neutron.
 The converter foil is placed in direct contact with the film’s emulsion and the emitted electrons expose
the emulsion, producing an image.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

 Example of Neutron Detection and Imaging:
 Thermal neutron detector consisting of a silicon detector coupled with a 6LiF
neutron converter layer:
 The neutron capture on 6Li produces an alpha particle and a triton:
𝟔
𝑳𝒊 + 𝒏 → 𝟑𝑯(𝟐. 𝟕𝟑 𝑴𝒆𝑽) + 𝟒𝑯𝒆 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽)
 As the two reaction products are emitted in opposite directions, only one of them may enter the
sensitive layer and be detected.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Applications of Neutron Radiography:
 Neutron radiography is a commercially available service, widely used in the aerospace industry for
testing of :
 turbine blades in airplane engines,

 components for space programs,

 high-reliability explosive devices used in space programmes.

 The ability to detect compounds containing hydrogen atoms is also used to inspect oil levels and
insulating organic materials.
 Neutron radiography also facilitates the checking of adhesive layers in composite materials, surface
layers (polymers, varnishes etc.).
 All types of O-rings and joints containing hydrogen can be observed even through a few centimetres
thickness of steel.
 It is also used in other industries to identify problems during product development cycles.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

Neutron Radioscopy:
 It is also known as Dynamic Neutron Radiography (dNR).
 It consists of the continuous visualisation of the attenuation of a
neutron beam using a " real time " detector.
 It enables engineers and scientists to acquire real-time data and
observe the inner workings of a system whose components often
cannot be seen using other radiation modalities.
Applications of Neutron Radioscopy:
 Most of the applications known so far, consist in visualisation of fluids
moving through metallic containers.
 The main fields where dynamic neutron imaging has been used are:
 Oil lubrication (engines, gear boxes...)
 Fuel behaviours (carburettors, injectors...)
 Two-phase flow (heat exchangers, condensers, steam generator tubes…)
 Transfer and migration of fluids into porous media (wetting of soils, pollution
migration, plants growing...)

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

Remote Field Testing (RFT):
 It is an advanced eddy current testing method, whose main application is finding defects in the
external walls of carbon steel or ferritic stainless steel tubing when the outside wall is not
accessible.
 This technology offers good sensitivity when detecting and measuring volumetric defects
resulting from erosion, corrosion, wear, and baffle cut.

Working Procedure:
 The RFT probe has widely spaced coils to pick up the
through-transmission field.
 The magnetic field must travel through the tube wall to Applications:
reach the receiver. This is called through-transmission. o Boilers,
 Through-transmission allows external and internal defects o Heat exchangers,
to be detected with equal sensitivity. o Cast iron pipes
o Other pipelines

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Internal Rotary Inspection System:
 Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) is an ultrasonic method for the non-destructive testing of
pipes and tubes.
 The IRIS probe is inserted into a tube that is flooded with water, and the probe is pulled out slowly
as the data is displayed and recorded.
Working Procedure:
 The IRIS probe consists of a rotating mirror that directs the ultrasonic beam into the tube wall.
 The mirror is driven by a small turbine that is rotated by the pressure of water being pumped
into.
 As the probe is pulled the spinning motion of the
mirror results in a helical scan path.
 The transducer utilized for the inspection has to be
high frequency (10-25 MHz), enough to bounce back
at both inner wall and outer wall.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Terahertz Non-destructive Evaluation:
 It is an advanced and emerging non-destructive evaluation (NDE) technique used for non-conducting
materials such as ceramics and plastics.
 THz imaging has higher resolution but lower penetration than ultrasound imaging.
Terahertz (THz) Waves:
 Terahertz (THz) waves are electromagnetic waves, whose frequencies range between microwave
and infrared.
 Investigating THz waves is difficult due to their weak characteristics and the lack of suitable THz
sources and detectors.

Terahertz Waves:
Frequency range- 300 GHz to 3 THz
Wavelength range- 1 mm to 100 μm

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Applications of Terahertz Imaging:
• This technology is powerful for materials analysis and quality control in the pharmaceutical, biomedical,
security, materials characterization, and aerospace industries.
• Some of the engineering applications of THz NDT techniques recently developed are in:
 Composite materials,
will be discussed in detail
 Thermal barrier coatings,
 Car paint films,
 Marine protective coatings, and
 Pharmaceutical tablet coatings.

Composite Materials:
 THz technology with high resolution and good
penetration has recently become a promising NDT
technique for defect detection in composite materials.

THz NDT measurements of glass fiber composite material:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC):
 A TBC is an advanced material system that is applied on high-temperature metallic surfaces, such
as gas turbines and aero engines.
 Normally, a TBC system includes a ceramic topcoat and a metallic bond coat on metal substrates.
Thickness measurement of TBC topcoat using THz waves:
 The topcoat thickness is obtained from the time difference ∆t between
adjacent reflections (such as S and R1, or R1 and R2).

 The time ∆t is the time required for the THz wave to travel round-trip
through the topcoat (the distance is 2d when the thickness is d).

 The propagation speed of THz waves in the topcoat is:

𝑽 = 𝒄 Τ𝒏 where ‘n’ is the refractive index of the
topcoat material in the THz region.
 Now, the thickness d is given by:
𝒄∆𝒕
𝒅=
𝟐𝒏

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

NDT Standards:

Standard:
 A set of technical definitions, instructions, rules, guidelines, or characteristics set forth to
provide consistent and comparable results, including:
 Items manufactured uniformly, providing for interchangeability.
 Tests and analyses conducted reliably, minimizing the uncertainty of the results.
 Facilities designed and constructed for safe operation.
 The procedures for testing and evaluation must be standardized in detail so that the test results
will be least affected by the differences in the personnel skill.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

NDT Standards: ASTM International
• ASTM International is one of the largest voluntary standards development organizations in the world,
providing technical standards for materials, products, systems and services.
• Over 180 ASTM NDT standards are published in the ASTM Annual Book of Standards, Volume 03.03,
Non-destructive Testing.
• ASTM NDT standards are divided in three categories:
 Guide:
o A guide increases the awareness of information and approaches in a given subject area.
 Practice:
o A practice is a definitive set of instructions for performing one or more specific operations or
functions that does not produce a test result.
o Examples: cleaning, collection, decontamination, installation, preparation, sampling, etc.
 Test Method:
o A test method is a definitive procedure that produces a test result.
o Examples: identification, measurement and evaluation of one or more qualities, characteristics or
properties, etc.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

ASTM NDT Standards in Industries:
• Some of the more commonly used ASTM NDT standards are as follows:
ASTM E1444 Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle Testing
ASTM E1417 Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing
ASTM E164 Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of Weldments
ASTM E213 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe and Tubing
ASTM E2375 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Wrought Products
ASTM E94 Guide for Radiographic Examination
ASTM E1742 Practice for Radiographic Examination
ASTM E1030 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Metallic Castings
ASTM E1032 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Weldments
ASTM E999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radiographic Film Processing
ASTM E2007 Standard Guide for Computed Radiography

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Safety in NDT:
 In all non-destructive testing methods, appropriate safety standards and plant practices should be
followed.
 Aside from any hazards which might arise from the materials being used in the test, the
technician must be constantly aware of the function of the object under test.
 For pressure related leak tests, the requirement to overpressure creates a hazard in itself.
 Investigating leaks in an operating system can be hazardous.
 Hazards are also associated with the working fluids/particles in the systems being tested or with
the testing fluids (e.g. in dye penetrant tests, leak tests, etc.).
 Radiography techniques are high risk methods as exposure to ionising radiation above
permissible limits can result in serious biological damage.
 For radiation safety proper protection measures should be considered.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Summary:

 Advanced non-destructive testing methods provide more accurate inspection data with
an improved probability of detection (PoD).
 Neutron radiography is a well established NDT technique, majorly used in aerospace
and nuclear industries.
 RFT and IRIS tests are used for inspection of pipes and tubes accurately.
 Terahertz non-destructive evaluation is an emerging technique, which can be used for
non-conducting materials.
 NDT Standards are the set of instructions or guidelines developed to perform consistent
and reliable inspections.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 16: Engineering Metrology- Linear Measurement

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Metrology:
Definition: Width
Surface
Metrology is a science of measurement of six Depth
Roughness
fundamental quantities: Length, Mass, Time,
Temperature, Electric Current, and Light Roundness Thickness
Radiation.
Manufacturing
Metrology
Manufacturing Metrology: Straightness Diameter
Mainly concerned with measurement of
length quantity in many ways in which it Flatness Taper
manifests itself in a manufactured part or
Angle
product such as:

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Objective of Metrology:
Basic objective
“To provide the required accuracy in measurement at of metrology
minimum cost”.

Need of Metrology:
 Modern industrial mass production system is based on interchangeable manufacture, when articles are
to be produced on a large scale.
 In mass production the production of complete article is broken up into various component parts and
production of each component part becomes an independent process.
 Different component parts are made in large quantities in different shops.
 Some parts are purchased from other factories also and then assembled together at one place.
 Therefore, it becomes essential that any part chosen at random should fit properly with any other
mating parts that too selected at random.
 This is possible only when dimensions of component parts are made with close dimensional tolerances.
 This is only achieved when parts are inspected at various stages during manufacturing.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Principles of Metrology:

 In design, design engineer should not only check his design from the point of view of
the strength or economical production, but he should also keep in mind how the
dimensions specified can be checked or measured.
 Higher productivity and accuracy can be achieved by properly understood, introduced
the Metrology.
 We can improve the measuring accuracy and dimensional and geometrical accuracies
of the product.
 Proper gauges should be designed and used for rapid and effective inspection.
 Also automation and automatic control, which are the modern trends for future
developments, are based on measurement. Digital instruments also we can used for
inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Different Ways of Metrological Inspection:
 It is the examination of a part or product characteristic to determine whether or not it conforms to
the design specifications.
 It can be done in two ways:

Inspection by Attributes Inspection by Variables

• Using Gauges to determine whether the part or
• Part or product characteristic of interest is measured
product characteristic of interest is within the
numerically by means of a calibrated instrument.
tolerance limit.
• Measurement is generally accepted industrial term for
• Most commonly known as Gauging or Gaging.
inspection by variables.
• Results can be Yes or No; Acceptable or Not; Go or • Gives the numerical value of the inspected
Not-go; Good or Bad. characteristics.
• Quick, less expensive, and less informative. • Slow, costly, and more informative.
• Simple and requires use of unskilled labour. • Complex and requires use of skilled labour.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Characteristics of a Measuring Instrument:
 Various specific terms which describe the characteristics and quality of measuring
instruments are:
1) Accuracy and Precision
2) Resolution or Sensitivity (Least Count)
3) Calibration
4) Speed of Response
5) Stability
6) Operating Range
7) Reliability

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

1) Accuracy vs. Precision:
Accuracy Precision
Degree to which the measured value
Degree of repeatability of the measurement process
agrees with true value of the quantity

A measurement procedure is accurate

A measurement process is precise when Random Errors in the measurement are minimized.
when Systematic Errors are absent

Random errors are usually associated with the human participation in the measurement process.

Systematic errors are positive or negative Human contributor to random

Non-human contributors to random errors:
errors:
deviations from the true value that are • Changes in temperature
• Variations in the setup
consistent from one measurement to the • Gradual wear of working elements of the device
• Imprecise reading of the scale
next • Misalignment of working elements of the device
• Round-off approximations

Random errors are assumed to obey normal distribution with zero mean

Accuracy of the instrument is maintained Precision of an instrument is achieved by selecting the proper and regular calibration technology
by proper and regular calibration. for the application

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8
Determination of Right Level of Precision:
 Rule of 10 is often used to determine the right level of precision.
Rule of 10 or Gage Capability (Gage Maker’s Rule):
 An instrument or gage should be 10 times more precise than the tolerance to be measured.
 This rule applies to all stages in the inspection sequence.

Example:
• A company manufactures ball point pens with a ball outer diameter of 0.35 mm and acceptable
balls range from 0.34 to 0.36 mm.
• Process tolerance = (0.36 – 0.34) mm = 0.02 mm
• Using the Rule of Tens,
10% of the process tolerance = 0.10 × 0.02 = 0.002 𝑚𝑚
• This means our gage must be able to detect a difference of at least 0.002 mm between balls.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

2) Resolution or Sensitivity (Least Count):
• The smallest unit of scale or smallest variation of the variable that can be detected.
3) Calibration:
• Procedure of checking a measuring instrument against a known standard.
• Adjusting or setting an instrument to give readings that are accurate within a reference standard.
• Calibration should be quick and uncomplicated.
4) Speed of Response:
• How long the instrument takes to measure the variable.
5) Stability:
• Capability of an instrument to retain its calibration over a period of time.
• As devices become more accurate, they often lose stability and become more sensitive to small changes in
temperature and humidity.
6) Operating Range:
• Capability to measure the physical variable throughout the entire span of practical interest to the user.
7) Reliability:
• Absence of frequent failures of the device.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Linear Measurement:
 Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameters, heights, and thickness
including external and internal measurements.

Non-precision Measuring
Linear Measuring Instruments: Instruments

• Linear measuring instruments consists of series

Precision Measuring
of accurately spaced painted or marked lines on Instruments
them.
• These instruments can be categorized as:
Electrical Measuring Devices

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Non-precision Measuring Instruments:
 These instruments are limited to the measurements are parts to a visible line graduation on the
instrument used.
 They are used where high measurement accuracy is not required.
Depth Telescopic
Rules Calipers Dividers
Gauge Gauge

a) Rules:
 Simplest and most common measuring instrument in inspection.
 Rule must be graduated uniformly throughout its length.
 There are rules that have got some attachment and special
features with them to make their use more versatile.
 They may be made in folded form so that they can be kept in
pockets.
 Degree of accuracy when measurements are made by a rule
depends upon quality of rule, and skill of the user in estimating
part of a millimetre.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Precautions:

• Keep the rule at a right angle to the object.

• Read the measurement from directly above the rule.

• Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight line, the rule should not be raised
until all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

b) Calipers:
 They are used for measurement of parts, which cannot be measured directly with the scale.
 Generally used as accessories to scales and consist of two legs hinged at top, and the ends
of legs span part to be inspected.
 This span is maintained and transferred to the scale.
 Calipers are of two types:

Spring Type
Calipers Firm Joint Type
Calipers

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

i. Spring Type Calipers:
• Two legs are attached with spring in this type of calipers.
• Working ends of each leg of a spring calipers should be identical in shape
and have contact points equally distant from the fulcrum.
• Cross-section of the legs is either rectangular or circular in shape.
• Calipers are adjusted to set dimensions by mean of either knurled solid
nut or a knurled quick action release nut operating in a finely threaded
adjusting screw.
• Top portions of the legs are located in a flanged fulcrum roller and held
in position by a spring in order to maintain the alignment of the working
ends.
• Spring provides sufficient tension to hold the legs rigid at all points of the
adjustment.
• Separate washer under the nut minimizes the friction between the
adjusting nut and the leg.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Types of Spring Type Calipers:
 Outside Spring Calipers:
 It is designed to measure outside dimensions.
 For accurate settings, the distance between the outside
calipers may be set by slip gauges or by micrometer
anvils.
 Inside Spring Calipers:
 They are designed to measure the inside dimensions.
 An inside spring caliper is exactly similar to an outside
caliper with its legs bent outward.
 They are used for comparing or measuring hole
diameters, distances between shoulders, or other
parallel surfaces of any inside dimensions.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

ii. Firm Joint Type Calipers:
• They work on the friction created at the junction of the legs.
• The two legs are identical in shape with the contact points equally distant from the fulcrum and are
joined together by a rivet.
• The component parts of the calipers should be free from seams, cracks and must have smooth
bright finish.

Firm joint calipers are of following types:

1. Outside Firm Joint Caliper
2. Inside Firm Joint Caliper
3. Transfer Caliper
4. Hermaphrodite Caliper

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

1. Outside Firm Joint Caliper:
 Unlike spring type outside calipers, it does not have any spring.
 The construction is quite simple with two identical legs held firmly by the fulcrum.
2. Inside Firm Joint Caliper:
 Inside firm joint calipers are almost similar to inside spring joint caliper with the exception that it
does not have any spring to hold the legs.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

3. Transfer Caliper:
 These are used for measuring recessed areas from which the legs of calipers can not be removed
directly but must be collapsed after the dimension has been measured.
 Therefore, an auxiliary arm is provided with two legs so that it can preserve the original setting
after the legs are collapsed.
 Nut is first locked and the caliper opened or closed against the work.
 Nut is then loosened and the leg is swung to clear the obstruction leaving the auxiliary arm in
position. Leg can be moved back to the auxiliary leg, where it will show the size previously
measured.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

4. Hermaphrodite Caliper:
 It is also known as odd leg caliper consisting of one divider and one caliper leg.
 It is used for layout work like scribing lines parallel to the edge of the work and for finding the
centre of a cylindrical work.
 It can be with two types of legs, viz. notched leg or curved leg.
Examples:

Marking Out using Odd Leg Calipers

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

c) Divider:
 A divider is similar in construction to a caliper except that both legs are
straight with sharp hardened points at the end.
 These are used for scribing arcs and circles and general layout works.
 The distance between the fulcrum roller centre and the extreme working end
of one of legs is known as the nominal size.
 A steel scale must be used with this instrument.

d) Depth Gauge:
 This tool is used to measure the depth of blind holes, grooves, slots, the heights
of shoulders in holes and dimensions of similar character.
 This is essentially a narrow steel rule to which a sliding head is clamped at the
right angles to the rule.
 The head forms a convenient marker in places where the rule must be held in a
distance from the point being measured.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

e) Telescopic Gauge:
 Telescopic gauge is used for the measurement of internal
diameter of a hole during machining operation.
 It consists of a handle and two plungers, one telescopic into the
other and both under spring tension.
 Ends of the plungers have spherical contacts.
 The plungers can be locked in position by turning a knurled screw
at the end of the handle.

Measuring Procedure:
• Step-1: To measure the diameter of a hole, the plungers are first
compressed and locked in position.
• Step-2: Next, the plunger end is inserted in the hole and allowed to expand
the opposite edges.
• Step-3: Finally, they are locked in place, taken out of the hole and
measured by an outside micrometer.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

Precision Measuring Instruments:
 Since modern production processes is concerned with interchangeable products, precise
dimensional control is required in industry.
 Precision measurement instruments are different techniques and phenomena to measure distance
with accuracy. Vernier Caliper
 Some mostly used precision measuring instruments are: Height Gauge
Micrometer
Slip Gauge
i. Vernier Caliper:
 Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments that
generally give an accuracy of 0.1 mm to 0.01 mm.
 The main scale carries the fixed graduations, one of two measuring jaws, a
vernier head having a vernier scale engraved on.
 Modern calipers are digital and have an LCD display on which the reading
appears – there is no possibility of human error in reading the scale.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Vernier Caliper Parts and their Functions:
 Lower Jaws or External Jaws:
• They allow the vernier caliper to measure outer dimensions of objects such as the length, width or diameter.
 Upper Jaws or Internal Jaws:
• Used for measuring inside dimensions of hollow objects such as inside diameters of pipes, lengths and widths of
boxes etc.
 Depth Rod:
• It is used to measure the depths of holes or steps.
 Locking Screw:
• Lock screw is used to fix the position of the jaws once the object is positioned properly so that readings can be
taken without the fear of spoiling the position.
 Main Scale:
• It is the large scale which runs along the body of the vernier
caliper. The main scale is stationary.
 Vernier Scale:
• It is a smaller scale attached to the main scale and can move
along the main scale as the jaws are opened or closed.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Working Principle of Vernier Caliper:
Principle: When two scales or divisions slightly different in size are used, the difference between them
can be utilized to enhance the accuracy of measurement.
Example to understand the working principle of a vernier caliper:
• Consider that the Vernier scale has got 20 divisions which equals to 19 divisions of the main scale.
 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 < 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
• This difference between 1 main scale division and 1 Vernier scale division is called Vernier Constant (VC) for that particular
vernier caliper.
• When VC is multiplied with the smallest unit of the main scale, it gives the Least Count (LC) of that vernier.
Now as considered,
⸪ 20 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑉𝑆𝐷) = 19 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑀𝑆𝐷)
19
⸫ 1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 20
𝑀𝑆𝐷
19 1
⸫ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝐶 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 1 𝑉𝑆𝐷 = 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 − 20
𝑀𝑆𝐷 = 20 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Now, if the smallest unit of the main scale be 1 mm, the least count of the vernier scale,
1
𝐿𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶 × 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = × 1 𝑚𝑚 = 0.05 𝑚𝑚
20

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

How to Read a Vernier Caliper?
 To read a measurement from a vernier caliper, first the main scale reading (MSR) up to the zero of the
vernier scale is noted down. It will give accuracy up to the smallest division of the main scale.
 Next, read the graduation (or vernier coinciding division, VCD) where two graduation lines on main and
vernier scale perfectly match.
Where,
 Now, the final reading is obtained as: 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑴𝑺𝑹 + (𝑽𝑪𝑫 × 𝑳𝑪) MSR = main scale reading,
LC = least count, and
Example:
VC = vernier coinciding division.

 For the given Vernier caliper,

Least Count = 0.02 mm
 The final reading is:
= 13 + 21 × 0.02
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟐 𝒎𝒎

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

ii. Micrometers:
 Most widely used precision instruments.
 Primarily used to measure external dimensions like diameters of shafts, thickness of parts etc. to an
accuracy of 0.01 mm.
Parts and their Functions:
Anvil:
• Small stationary cylindrical part of micrometer located
in far end of c-frame.
• Acts as one holding point for measuring objects.
Spindle:
• Cylindrical long part which is mounted through all other parts sleeve, lock nut and thimble.
• It is moveable part and has a connection with ratchet.
• As we rotate the ratchet clockwise/counter clockwise the spindle slides out/inward to adjust it with compare to
measuring object size.
Anvil Face and Spindle Face:
• Faces of both anvil and spindle which are opposite to each other are the measuring points of micrometer.
• They hold the measuring object collectively.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Lock nut:
• The knurled component that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when momentarily holding a
measurement.
Sleeve:
• The stationary barrel type cylindrical component with the linear scale (main scale) engraved on it, sometimes with
vernier markings.
• Thimble rotates around that sleeve and spindle.

Thimble:
• Thimble is also mounted on spindle and a scale is engraved around
its perimeter (circular scale).
• Scale of thimble is to show the measurement value in fraction.
Ratchet:
• It’s a knurled thumb grip to rotate the spindle into desired direction
for measuring process.

• It is provided with ratchet action to avoid over tightening of micrometer across the measuring object and also ensures
equal pressure force of each measurement.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

Working Principle of Micrometer:
• Micrometer works on the principle of screw and nut to amplify small distances.
• The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and precisely correlated to a certain amount
of axial movement (and vice versa), through the constant known as the screw's lead or pitch.
 A screw's lead or pitch is the distance it moves forward axially with one complete turn (360°).
• With an appropriate lead and major diameter of the screw, a given amount of axial movement will be amplified
in the resulting circumferential movement.

Least Count of a Micrometer:

• The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the rotation given to it.
• The linear distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one division of the circular scale (thimble), is the least
distance that can be measured accurately by the instrument. 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

o For a micrometer with a pitch of 0.5 mm and 50 divisions on the circular scale.
Example: 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝐶 = 0.5Τ50 = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
o This is the smallest length one can measure with this micrometer.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

How to Read a Micrometer?
Step-1: Taking the Linear Scale Reading
 The mark on the linear scale which lies close to the left edge of the circular scale is the linear scale reading.
Step-2: Taking Circular Scale Reading
 The division of circular scale which coincides with the main scale line is the reading of circular scale.
Step-3: Final Reading
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
Example:
 For the given micrometer, Least Count = 0.01 mm
 Linear scale reading = 12.5 mm
 Circular scale reading = 16
 The final reading is:
= 12.5 + 16 × 0.01
= 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

iii. Height Gauge:
 This uses the same principle of vernier caliper and is used especially
for the measurement of height.
 It is equipped with a special base block, sliding jaw assembly and a
removable clamp.
 The upper and lower surfaces of the measuring jaws are parallel to
the base, which make possible to measure both over and under
surfaces.
 A scribing attachment in place of measuring jaw can be used for
scribing lines at certain distance above the surface.
 Specification of a vernier height gauge is made by specifying the
range of measurement, type of scale required and any particular
requirement in regard to the type of vernier desired.

Measurement of height of a cylinder using height gauge

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

iv. Slip Gauges or Gauge Blocks:
 Slip gauges (also known as gauge blocks, gage blocks, Johansson
gauges, or Jo blocks) are a system for producing precision lengths.
 The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been
precision ground and lapped to a specific thickness.
 Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks with a range of standard lengths.
 In use, the blocks are stacked to make up a desired length.
 Also used for the verification and graduation of measuring apparatus and
for direct measurement of linear dimensions of industrial components.
Uses of Slip Gauge:
o Setting up a comparator to a specific dimension
o Direct Precise measuring purpose.
o To inspect the Vernier Calliper, Micrometers and some other linear measuring instruments.
o Conjunction with sine bar to measure the angle of the workpiece.
o Used to Check the distance between the parallel faces.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32

Electrical Measuring Devices:
 Electrical measuring devices give the most precise value of measurement among all the instruments
discussed earlier.
 They use electrical transducers that transform a variety of physical quantities and phenomena into
electrical signals.
 Some of the most commonly used electric devices in linear measurement are:
 Strain Gauge
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 Strain Gauge:
 It is based on the resistive properties of electrical conductors.
 They are constructed from a single wire that is wound back and forth.
 The gage is attached to the surface of an object with wires in the direction
where strain is to be measured.
 Electrical resistance in the wires change when they are elongated. Thus,
voltage change in the wires can be collaborated to the change in strain.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 33

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):
 It is a type of electrical transformer used for measuring linear displacement (position).
 LVDT converts a position or linear displacement from a mechanical reference (zero, or null
position) into a proportional electrical signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude (for
distance) information.
Construction of LVDT:
• LVDT consist of a single primary winding and two secondary windings.
• They are wound on a hollow cylindrical bobbin which is non-magnetic and insulating material.
• The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the
primary winding.
• The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source.
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the bobbin.

Construction of LVDT sensor

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 34

Working of LVDT:
 The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core.
 Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produce an
alternating magnetic field which in in turn induces alternating current voltages in the
two secondary winding.
 If the magnetic core is displaced, then the value of resultant voltage
increases/decreases in proportion with the displacement.
 Resultant differential output across the secondary winding can be measured by
voltmeter.

Interpretation of Result:
 Phase of the secondary voltage indicates the direction of displacement of
core, and the magnitude indicates by how much.

Cutaway view of an LVDT

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 35

Summary:

 The study of measurement (metrology) is a basic requirement in engineering and

manufacturing.

 It has a very crucial role in achieving modern industrial mass production system
based on interchangeable manufacturing.

 In this lecture, different types of linear measuring instruments (Non-precision,

precision and electrical measuring devices) have been discussed.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 36

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 37
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 17: Angular Measurement and Measurement of Surface Finish

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Angular Measurement:
 Precise measurement of angles is one of the important requirements in workshops and tool
rooms.
 It is the measure of the opening between two lines which meet at a point.
 There are a wide variety of geometric features that are measured in angular units.

Some of the typical

measurements are:

 The angle reading is also used as a measure of the error of alignment of machine parts.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Angular Measuring Instruments:
 Because of diverse geometrical forms of parts, different types of methods and equipment are
available to measure angles in common angular units of degree, minute and second.
 Angle measuring devices are classified as:

Classification of Angle Measuring Devices

Line Standard Angular Face Standard Angular

Measurement of Inclines Angle Comparators
Measuring Devices Measuring Devices

Vernier Bevel Sine Bar (Sine

Spirit Level Autocollimator
Protractor Principle)

Sine Centre Clinometer

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices:
• Line standard gives direct angular measurement from the engraved scales in the instruments.
• They are not very precise. Hence they are not used when high precision is required.
• Vernier bevel protractor is the most commonly used line standard angular measuring.
a) Vernier Bevel Protractor:
 It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles
between two faces.
 It consists of two arms and an engraved circular
scale.
 Two arms can be set along the faces between
which the angle is to be measured.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Face Standard Angular Measuring Device:
a) Sine Bars:
 The sine principle uses the ratio of the length of two sides of a right triangle in deriving a
given angle.
 The sine bar in itself is not a complete measuring instrument. Another datum such as a
surface plate is needed, as well as other auxiliary equipment , notably slip gauges, and
indicating device to make measurements.
 Sine bars used in conjunction with slip gauges constitute a very good device for the precise
measurement of angles.
 Some holes are drilled in the body of the bar to reduce the weight and facilitate handling.
 Sine bars are made from high carbon, high chromium, corrosion resistant steel, hardened,
ground and stabilized.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

Measurement of Angle of Small Size Components:
 For measuring the angle of small size components, a
sine bar is set up at an angle on a surface plate by
suitable combination of slip gauges.
𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒉
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = =
𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑳

𝒉
𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
𝑳
Here,
L = distance between centers of ground cylinders
h = height of the gauge blocks
θ = taper angle of the workpiece

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

 Measurement of Angle of Large Size Components:
 When component is too large to be mounted on the
sin-bar, the sine bar can be mounted on the
component.
 The height over the rollers is measured by means of
a vernier height gauge.
 A dial gauge is also used to check the measuring
pressure.
 Height gauge is adjusted until the dial gauge reads
zero reading.
 Now, the angle of the component is given by:
𝑹𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝑳
𝑹𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐
𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
𝑳

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

b) Sine Centre:
 Special type of sine bar is sine centre which is used for conical objects having male and
female parts.
 It cannot measure the angle more than 45 degrees.
 It has block holding centres which can be adjusted and rigidly clamped in any position
depending on the length of the conical workpiece.
 Extremely useful since the alignment accuracy of the centres ensures that the correct line of
measurement is made along the workpiece.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Measurement of Semi-conical Angle Using Sine Centre:
 The component being checked is placed over the surface of a sine bar.
 Dial gauge is moved over the component throughout its length.
 If there is a variation in parallelism of the upper surface of the component and the surface plate, it
is indicated by the deflection of pointer.
 Now, the slip gauges height is adjusted so that the dial
indicator reads zero position.

 For the dial gauge to read zero, the accurate

semi cone angle is given as:

𝜶 = 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝑯ൗ𝑳

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Measurement of Inclines:
a) Spirit Level:
 A spirit level, bubble level or simply a level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a
surface is horizontal or vertical.
 Construction of Spirit Level:
 It consists of a close glass tube of accurate form. It is called as the vial.
 It is filled almost entirely with a liquid, leaving a small space for the
formation of an air or gas bubble.
 Generally, low viscosity fluids, such as ether, alcohol or benzol, are
preferred for filling the vial.
 Proper liquid and material for the spirit level is required as temperature
variations in the ambient condition cause both liquid and vial to expand or
contract.
 To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made of a
relatively stable casting and are equipped with thermally insulated handles.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

 Working of Spirit Level:
 The liquid due to its greater specific weight tends to fill the lower portion of the closed
space. Upper side of the vial is graduated in linear units.
 When the base is horizontal, the bubble rests at the center of the graduated scale.
 Inclination of a surface can be known from the deviation of the bubble from its position
when the spirit level is kept in a horizontal plane.

 Application:
 A precision level is used to check and
correct the twist in a machine (or
workpiece).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

b) Clinometer:
 Special case of spirit level, while the spirit level is restricted to relatively small angles, clinometers
can be used for much larger angles.
 It comprises a level mounted in a frame so that the frame may be turned to any desired angle to a
horizontal reference.
 Working of Clinometer:
 To measure with clinometers, the base is kept on the surface of the work
piece.
 Lock nut is loosened and the dial comprising the circular scale is gently
rotated till the bubble in spirit level is approximately at centre.
 Now, lock nut is tightened and the fine adjustment nut is operated till the
bubble is exactly at the centre of the vial scale.
 Rotation of the disc can be read on the scale. It represents the deviation of
the surface over which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane.
Applications:
 Used to determine straightness and flatness of surfaces.
 Also used for setting inclinable table on jig boring machine and angular jobs on surface grinding machines.
 They provide superior accuracy compared to ordinary spirit levels.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Angle Comparators:
• Angle comparators are the metrological instruments used for finding the difference between two
nearly equal angles.
• In practice, they are frequently used in calculating the difference between the angle of working
standard gauges or instruments.
• It is also used in measuring angle of a number of angle gauges wrung together, or the angle
between two faces of a standard polygon.
• The most widely used angle comparators are Autocollimators.

a) Autocollimators:
• The two main principles used in an autocollimator are:
 Projection and the refraction of a parallel beam of light by a lens, and
 Change in direction of a reflected angle on a plane reflecting surface with change in
angle of incidence.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

Working:
 The autocollimator measures the deviation
between the emitted beam and the reflected
beam to detect the angular movement.

 In this diagram of an autocollimator, the

angle of mirror deviation ( α ) is calculated
using the formula:
𝜶 = ∆𝒚Τ𝟐𝒇
Applications:
where, f = focal length of the autocollimator,
Δy = vertical deviation of the reflected beam  Checking of an internal right angle.
due to angular moment of the workpiece.  Comparative measurement using master angles.
 Measuring straightness and flatness of the surfaces.
 For machine tool adjustment setting.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Surface Roughness:
 Surface roughness often shortened to roughness, is a component of surface texture.
 An engineering component processed by casting, forging, drawing, welding or stamping, etc. may
not have equally finished surface.
 It is quantified by the deviations in the direction of the normal vector of a real surface from its ideal
form.
 If these deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they are small, the surface is smooth.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

Elements of Surface Roughness:
 Surface:
• Surface of the part is confined by the boundary which separates that part from another part,
substance or space.
 Profile:
• Profile is defined as the contour of any section through a surface.
 Actual Surface:
• This refers to the surface of a part which is actually obtained after a manufacturing process.
 Nominal Surface:
• A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect surface which does not exist in practice,
but is an average of the irregularities that are superimposed on it.
 Centre Line:
• Centre line of profile is the line parallel to the general
direction of the profile for which the areas embraced by the
profile above and below the line are equal.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

 Mean Line:
• Mean line of the profile is the line having the form of the geometrical profile and dividing the
effective profile so that within the sampling length the sum of the squares of distances between
effective points and the mean line is minimum.
• When the waveform is repetitive, the mean line and the centre line are equivalent.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

 Lay Direction:
• Predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture.
 Roughness:
• Roughness refers to relatively finely spaced irregularities such as might be produced by the action
of a cutting tool.
 Roughness Height:
• This is rated as the arithmetical average deviation expressed in micro-inches or micro-metres
normal to an imaginary centre line, running through the roughness profile.
 Roughness Width:
• Roughness width is the distance parallel to the normal surface between successive peaks or ridges
that constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
 Roughness Width Cut-off (Sampling Length):
• This is the maximum width of surface irregularities that
is included in the measurement of roughness height.
• This is always greater than roughness width and is rated
in inches or centimetres.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

 Waviness:
• Waviness consist of those surface irregularities which
are of greater spacing than roughness and it occurs in
form of waves.
• It may be caused by vibrations, machine or work
deflections, warping, etc.
 Waviness Width:
• It is the distance between successive wave peaks or
successive wave valleys.
 Waviness Height:
• It is the distance from wave peak to valley.
 Flaws:
• Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which
occur at infrequent intervals and at random intervals.
• Such imperfections are: scratches, holes, cracks, pits,
checks, porosity, etc.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

Evaluation of Surface Roughness:
 There can be many ways, through which the surface roughness plot can be evaluated.
 Few of the most popular methods of surface roughness plot interpretation are:

(i) Root mean square value: r. m. s. value.

(ii) Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean deviation denoted as 𝑹𝒂 .

(iii) Maximum peak to valley height, denoted as 𝑹𝒕 or 𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 .

(iv) Average of the five highest peaks and five deepest valleys in the sample, denoted as 𝑹𝒛 .

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

i. Root Mean Square Value (RMS):
• The centre line is first located such that the sum of the areas above the line is equal to the areas
below the line.
• The distances above the centre line are taken as positive and below is as negative.
• Then n measurements are made (plus or minus) from the centre line vertically to points on the
profile and are called yi.
• Root mean square value is the positive square root of the arithmetic mean of the value of the
squares of the values in the set.

RMS Calculation:

𝑦1 2 + 𝑦2 2 + 𝑦3 2 + ⋯
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
𝑛
1Τ2

= ෍ 𝑦𝑖 2 ൗ𝑛

Where, 𝑦𝑖 is the profile deviation.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

ii. Centre Line Average (CLA) or Arithmetic Mean Deviation (Ra):
• In this method, the surface roughness is measured as the average deviation from the nominal
surface or centre line.
• Arithmetic average or centre line average is defined as the average value of the ordinates from the
centre line, the algebraic sign of the ordinates are not considered.

Calculation:
1 𝐿
Arithmetic Average, 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑅𝑎 = ‫׬‬0 𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖
or, approximately, 𝑅𝑎 =
𝑛

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

iii. Maximum Peak to Valley Height (Rmax or Rt):
• This is the parameter which is simplest to be determined from the graph of the profile. However,
this does not give complete characteristics of surface roughness.
• This parameter is, however, important when the roughness is to be removed, for example, by
polishing, to increase the fatigue resistance of the work.

Calculation:

 Rp = Highest peak above the mean line

 Rv = Deepest valley below the mean line

 Rmax = Distance from the highest peak to the

deepest valley 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑣

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

iv. Average Peak to Valley Height (Rz):
• This parameter is easier to obtain from a profile graph than Ra.
• This is the average difference between the five highest peaks and the five deepest valleys within
sampling length measured from a line drawn parallel to the general direction of the profile.
• This line does not cross the profile.

This parameter is obtained as:

𝟏
𝑹𝒛 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟕 + 𝑹𝟗 − 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 + 𝑹𝟔 + 𝑹𝟖 + 𝑹𝟏𝟎
𝟓

 R1, R3, R5, R7, R9 : Tallest 5 peaks within sample

length
 R2, R4, R6, R8, R10 : Lowest 5 peaks within sample
length

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

Surface Roughness Measurement:
 The surface roughness may be measured, using any of the following :

Straight Edge Surface Gauge Optical Flat Profilometer

a) Straightedge:
• It is a tool with a straight edge, used for drawing straight
lines, or checking their straightness.
• They are used in the automotive service and machining
industry to check the flatness of machined mating
surfaces.
• A pair of straightedges called winding sticks are used in
woodworking to amplify twist in pieces of wood.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

b) Surface Gauge:

• Surface gauges are used to measure the profile height of the surface.

• The attached scriber helps to mark out the surface profile with respect to a reference line.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

c) Optical Flat:
• It is an optical-grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both sides,
usually within a few tens of nanometres.
• They are used with a monochromatic light to determine the flatness (surface accuracy) of other
surfaces.

Working of Optical Flats:

 When an optical flat is placed on another surface and illuminated,
the light waves reflect off both the bottom surface of the flat and the
surface it is resting on.
 This causes a phenomenon similar to thin-film interference.
 The reflected waves interfere, creating a pattern of interference
fringes visible as light and dark bands.
 The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the gap is
changing more rapidly, indicating a departure from flatness in one
of the two surfaces.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

Interpretation of Results:
 Straight, parallel, and evenly spaced interference fringes indicate that the
work surface flatness is equal to or higher than that of the reference
surface.
 Two adjacent fringes indicate a difference in elevation of one-half
wavelength of the light used, so by counting the fringes, differences in
elevation of the surface can be measured to better than one micrometre.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28

d) Profilometer:
• A profilometer is a measuring instrument used to measure a surface’s profile, in order to
quantify its roughness.
• There are two types of profilometers as:
a. Contact Profilometers
b. Non-contact Profilometers

a. Contact Profilometers:
 A diamond stylus is moved vertically in contact with a sample and then moved laterally across
the sample for a specified distance and specified contact force.

 The height position of the diamond stylus generates an analog signal which is converted into a
digital signal, stored, analyzed, and displayed.

 It can measure small vertical features ranging in

height from 10 nanometres to 1 millimetre.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 29

b. Non-contact Profilometers:
 An optical profilometer is a non-contact method for
providing much of the same information as a stylus
based profilometer.
 It generally uses light instead of a physical probe.
 Surface texture is measured by optically scanning a
surface with a light or laser.
 Optical or light-based instruments may also use
triangulation or interferometry to measure or capture a
surface profile.
 Although most surface profilometers provide only a
two-dimensional (2D) or line file, some instruments
can provide three-dimensional (3D) or areal
topography measurements.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 30

Summary:

 The quantification and measurement of angles is important in scientific as well as

manufacturing applications.
 Different types of instruments are used to perform the angular measurement e.g. bevel
protractor, sine bar, sine centre, spirit level, clinometer, etc.
 The shape and size of irregularities on a machined surface (surface roughness) also
have a major impact on the quality and performance of that surface, and on the
performance of the end product.
 Many parameters have been established regarding the measurement and assessment of
surface roughness.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 31

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 32
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 18: Screw Thread Metrology

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Screw Thread:
 It is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force.
 Screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface.
 Interchangeable screwed parts, e.g. bolts and nuts, are produced in bulk quantity for several
applications.
 These parts are usually inspected to ensure that the accepted parts will assemble within the limits
for quality of fit.
 Screw threads are employed basically for two purposes:
I. To fasten two components with the help of nuts, bolts and studs.
II. To transmit power, as in case of lathe machine lead screw.

There are a large number of different standard

forms of screw threads in common use.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Elements of Screw Thread:
 A screw thread has several individual elements each of which may be measured separately.
 These elements are:
 Major Diameter:
• It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread.
• The screw is specified by this diameter.
• It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
 Minor Diameter:
• It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread.
• It is also known as core or root diameter.
 Pitch Diameter/Effective Diameter:
• It is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder, on a cylindrical screw thread, the surface of which would pass
through the thread at such points as to make equal the width of the thread and the width of the spaces between
the threads.
• In a nut and bolt assembly, it is the diameter at which the ridges on the bolt are in complete touch with the
ridges of the corresponding nut.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

 Pitch:
• It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next.
• This is measured in an axial direction between corresponding points in the same axial plane.
• Mathematically, 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 =
𝟏
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
 Lead:
• It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix.
• It may also be defined as the distance which a screw thread advances
axially in one rotation of the nut.
• Lead is equal to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch
in double start, thrice the pitch in triple start and so on.
 Crest & Root:
• Crest is the top surface of thread while root is the bottom surface created by two adjacent flanks of the thread.
 Depth of Thread & Flank:
• Depth of thread is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root while flank is the surface joining the
crest and root.
 Angle of Thread & Slope:
• Angle of thread is the angle included by the flanks of the thread while slope is half the pitch of the thread.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

Forms of Screw Threads: British Standard Whitworth Thread

 The following are the various forms of screw threads. British Association Thread

American National Standard Thread

Unified Standard Thread

Square Thread
Forms of Screw Threads
Acme Thread

Knuckle Thread

Buttress Thread

Metric Thread

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

1. British Standard Whitworth (B.S.W.) Thread:
• This is a British standard thread profile and has coarse pitches.
• It is a symmetrical V-thread in which the angle between the
flanks, measured in an axial plane, is 55°.
• These threads are found on bolts and screwed fastenings for
special purposes.

2. British Association (B.A.) Thread:

• This is a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches.
• These threads are used for instruments and other
precision works.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

3. American National Standard Thread:
• The American national standard or U.S. or Seller's thread has
flat crests and roots.
• The flat crest can withstand more rough usage than sharp V-
threads.
• These threads are used for general purposes e.g. on bolts,
nuts, screws and tapped holes.

4. Unified Standard Thread:

• The three countries i.e., Great Britain, Canada and United
States came to an agreement for a common screw thread
system with the included angle of 60°, in order to facilitate
the exchange of machinery.
• The thread has rounded crests and roots.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

5. Square Thread:
• The square threads, because of their high efficiency, are widely used for
transmission of power in either direction.
• Such type of threads are usually found on the feed mechanisms of
machine tools, valves, spindles, screw jacks etc.
• The square threads are not so strong as V-threads but they offer less
frictional resistance to motion than Whitworth threads.
• The pitch of the square thread is often taken twice that of a B.S.W. thread
of the same diameter.

6. Acme Thread:
• It is a modification of square thread.
• It is much stronger than square thread and can be easily produced.
• These threads are frequently used on screw cutting lathes, brass valves,
cocks and bench vices.
• When used in conjunction with a split nut, as on the lead screw of a
lathe, the tapered sides of the thread facilitate ready engagement and
disengagement of the halves of the nut when required.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

7. Knuckle Thread:
• It is also a modification of square thread.
• It has rounded top and bottom.
• It can be cast or rolled easily and can not economically be made on a
machine. These threads are used for rough and ready work.
• They are usually found on railway carriage couplings, hydrants, necks of
glass bottles and large moulded insulators used in electrical trade.

8. Buttress Thread:
• It is used for transmission of power in one direction only.
• The force is transmitted almost parallel to the axis.
• This thread units the advantage of both square and V-threads.
• It has a low frictional resistance characteristics of the square thread and
have the same strength as that of V-thread.
• The spindles of bench vices are usually provided with buttress thread.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

9. Metric Thread:
• It is an Indian standard thread and is
similar to B.S.W. threads.
• It has an included angle of 60° instead of
55°.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Measurement of Screw Threads:
Major Diameter

Minor Diameter

To find out the quality of a threaded element, the

Effective or Pitch Diameter
following elements of screw threads are measured:

Pitch

Thread Angle

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

I. Measurement of Major Diameter:
 It is most commonly measured by means of a bench micrometer.
Bench Micrometer:
 For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometer is used for measuring the major
diameter.
 The fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements are made at same pressure.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

 Measuring Major Diameter of External Threads:
1. A calibrated setting cylinder having approximately the same diameter as major diameter of the thread to
be measured is used as setting standard.
2. The setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the readings of micrometer (R1) are noted.
3. Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded workpiece and the new reading (R2) is noted for the same
reading of fiducial indicator.

The major diameter of screw thread is given by:

𝑫 = 𝑺 + (𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 )
Where, S = diameter of setting cylinder
R1 = micrometer reading on setting cylinder
R2 = micrometer reading on screw thread

 Measuring Major Diameter of Internal Threads:

• An indirect approach of measuring internal threads is obtained by obtaining the cast of the thread.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

II. Measurement of Minor Diameter:
 Measuring Minor Diameter of External Threads:
 Floating carriage micrometer is used to measure the minor diameter for externally
threaded elements.

Floating Carriage Micrometer:

 The floating carriage diameter-measuring machine is a bench
micrometer mounted on a carriage.
 It is suitable for almost all kinds of threads.
 The Vee-pieces available in various sizes having suitable radii
at the edge are used along with the setting standard.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

Working Procedure:
• The threaded workpiece is mounted between the centers of the instrument and the V pieces are placed
on each side of the workpiece with their bases against the anvil of the micrometer.
• After mounting the workpiece, the micrometer reading (R2) is noted.
• Then the threaded workpiece is replaced by a standard reference, and the corresponding reading (R1) is
taken.

The minor diameter of screw thread is given

by:
𝑫 = 𝑺 + (𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 )
Where, S = Diameter of cylinder gauge.
R2 = Micrometer reading on threaded workpiece.
R1 = Micrometer reading on cylindrical gauge.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

 Measuring Minor Diameter of Internal Threads:
 Minor diameter for internal threads are measured by using:
 Taper Parallels
 Rollers
Taper Parallels :
 The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having reduced and parallel outer
edges.
 The diameter across their outer edges can be changes by sliding them over
each other.
 Inside the internal threads taper parallels are inserted and it is just stayed
until form contact is established with minor diameter.

Rollers:
 In this method precision rollers are inserted inside the thread and proper slip
gauges inserted between the rollers.
 The minor diameter is equal to the length of the slip gauges plus twice the
diameter of the Roller.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

III. Measurement of Pitch Diameter:
 Pitch diameter or effective diameter measurement is carried out by following methods:
a) Thread Micrometer Method
b) Two-wire Method
c) Three-wire Method

a) Thread Micrometer Method:

• The screw thread micrometer is designed to measure the pitch diameter
of screw threads up to 0.01mm of accuracy.
• It is similar to an outside micrometer but has following the differences:
i. The movable spindle is pointed, and
ii. The end of the anvil is the same as the screws thread to be measured.
• The reading is read in similar way as in case of outside micrometer.
• Different pairs of interchangeable Vee- anvils and spindle points are
provided with the micrometer.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

b) Two-wire Method:
• The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by placing two wires or rods of identical
diameter between the flanks of the thread and measuring the distance over the outside of these wires.
• Wires of exactly known diameters are chosen such that they contact the flanks at their straight portions.
• The wires used are made of hardened steel to sustain the wear and tear in use. These are given a high
degree of accuracy and finish by lapping to suit different pitches.
• If the size of the wire is such it contacts the flanks at the pitch line, it is called best size wire which can
be determined by geometry of screw thread.

Working Procedure:
 Screw thread is mounted between the centers and wires are placed in the grooves and
reading M is taken.
 Then the effective diameter E is calculated as: 𝑬 = 𝑻 + 𝑷
Where,
T = Dimension under the wires = 𝑀 − 2𝑑; M = Dimension over the wires;
d = Dimension of each wire; P = Difference between the effective diameter and the
diameter under the wires (explained on the next slide).

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

 Value of ‘P’:
 P is a value which depends on diameter of wire, pitch and angle of the screw thread.
 The P value can be derived in terms of pitch, diameter of wire, and thread angle using the geometry
of the measuring setup.
 If 𝑃′ = pitch of thread, then
 For Whitworth thread: 𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝑷′ − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟕 𝒅
 For Metric thread: 𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝑷′ − 𝒅

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

c) Three-wire Method:
• Three wire method is the more accurate than the two wire method.
• In this method three wires of equal and precise diameter are placed in
the grooves at opposite sides of screw.
• In this one wire on one side and two on the other side are used.
• This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faces parallel to
the thread axis.
Working Procedure:
 Basically, the principles of both two-wire and three-wire methods are same, hence same steps
are followed to perform the measuring operation.
Two-wire Method is used when a Floating
Carriage Micrometer is available for the
measurement
Applicability of Two and Three Wire
Methods: When an Ordinary Micrometer is used for the
measurement, a Three-wire Method should be
used.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

IV. Measurement of Pitch:
 Measurement of screw pitch can be done by following methods:
 Pitch Measuring Machine
 Tool Makers Microscope
 Screw Pitch Gauge
 Profile Projector

 Pitch Measuring Machine:

• A relatively accurate, simple and convenient method of measuring the pitch of a screw thread is by
means of a pitch measuring machine.
• The screw to be measured is held between centers, and the machine is fitted with styles of such a
size, that contacts the thread flanks approximately at the pitch line when it lies in the thread
groove.
• Spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up the flank of the thread and down into the next
space as it is moved along.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

Working Procedure:
 The stylus is accurately positioned between the two flanks by ensuring that the pointer T is always opposite to
its index mark when readings are taken.
 When the pointer is accurately placed in position, the micrometer reading is noted.
 The stylus is then moved along into the next thread space, by rotation of the micrometer, and a second reading is
taken.
 The difference between the two readings is the pitch of the thread. Readings are taken in this manner until the
whole length of the screw thread has been covered.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

 Tool Maker’s Microscope:
• It is an optical measuring machine equipped for all types of measurements
for small parts.
• It creates an enhanced and accurate shadow of the part, which resembles the
object.
Working Procedure:
 Worktable is placed on the base of the instrument.
 The optical head is mounted on a vertical column and it can be moved up
and down.
 Work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
 A light source provides horizontal beam of light which is reflected from a
mirror by 90 degree upwards towards the table.
 Image of the outline of contour of the work piece passes through the
objective of the optical head.
 The image is projected on a ground glass screen on the work table.
 The measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the
ground glass screen.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

 Screw Pitch Gauge:
• This tool is not used as a precision measuring instrument.
• It allows the user to determine the profile of the given thread and quickly
categorize the thread by shape and pitch.

Working Procedure:
 To use a thread gauge, the user must first match the type of thread to the gauge.
 For example: attempting to measure metric threads with an imperial gauge
will not return accurate results.
 To determine the correct gauge, a process of trial and error may be needed if the
screw is of unknown origin.
 Once the correct gauge is determined, the user should extend one of the leaves of
the tool and press it against the threaded portion of a screw.
 If the teeth (cut into the leaf) match the spacing of the thread, then the user can
read off the thread pitch stamped into the leaf.
 If the fit is not good, the user should try a different leaf.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

 Profile Projector:
• In this method, projector magnifies the profile of the specimen, and displays this
on the built-in projection screen.
• On this screen there is typically a grid that can be rotated 360° so the X-Y axis of
the screen can be aligned with a straight edge of the machined part to examine or
measure.
• This projection screen displays the profile of the
specimen and is magnified for better ease of
calculating linear measurements.

• An edge of the specimen to examine may be lined up

with the grid on the screen.

• From there, simple measurements may be taken for

distances to other points.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25

V. Measurement of Thread Angle:
 Thread angle can be measured by using following instruments:
 Tool Makers Microscope
 Profile Projector
 In these methods optical projection / shadow is used to check the thread angle by using
protractor.
 For better accuracy of results, it is necessary to project along the direction of the screw
thread, i.e., along the helix angle.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 26

Summary:

 Screw threads measurement is required for dimensional control to ensure a certain

consistency of fit.
 Screw thread inspection is performed by using the thread gauges and some individual
measuring instruments for measuring different thread elements.
 Different methods for measuring major diameter, minor diameter, effective diameter,
pitch, and thread angle of threaded elements have been discussed.
 Tool makers microscope and profile projector can be used to perform all types of
linear/angular measurements for small threaded elements.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 27

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 28
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 19: Gear Measurement

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
What is Gear?
 A gear is a toothed wheel, which meshes with another toothed wheel to
transmit power / motion from one shaft to another.
 They have advantage over friction and belt drives in that they are positive in
action, a feature which most machinery require.
 In order to have perfectly uniform relative motion between driving and driven
shaft, it is essential that both gears be of perfect geometrical form.
 Hence, during manufacturing the inspection process is included to ensure
high degree of accuracy of gears.

Power transmission.
Functions of a Gear: Change rotational speed / torque.

Maintain constant speed ratio.

Gears in Motion

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

Gear Terminology:
 Pitch Circle:
 It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the
same motion as the actual gear.
 Pitch Circle Diameter or Pitch Diameter:
 It is the diameter of the pitch circle.
 The size of the gear is specified by the pitch circle diameter.
 Pitch Point:
 It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
 Pressure Angle or Angle of Obliquity:
 It is the angle between the common normal to two gear teeth at the
point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point.
 It is usually denoted by ∅. The standard pressure angles are 14 1Τ2 °
and 20°.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

 Addendum:
 It is the radial distance of a tooth from the
pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
 Dedendum:
 It is the radial distance of a tooth from the
pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
 Addendum Circle:
 It is the circle drawn through the top of the
teeth and is concentric with the pitch circle.
 Dedendum Circle or Root Circle:
 It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the
teeth.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 4

 Circular Pitch (𝒑𝒄 ):
 It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a point of one tooth to the
corresponding point on the next tooth.
 It is usually denoted by 𝑝𝑐 .
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 = 𝒑𝒄 = 𝝅𝑫Τ𝑻
Where, 𝐷 = Diameter of the pitch circle, and
𝑇 = Number of teeth on the wheel.
 Two gears will mesh together correctly, if the two wheels
have the same circular pitch.
 Diametral Pitch (𝒑𝒅 ):
 It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimetres.
𝑻 𝝅
Diametral Pitch, 𝒑𝒅 = = 𝑫 𝒑𝒄
Where, 𝐷 = Diameter of the pitch circle, and
𝑇 = Number of teeth on the wheel.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 5

 Module (m):
 It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in millimetres to the number of teeth.
𝒎 = 𝑫 Τ𝑻
 Clearance:
 It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth, in a meshing gear.
 A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance circle.
 Total Depth:
 It is the radial distance between the addendum and the
dedendum circle of a gear.
 It is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
 Working Depth:
 It is radial distance from the addendum circle to the
clearance circle.
 It is equal to the sum of the addendum of the two
meshing gears.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 6

 Tooth Thickness:
 It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
 Tooth Space:
 It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
 Backlash:
 It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured on the pitch circle.
 Face of the Tooth:
 It is surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.
 Top Land:
 It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
 Flank of the Tooth:
 It is the surface of the tooth below the pitch surface.
 Face Width:
 It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 7

 Path of Contact:
 It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the beginning to
the end of engagement.
 Length of the Path of Contact:
 It is the length of the common normal
cut-off by the addendum circles of the
wheel and pinion.

 Arc of Contact:
 It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning
to the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth.
 The arc of contact consists of two parts, i.e.
 Arc of Approach: It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning
of the engagement to the pitch point.
 Arc of Recess: It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to
the end of the engagement of a pair of teeth.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 8

Forms of Teeth:
 There are mainly two types of profiles are used in manufacturing of gear teeth. They are:
Involute Profile Cycloidal Profile

 Involute Profile:
 Involute is defined as the locus of a point on a straight line
which rolls around a circle (base circle) without slipping.
 In an involute gear, the profiles of the teeth are involutes of a
circle.
 Cycloidal Profile: Involute of a
Circle
 It is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of the
circle which rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line.
 Cycloid gear tooth profile is based on the epicycloid and
hypocycloid curves, which are the curves generated by a circle
rolling around the outside and inside of another circle,
respectively. Cycloid

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 9

Classification of Gears:
 Gears are commonly classified according to the position of the axes of the shafts between which
the motion is to be transmitted.

TYPES OF GEARS
(On the basis of orientation of shaft axes)

Non-intersecting
Parallel Intersecting
and Non-parallel

Rack and Worm and Spiral or

Spur Gear Helical Gear Bevel Gear
Pinion Worm Gears Skew Gear

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 10

Spur Gear:
 If the teeth of gear wheels are parallel to the axis of wheel, the gears are called
spur gear.
 They transmit power from one shaft to another parallel shaft.

Helical Gear:
 In helical gears, the teeth are inclined to the axis of wheel.
 Their gradual engagement makes them operate much
smoothly and quietly than spur gears.

Rack and Pinion:

 It is a special case of spur gear in which one gear is having infinite diameter
called rack.
 They are used to convert rotation into linear motion.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 11

Bevel Gear:
 Teeth of bevel gear are cut on conical surfaces.
 They are useful when direction of the shaft’s rotation needs to be
changed.
 Bevel gears are generally used to transmit power at perpendicular
direction.
Worm and Worm Gear:
 It is a gear arrangement also known as worm drive, in which a worm
meshes with a worm gear.
 They are used when large gear reductions are needed.

Spiral or Skew Gear:

 Spiral gears are also known as crossed helical gears.
 They have high helix angle and transmit power between two non-
intersecting non-parallel shafts.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 12

Measurement of Gears:
 The Inspection of the gears consists of determining dimensional accuracy during manufacturing using
following methods:
 General Tests:
 Gear Profile Inspection
a) Involute Measuring Machine
 Rolling Gear Test (Parkinson Gear Tester)
 Measurement of Individual Elements:
 Measurement of Gear Tooth Thickness
a) Gear Tooth Vernier Method
b) Constant Chord Method
c) Base Tangent Method
 Measurement of Pitch Diameter and Tooth Spacing
 Measurement of Gear Pitch

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 13

 General Tests:
 Involute Measuring Machine:
• In this method the gear is held on a mandrel and
circular disc of same diameter as the base circle
of gear for the measurement is fixed on the
mandrel.

• After fixing the gear in the mandrel, the straight

edge of the instrument is brought in contact with
the base circle of the disc.

• Now, the gear and disc are rotated and the edge
moves over the disc without slip.

• The stylus moves over the tooth profile and the

error is indicated on the dial gauge.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 14

 Rolling Gear Test:
• It is a popular gear testing machine used in metrology laboratories and tool rooms.
• The gear being inspected will be made to mesh with a standard gear (master gear), and a dial
indicator is used to capture radial errors.
• This test is generally performed on a most commonly used machine Parkinson Gear Tester.

Working:
 This test is used to detect any errors in
 Tooth form
 Pitch
 Concentricity of pitch line
 When two gears are in mesh with each other, then any of the
above errors will cause the variation of centre distance.
 Radial variations of the gear being inspected are indicated by
the dial indicator.
 This variation is plotted on a chart or graph sheet, which
indicates the radial variations in the gear for one complete
rotation.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 15

 Measurement of Individual Elements:

 Measurement of Gear Tooth Thickness:

a) Gear Tooth Vernier Method:

• This method uses gear calliper to measure

gear tooth thickness.

• Gear Calliper has two vernier scales, one

horizontal and the other vertical.

• Horizontal vernier scale reading gives chordal

thickness (𝑔𝑐 ) and vertical vernier gives the
chordal addendum (ℎ𝑐 ) by measuring position
of a blade, which can slide up and down.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 16

Working:
 First, the blade position is set to a value equal to the addendum of the gear
tooth and locked into position with a locking screw.
 The calliper is set on the gear in such a manner that the blade surface snugly
fits with the top surface of a gear tooth.
 The two anvils are brought into close contact with the gear, and the chordal
thickness (𝑔𝑐 ) is noted down on the horizontal vernier scale
 The theoretical value of 𝑔𝑐 can be found out by considering one tooth in the
gear and it can be verified.

Theoretically,
𝒈𝒄 = 𝒎𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟗𝟎°Τ𝒛 Where,
𝑔𝑐 = Chordal thickness of gear tooth along pitch circle
ℎ𝑐 = Chordal height
𝒎𝒛 𝟐 𝑚 = Module
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟏 + − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟗𝟎°Τ𝒛
𝟐 𝒛 𝑧 = Number of teeth on the gear

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 17

b) Constant Chord Method:
• This method of checking gear tooth thickness measures the tooth width
at the points of contact of a symmetrically placed close meshed rack.
• The length of chord AB is constant for all gears of the same module and
pressure angle irrespective of the number of teeth.
• A single calculation and comparator setting will suffice when checking
a set of meshing gears with different numbers of teeth.
• It is an efficient method for measuring a large number of gears, each
having different number of teeth but the same module.

Length of constant chord AB is given by:

𝝅
𝒄 = 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒎(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝋) Where, 𝑚 = module, and
𝟐
𝜑 = pressure angle of the gear
Chordal height is given by:
𝝅
𝒅=𝒎 𝟏− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋
𝟒
.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 18

c) Base Tangent Method:
• In this case, tooth thickness is measured by measuring the chordal distance over a number of teeth
by using a tooth span micrometer, also called a flange micrometer.
• The base tangent length is the distance between the two parallel planes which are tangential to the
opposing tooth flanks.

Base tangent length (span width) across 𝑠 number

of teeth for a involute gear is given by:
𝝅 𝝅𝑺
𝑾𝒔 = 𝒎𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 − 𝝋 + +
𝟐𝒛 𝟐𝒛
Where,
𝑚 = module,
𝑧 = no. of teeth,
𝜑 = pressure angle,
𝑆 = no. of tooth spaces in 𝑊𝑠

Tables for the span width for given values of module, number of teeth and pressure angle are used for faster inspection.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 19

 Measurement of Pitch Diameter:
 Pitch circle diameter and tooth spacing of a gear is measured by checked by inserting cylinders
(plugs) in the tooth spaces so that their axes lie on the pitch circle.
 The cylinder (plug) diameter can be found by considering a rack in mesh with the gear.

 Cylinder plug diameter is given by:

𝝅𝒎
𝑷𝑸 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋
𝟐
Where,
𝑚 = module
𝜑 = pressure angle

Note:
 The plug size remains the same for all gears having the same pitch and pressure angle.
 A correction will again have to be made in this plug size for backlash.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 20

Working:

 If a gear has an even number of teeth:

 Cylinders can be placed in diametrically opposite tooth spaces

and a measurement taken over them.

 The pitch diameter is obtained by subtracting one cylinder

diameter from this measurement.

 If a gear has an odd number of teeth:

 Gears with an odd number of teeth can also be checked for

pitch diameter by the two-cylinder method.

 In this method, a calculation is needed to find the pitch

diameter.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 21

 Measurement of Gear Pitch:
 Pitch is the distance between corresponding points on equally spaced and adjacent teeth.
 The two types of instruments that are usually employed for checking pitch are:
i. Pitch-measuring Instrument
ii. Pitch-checking Instrument

i. Pitch-measuring Instrument:
 These instruments enable the measurement of chordal
pitch between successive pairs of teeth.
 The instrument comprises a fixed finger and a movable
finger, which can be set to two identical points on
adjacent teeth along the pitch circle.
 The pitch variation is displayed on a dial indicator
attached to the instrument.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 22

ii. Pitch-checking Instrument:
 A pitch-checking instrument is essentially a dividing head that can be used to measure pitch
variations.
 The instrument can be used for checking small as well as large gears due to its portability.
 It has two probes:
a. Anvil (fixed)
b. Measuring feeler (movable)
 Measuring feeler is connected to a dial indicator through levers.

Working:
 The instrument is located by two adjacent supports resting on the crests
of the teeth.
 A tooth flank is butted against the fixed anvil and locating supports.
 The measuring feeler senses the corresponding next flank.
 The instrument is used as a comparator from which we can calculate
the adjacent pitch error, actual pitch, and accumulated pitch error.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 23

Summary:

 Gears are the main elements in a transmission system.

 For efficient transfer of speed and power, gears should conform perfectly to the
designed profile and dimensions.
 During manufacturing the gears are inspected to ensure high degree of accuracy
using different methods.
 All methods comprising general testing methods and measurement of different
elements of gears are discussed.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 24

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 25
INSPECTION & QUALITY CONTROL IN MANUFACTURING
Lecture 20: Miscellaneous Measurements

Dr. Kaushik Pal

Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. & Indl. Engg.
Joint faculty: Centre of Nanotechnology
Introduction:
 Miscellaneous metrology includes certain instruments, measuring machines, and techniques,
which are difficult to label under earlier discussed headings.
 It is an interesting mix of various topics that are essential in a modern manufacturing
system.
 It also deals with the standard procedure for ensuring accuracy and precision of manufacture
by carrying out acceptance test on machine tools.
 Some of the most commonly used miscellaneous measurement techniques are:
1. Laser-based Instrumentation
2. Coordinate Measuring Machines
3. Automated Inspection
4. Machine Vision

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 2

1. Laser-based Instrumentation:
 These techniques are increasingly being used in applications like machine tool
assembly to ensure perfect alignment of machine parts.

 Traditionally, lasers were more used by physicists than engineers, since the frequencies
of lasers were not stable enough.

 LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an intense

emergent beam of light that can be parallel to a high degree or can be focused onto a
very small area.

 Although a number of materials may be used to produce lasers, helium-neon gas laser
is the most popular for applications in metrology.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE LAB 3

Properties of LASER:
• For the purpose of measurement, laser has some additional properties that are not possessed by ordinary
light:
 Monochromatic:
 Laser light is monochromatic.
 It has bandwidth in the range of 0.4 − 0.5 𝜇𝑚.
 Stabilised lasers have still narrower bandwidths, with the result that
very high resolution can be achieved during measurement.
 Coherent:
 In normal light, the rays are randomly phased, resulting in partial
interference within the beam.
 In contrast, laser rays are all in phase, producing a coherent beam of
light.
 Collimated:
 The rays in a laser beam are perfectly parallel with little divergence
and scatter.

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Instrumentation Based on Laser Principles: Laser Scanning
Laser
Micrometer
Interferometer
a) Laser Scanning Micrometer:
• It features a high scanning rate which allows inspection of small workpiece even if they are
fragile, at high temperature, in motion or vibrating.

Working:
 A transmitting unit emits a laser beam that scans at a very high and known
speed across the measuring range.
 Every object placed in the measuring field interrupts the laser beam and casts its
shadow into the receiver.
 By measuring the shadow time, the outside diameter of the part can be exactly
computed.
 In addition to the diameter measurement, by checking other combinations of
light / shadow segments, it is possible to measure any other dimension related to
the shadow cast by the part.

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Applications:

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b) Laser Interferometer:
• In recent times, laser-based interferometers are becoming increasingly popular in metrology applications.
• The fixed unit called the laser head consists of laser, a pair of semi-reflectors, and two photodiodes.
• The sliding unit has a corner cube mounted on it.

Working:
 Laser light first falls on the semi-reflector P, is partially reflected by 90° and
falls on the other reflector S.
 A portion of light passes through P and strikes the corner cube.
 Light is turned through 180° by the corner cube and recombines at the semi-
reflector S.
 Now, if 𝑷𝑸𝑹𝑺 − 𝑷𝑺 = 𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 × 𝝀Τ𝟐 [Destructive Interference]
𝑷𝑸𝑹𝑺 − 𝑷𝑺 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 × 𝝀Τ𝟐 [Constructive Interference]

 Each time the moving slide is displaced by a quarter wavelength, the path difference (i.e., PQRS − PS) becomes half a
wavelength and the output from the photodiode also changes from maximum to minimum or vice versa.
 This sinusoidal output from the photodiode is amplified and fed to a high-speed counter, which is calibrated to give the
displacement in terms of millimetres.

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2. Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM):
refers to
Measuring Machine Single-axis Measuring Instrument
capable of
Coordinate Measuring Machine All Three Orthogonal Axes
measuring in

• A CMM enables the location of a point coordinates in a three-dimensional

(3D) space.

• It simultaneously captures both dimensions and orthogonal relationships.

• Another remarkable feature of a CMM is its integration with a computer.

• The computer provides additional power to generate 3D objects as well as

to carry out complex mathematical calculations.
• Complex objects can be dimensionally evaluated with precision and
speed.

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Comparison between Conventional and Coordinate Measuring Technology:
 A comparison of coordinate metrology with conventional metrology shows the important
advantages of CMMs.

Conventional Metrology Coordinate Metrology

• Manual, time-consuming alignment of the test
• Alignment of the test piece not necessary
piece
• Single-purpose and multi-point measuring
• Simple adaptation to the measuring tasks by
instruments making it hard to adapt to changing
software
measuring tasks
• Comparison of measurements with material • Comparison of measurements with mathematical
measures, i.e. gauge blocks or kinematic standards or numerical models
• Determination of size, form, location and
• Separate determination of size, form, location and
orientation in one setup using one reference
orientation with different machines
system

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When to use CMM?

Multiple Features:
• More the number of features (both dimensional and geometric) can be controlled.

Flexibility:
• No additional accessories (such as jigs and fixtures) needed.

Automated Inspection:
• Inspection can be done in fully automated environment.

High Unit Cost:

• If rework or scrapping is costly.

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Structure of CMM:
 The basic version of a CMM has three axes, along three mutually
perpendicular directions.
 A carriage is provided for each axis, which is driven by a separate motor.
 The three carriages of a CMM form a Cartesian reference coordinate
system.
 The work volume is cuboidal.
 Each axis is fitted with a precision measuring system, which
continuously records the displacement of the carriage from a fixed
reference.
 The third axis carries a probe.
 When the probe makes contact with the workpiece, the computer
captures the displacement of all the three axes.

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Basic CMM Configurations:
 Configurations of CMMs play an important role in meeting measurement requirements like
accuracy, flexibility, time (throughput) and cost.
 Depending on the geometry of the workpiece being measured, they are categorized into five
popular physical configurations:
i. Bridge
ii. Column
iii. Cantilever
iv. Horizontal Arm
v. Gantry

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i. Bridge:
• A bridge-type configuration is a good choice if better rigidity in the structure is required.
• The probe unit is mounted on a horizontal moving bridge, whose supports rest on the machine
table.

ii. Column:
• This configuration provides exceptional rigidity and accuracy.
• It is quite similar in construction to a jig boring machine.
• Machines with such a configuration are often referred to as universal
measuring machines.

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iii. Cantilever:
• The vertically positioned probe is carried by a cantilevered arm.
• The probe moves up and down along the Z-axis, whereas the cantilever arm moves in and out along
the Y-axis (lateral movement).
• The longitudinal movement is provided by the X-axis, which is basically the work table.
• This configuration provides easy access to the workpiece and a relatively large work volume for a
small floor space.

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iv. Horizontal Arm:
• In this type of configuration, the probe is carried by the
horizontal axis.
• The probe assembly can also move up and down along
a vertical axis.
• It can be used for gauging larger work pieces since it
has a large work volume.

v. Gantry:
• In this configuration, the support of the workpiece is
independent of the X- and Y-axis.
• Both these axes are overhead and supported by four
vertical columns from the floor.
• The operator can walk along with the probe, which is
desirable for large work pieces.

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Modes of Operation:
 Modes of operation are quite varied in terms of type of construction and degree of automation.
 CMMs can be classified into the following three types based on their modes of operation:

III. Computer Controlled

II. Semi-automated
I. Manual

I. Manual:
o The manual CMM has a free-floating probe that the operator moves along the machine’s
three axes to establish contact with part features.
o The differences in the contact positions are the measurements.

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II. Semi-automated:
o A semi-automatic machine is provided with an electronic digital display for measurement.
o Many functions such as setting the datum, change of sign, and conversion of dimensions from one
unit to another are done electronically.
III. Computer Controlled:
o A computer-controlled CMM has an on-board computer, which increases versatility, convenience,
and reliability.
o Such machines are quite similar to CNC machines in their control and operation.
o Computer assistance is utilized for three major functions:
i. A programming software directs the probe to the data collection points.
ii. Measurement commands enable comparison of the distance traversed to the standard built into the
machine for that axis.
iii. Computational capability enables processing of the data and generation of the required results.

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Probe:
• The probe is the main sensing element in a CMM.
• Various types of probes are used in CMMs, including mechanical, optical,
laser, and white light.
• These probes can be categorized as:
 Contact Type
 Non-contact Type

Contact Type: Non-contact Type:

• These probes are in physical contact with • Most non-contact probes employ a light
the workpiece when the measurements are beam stylus.
taken.
• The distance from the point of
• Contact probes may be either ‘hard’ measurement is known as standoff and is
probes or ‘soft’ probes. normally 50 mm.

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Operation of CMMs:
 A modern CMM is very similar in operation to a computer numerical control (CNC) machine, because
both control and measurement cycles are under the control of the computer.
 The software providing functional features comprises the following three components:
a. Move commands (which direct the probe to the data collection points).
b. Measurement commands (which result in the comparison of the distance traversed to the standard built
into the machine for that axis).
c. Formatting commands (which translate the data into the form desired for display or printout).
 Machine is programmed using readily available subroutines, mathematical operations and library
programs already stored in its memory.
 A CMM can easily be integrated into an automated inspection system.
Major  A CMM may be interfaced with a CNC machine so that machining is corrected as the
workpiece is inspected.
Applications:
 Reverse Engineering: A complete 3D geometric model with all critical dimensions can
be built where such models do not exist.

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3. Automated Inspection:
 Automated inspection, in a general sense, means automation of one or more steps involved in
the inspection procedure.
 The example of a manufacturing system with automated inspection is flexible inspection
system.
Flexible Inspection System:
 This system is formed by integrating production and inspection
equipment into fully automated systems (FMS or CIM) to
achieve high production rate as well as to improve productivity.

 A typical FIS comprises one or more CNC machines, a transfer

machine (a robotic handling system), and a CMM.
 The controller continuously monitors the function of the CNC
machine and, directs the transfer machine to shift the work part
to the CMM to carry out on-line/post-process inspection.

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4. Machine Vision (MV):
 Machine vision is the technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic
inspection and analysis in industry.
 It extracts information from an image on an automated basis.
 The information extracted can be a simple data (good-part/bad-part signal) or complex set of
data (identity, position and orientation of each object in an image).
Stages of Machine Vision:
 The principal applications in inspection include dimensional gauging,
measurement, and verification of the presence of components.
 The operation of a machine vision system involves the following four
important stages:
I. Image generation and digitization
II. Image processing and analysis
III. Image interpretation
IV. Generation of actuation signals

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I. Image Generation and Digitization:
• The primary task in a vision system is to capture a 2D or 3D image of the
work part.
• A 2D image captures either the top view or a side elevation of the work part.
• The work part is placed on a flat surface and illuminated by suitable lighting,
which provides good contrast between the object and the background.
• The camera is focused on the work part and a sharp image is obtained.
• The image comprises a matrix of discrete picture elements popularly referred
to as pixels.
• Each pixel has a value that is proportional to the light intensity of that portion
of the scene.
• The intensity value for each pixel is converted to its equivalent digital value
by an analog-to-digital converter.
• This digitized frame of the image is referred to as the frame buffer.

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II. Image Processing and Analysis:
 Pre-treatment:
o Information available in the frame buffer is refined and processed to facilitate further
analysis; e.g. noise removal, contrast enhancing.
 Segmentation:
o It involves two stages:
• Thresholding:
 Binary Vision System- (Converts each pixel value into white or black, depending on a given
threshold value)
 Grey-scale System- (Stores different shades of grey/colour information of each pixel)
• Edge Detection:
 To distinguish the image of the object from its surroundings.
 Feature Extraction:
o Size: length, width, area, and perimeter
o Shape: size dependent/independent
o Colour: mean and variance
o A combination of them

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III. Image Interpretation:
 Template Matching and Pattern Recognition:
• Computer program has to match the extracted features with the features of templates already
stored in the memory.
• This matching task is popularly referred to as template matching.
• Whenever a match occurs, an object can be identified and further analysis can be carried out.
• The interpretation function that is used to recognize the object is known as pattern
recognition.
 Feature Weighting:
• In order to eliminate the possibility of wrong identification when two objects have closely
resembling features, feature weighting is used.
• In this technique, several features are combined into a single measure by assigning a weight
to each feature according to its relative importance in identifying the object.

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IV. Generation of Actuation Signals:
• Once the object is identified, the vision system should direct the inspection station to
carry out the necessary action.

Example:
In a flexible inspection environment,
 The work-cell controller generates the actuation signals
to the transfer machine to transfer the work part from
machining stations to the inspection station and vice
versa.
 Clamping, declamping, gripping, etc., of the work parts
are done through actuation signals generated by the
work-cell controller.

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Applications of Machine Vision in Inspection:

a) Dimensional Gauging and Measurement

b) Identification of Surface Defects (scratch marks, tool marks, pores, and blow
holes)

c) Verification of Holes (the count of number of holes; the location of holes with
respect to a datum)

d) Identification of Flaws in a Printed Label (text errors, numbering errors, and

graphical errors )

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Summary:
 Laser-based instrumentation is the best choice for precise measurement due their
monochromatic, coherent and collimated behaviour.

 A computer controlled CMM increases the versatility, convenience, and reliability of

measurement operations.

 In automated inspection, a computer serves as a real-time controller to integrate the

functions of several machines with the inspection station.

 A machine vision system enables the identification and orientation of a work part
within the field of vision, and has far-reaching applications.

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Brief Outline of the Course:
 In manufacturing, quality control is a process that ensures customers receive products free from
defects and meet their requirements.
 Inspection and measurement is needed during production for checking the products for its required
specifications.

Destructive • To understand a specimen’s performance or material behaviour under

Tests different loads.

• To evaluate the properties of material or component without causing damage.

Non-destructive
Tests • To perform in-service inspection to avoid any catastrophic failure.

• For complete evaluation of manufactured products.

Metrology • Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of statistical
quality control techniques.

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