Robert Sobot

Engineering
Mathematics
by Example
Vol. I: Algebra and Linear Algebra
Second Edition
Engineering Mathematics by Example
Robert Sobot

Engineering Mathematics
by Example
Vol. I: Algebra and Linear Algebra

Second Edition
Robert Sobot
ETIS-ENSEA
Cergy-Pontoise, France

ISBN 978-3-031-41199-1 ISBN 978-3-031-41200-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4

1st edition: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
2023
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To my math teacher Mr. Miloš Belušević
Preface

Preface to the Second Edition

It is inevitable that first edition of any type of textbook, and especially textbooks for mathematics,
includes quite a few errors that slipped by all preproduction reviews. In this second edition, errors are
thoroughly reviewed and corrected, with hopes that not many new ones are created.
As the original volume doubled, this second edition is split into three separate books, Vol. I, II,
III. In order to reinforce natural development in the study, best effort is put to logically organize the
presented examples and techniques so that subsequent problems reference the once already solved.

Île-de-France, France Robert Sobot

June 27, 2023

Preface to the First Edition

This tutorial book resulted from my lecture notes developed for undergraduate engineering courses in
mathematics that I teach over the last several years at l’École Nationale Supérieure de l’Électronique
et de ses Applications (ENSEA), Cergy in Val d’Oise department, France.
My main inspiration to write this tutorial type collection of solved problems came from my
students who would often ask “How do I solve this? It is impossible to find the solution,” while
struggling to logically connect all the little steps and techniques that are required to combine together
before reaching solution. In the traditional classical school systems mathematics used to be thought
with the help of systematically organized volumes of problems that help us develop “the way of
thinking.” In other words, to learn how to apply the abstract mathematical concepts to everyday
engineering problems. Same as for music, it is also true for mathematics that in order to reach high
level of competence one must put daily effort into studying of typical forms over long period of time.
In this tutorial book I choose to give not only the complete solutions to the given problems, but
also guided hints to techniques being used at the given moment. Therefore, problems presented in this
book do not provide review of the rigorous mathematical theory, instead the theoretical background
is assumed, while this set of classic problems provides a playground to play and to adopt some of the
main problem-solving techniques.

vii
viii Preface

The intended audience of this book are primarily undergraduate students in science and engineer-
ing. At the same time, my hope is that students of mathematics at any level will find this book to be
useful source of practical problems to practice.

Île-de-France, France Robert Sobot

November 30, 2020
Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all those classic wonderful collections of mathematical problems that
I grew up with and used as the source of my knowledge, and I would like to say thank you to
their authors for providing me with thousands of problems to work on. Specifically, I would like to
acknowledge classic collections written in ex–Yugoslavian, Russian, English and French languages,
some are listed in the bibliography. Hence, I do want to acknowledge their contributions that are
clearly visible throughout this book, which are now being passed on to my readers.
I would like to thank all of my former and current students who I had opportunity to tutor in mathe-
matics since my student years. Their relentless stream of questions posed with unconstrained curiosity
forced me to open my mind, to broaden my horizons, and to improve my own understandings.
I want to acknowledge Mr. Allen Sobot for reviewing and verifying some of the problems, for very
useful discussions and suggestions, as well as his work on technical redaction in first edition of this
book.
Sincere gratitude goes to my publisher and editors for their support and making this book possible.

ix
Contents

1 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Basic Number Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fractional Powers and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Undefined Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1 Basic Number Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Fractional Powers and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Undefined Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Polynomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Difference of Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Difference of Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.8 Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xi
xii Contents

3 Linear Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 System of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.5 Exponential–Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.6 Exponential Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Exponential–Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.6 Exponential Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.1 Trigonometric Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2 Basic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.1 Trigonometric Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2 Basic Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Contents xiii

5.3 Basic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6 Complex Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3 Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4 Euler Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.5 Rational Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.6 Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.3 Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.4 Euler Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5 Rational Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.6 Complex Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7 Bode Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.1 Basic Complex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.2 Bode Plot Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.1 Basic Complex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.2 Bode Plot Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.1 Vector Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.5 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.6 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.8 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.1 Vector Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.2 Vector Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.5 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8.6 Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
xiv Contents

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

8.8 Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Acronyms

f (x), g(x) Functions of x

f  (x), g  (x) First derivatives of functions of f (x), g(x)
f (g(x)) Composite function
sin(x) Sine of x
cos(x) Cosine of x
tan(x) Tangent of x
arctan(x) Arctangent of x
sinc (t) Sine cardinal of t
log(x) Logarithm of x, base 10
ln(x) Natural logarithm of x, base e
logn (x) Logarithm of x, base n
x∗y Convolution product
i Imaginary unit, i 2 = −1
j Imaginary unit, j 2 = −1
ℑ(z) Imaginary part of a complex number z
(z) Real part of a complex number z
F (x(t)) Fourier transform of x(t)
X(ω) Fourier transform of x(t)
L −1 {F (s)} Inverse Laplace transform of F (s)
F −1 (X(ω)) Inverse Fourier transform of X(ω)
F
−
→ Apply Fourier transform
LT
−→ Apply Laplace transform
=
l’H
Apply l’Hôpital rule
DF T Discrete Fourier transform
FFT Fast Fourier transform
δ(x) Dirac distribution
(x) Triangular distribution
(x) Square (rectangular) distribution
XT Dirac comb whose period is T
(t) Heaviside step function of t
u(t) Heaviside step function of t
r(t) Ramp function of t
sign (t) Sign function of t
(a, b) Pair of numbers
(a, b) Open interval
≡ Equivalence

xv
xvi Acronyms

{a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . } List of elements, vector, series

{an } List of elements, vector, series
R The set of real numbers
C The set of complex numbers
N The set of natural numbers
Q The set of rational numbers
a∈C Number a is included in the set of complex numbers
a∈R Number a is included in the set of real numbers
∀x For all values of x
Angle, argument
⇒ It follows that
dy
dx
Derivative of y relative to x
ux Partial derivative of u(x, y, z, . . . ) relative to x
ux,y Second partial derivative of u(x, y, z, . . . ), relative to x then to y
∗
z Complex conjugate of number z
|x| Absolute value of x
Am,n Matrix A whose size is m × n
In The identity square matrix whose size is n × n
|A| Determinant of matrix A
AT Transpose of matrix A
 Difference between two variables
 Main determinant of a matrix
x Cramer’s sub-determinant relative to variable x
a Vector a
∞
i=0 ai Sum of elements {a0 , a1 , . . . , a∞ }
dB Decibel
dBm Decibel normalized to “10−3 ”, i.e., “milli”
H (j x) Transfer function
x→ a Limiting to a from its right side (x-axis)

x→ a Limiting to a from its left side (x-axis)

x → a Limiting to a from above (y-axis)
x →  a Limiting to a from below (y-axis)
· in–line hints
Numbers
1

Basic number operations and rules, Assuming a ∈ R and a = 0,

a n+1 = a n · a
a 0 = 1, (a = 0)
def

a n a m = a m+n
a =a
1 def
 n m  n
a = an m = am
1
a −n = , (a = 0)
def

an (a b)n = a n bn
n def √  a n
a m = a n , (a ≥ 0)
m
an
= n = a n b−n , (b = 0)
   b b
f (x) ; f (x) ≥ 0
|f (x)| =
def
  an
−f (x) ; f (x) < 0 = a n a −m = a n−m , (a = 0)
am

Problems

1.1 Basic Number Operations

Calculate expressions in P.1.1 to P.1.7.

 −2  −2  −1
1 1 1
1.1. (−2)−3 1.2. 1.3. +
2 2 2

 −3
(−2)−3 − (−3)−2 2    
1.4. 1.5. (−2)−1 +(−3)−1 ÷ (−3)−1 −(−6)−1
(−4)−1 3

1.6. −4 × 104 + 2.5 × 105 1.7. 0.5−1 + 0.25−2 + 0.125−3 + 0.0625−4

Calculate expressions in P.1.8 to P.1.15.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_1
2 1 Numbers

 0  0
1 3
1.8. 20 1.9. 1.10. −
2 8

√  3 0
1.11. ( 3 + π − 1)0 1.12. (cos x)0 , (x = ±π/2) 1.13. e

 0  0  0  0
3 π 4 7π 3 π 4 22
1.14. + − − 1.15. + − − 3
2 6 27 9 2 6 27 3

Calculate expressions in P.1.16 to P.1.18.

1.16. 23000 × 32000 1.17. 3200 × 4−300 1.18. 5−2000 × 23000

1.2 Fractional Powers and Radicals

Calculate expressions in P.1.19 to P.1.23.

  12  − 43   32
16 1 1
1.19. 1.20. 1.21.
25 27 2−6

 − 25  − 32   23  0.375
1 1 8 1
1.22. 1.23. + 1.24.
1024 4 27 256

1.25. 0.25−0.5 1.26. 25− 2 1.27. 0.001− 3

3 1

Calculate expressions in P.1.28 to P.1.38.

1.28. x − 5 1.29. x − 20 y − 15
2 3 7 1 2
1.30. x 8 y 25

x− 2 y 4
1 3
x− 2
5  −0.75
z− 12
7 2 5
1.31. 1.32. 1.33. x 3 y 12
− 78 5 3
z v 3 y 4

   2  n−1
1
 5 2 7
1.35. x 3 x 4 x −1
2 3 3 4 5
1.34.
1
x n x n−1 ÷ x n 1.36. x 2 y 5 z 6 ÷ x 4 y 3 z 12

  − 13    − 13 
3 2   1 − 23 3 2   1 − 23
1.37. x4 ÷ x −1 2 1.38. x4 ÷ x −1 2
1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 3

Calculate expressions in P.1.39 to P.1.42.

√ 2 √ √
1.39. 3
4a 2 b 1.40. a
xn ÷ xa
n 1.41. x x x √
3
x
3 √
x x

√
x
√
x
√
x
1.42. a 3x−4 a 1−x a 3−x

1.3 Undefined Forms

Calculate and/or discuss expressions in P.1.43 to P.1.51.

1.43. 1∞ 1.44. 00 1.45. 0 · ∞

1.46. ∞0 1.47. ∞ − ∞ ∞
1.48.
∞
 
0 27(23 −8) 1 1
1.49. 1.50. 1.51. (−2)−3 +
0 1−27 · 3−3 8 64−26

1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions

Calculate expressions in P.1.52 to P.1.58.

1.52. |x − 3| = 7 1.53. |3 − x| > 4 1.54. ||x| − 5| > 4

|x| |x| + x |x| + 2x

1.55. 1.56. 1.57. + |x| + x
x 2 3

|x−|2x|| |x − 2|  2  2
1.58. − >0 x−2+|x−2| x−2 − |x − 2|
|x| + x |x| + 1
1.59. +
2 2
4 1 Numbers

Answers

1.1 Basic Number Operations

1 1
1.1. (−2)−3 = (−1 · 2)−3 = (a b)n = a n bn = (−1)−3 (2)−3 = (−1) =−
23 8
 −2 
1 −n 1
1.2. = a = n = 22 = 4
2 a
 −2  −1
1 1
1.3. + = 22 + 2 = 6
2 2
 −3  3
(−2)−3 − (−3)−2 2 (−1/2)3 − (−1/3)2 3
1.4. = ×
(−4)−1 3 −1/4 2 
−1/8 − 1/9 27 1 1 27
= × = + × 4
×
−1/4 8 8 9 8
2
17 27 17 × 3 × 9A 51
= × = =
72 2 9A × 8 × 2 16

1.5. Negative exponent identity: a −n ≡ 1/a n , thus

     
 −1 −1
  −1 −1
 1 1 1 1 5 1
(−2) + (−3) ÷ (−3) − (−6) = − − ÷ − + =− ÷ −
2 3 3 6 6 6
5
= × 6A = 5
6A

1.6. Numbers with the equal powers are easier to operate with

−4 × 104 + 2.5 × 105 = −4 × 104 + 25 × 104 = 21 × 104 = 2.1 × 105

1.7. Decimal numbers have their equivalent fractional forms.

 −1  −2  −3  −4
−1 −2 −3 −4 1 1 1 1
0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0.0625 = + + +
2 4 8 16
= 2 + 42 + 83 + 164 = 2 + (22 )2 + (23 )3 + (24 )4 = 2 + 24 + 29 + 216 = 2 + 16 + 512 + 65,536
= 66,066 (note the powers of two)

1.8. By definition, assuming a base not equal zero nor infinity, zero powers equal one, as 20 = 1
 0
1
1.9. See P.1.8, thus =1
2
 0
3
1.10. − =1
8
1.2 Fractional Powers and Radicals 5

√
1.11. ( 3 + π − 1)0 = 1

1.12. Excluding the case 00 , i.e.(x = ±π/2), then (cos x)0 = 1

 3 0  m
1.13. e = an = a n m = e3 · 0 = e0 = 1
 0  0
3 π 4 7π
1.14. + − − =1−1=0
2 6 27 9
 0  0
3 π 4 7π
1.15. + − − =1−1=0
2 6 27 9

1.16. Exceedingly large powers may only be simplified, for example reduced to the same base, as

23000 × 32000 = (23 )1000 × (32 )1000 = 81000 × 91000 = 721000

 200
3200 3200 3200 3200 3
1.17. 3200 × 4−300 = = = = =
(43 )100 64100 (82 )100 8200 8
 1000
(23 )1000 8
1.18. 5−2000 × 23000 = =
(52 )1000 25

1.2 Fractional Powers and Radicals

Fractional powers are equivalent cardinals, and they obey the same rules as “ordinary” powers.
  12 √
16 16 4
1.19. =√ =
25 25 5
 
 − 43
1  4
4 
3× 4
1.20. = 27 = 33 3 = 3 3 = 34 = 81
3
27
  32
 3  m
= a n m = 2  2 = 29 = 512
1 63 3
1.21. = 26 2 = a n
2−6
 − 25
1 2  2 10 2× 2
1.22. = 1024 5 = 210 5 = 2 5 = 24 = 16

1024
 
 
 − 32   23  3  23   3×
2  3
2

1.23. 1 8 3 2  2  32 
2× 3
4 4
+ = 42 + 3
= 2 + = 2 2 + = 8 +
4 27 3 3 9 9
8×9+4 76
= = = 19
9 4
6 1 Numbers

 
 0.375   38   8×
1  8
3

1.24. 1 1 1
= = =
256 28 2 8
 − 12
1 √
1.25. 0.25−0.5 =
1
= 4 2 = 4 = ±2
4
 
  3  2
−3
1 1
1.26. 25− 32 = 52 − 2 = 5 2× −3
 =5 = 3 =
5 125
 
1.27. 0.001 − 13
  1
−3 − 3
−3 1 − 1
= 10 = 10  = 10
3 (−1)(−1)
= 101 = 10

  15
− 25
 − 1 1 1 1
1.28. x = x2 5 = =  1 = √
x2 x2 5
5
x2

  201   151
− 20
3
− 15
7  − 1  − 1 1 1 1 1 1
1.29. x y = x 3 20 y 7 15 = =  1  1 = √ 
x3 y7 x 3 20 y 7 15
20
x 3 15 y 7

1 2 √ 
1.30. x 8 y 25 = 8
x 25 y 2

1  
− 12 √ 4 y3 3√
8 7 4
x y x 4 z y3
1.31. 5 = = √ √
z− 8 v 3
7
1 √3
3
x v5
√
8 7
v 5
z

x− 2
5
1 1 1 1
z− 12 =
7
1.32. 3 5 3 7 =√  √
y 4 x 2 y 4 z 12 x 5 4
y 3 12 z7
   
 2 5 −0.75  2 5 − 34 − 2 
31
− 5

3
1
= x − 2 y − 16 = √ 
1 5
= x 3 y 12 =x
4
1.33. x 3 y 12  y
3 42


12 4

x 16 y 5
 n m 
   2  n−1
1    2 − n−1
1 a a = a m+n n2
= x n+ n−1 x − n−1
1 1 1
1.34. x n x n−1 ÷ x n = x n x n−1 x n =  n m
a = an m

=x 
−(n −1) 1
x − n−1 = a n a m = a m+n = x

n2 −n+1 n2 n2 −n+1−n2
=x n−1 n−1 
n −1

1
= x −1 = , (n = 1)
x
√
1.35. x 3 x 4 x −1 = a n a m = a m+n = x 3 + 4 −1 = x 12 =
2 3 2 3 5 12
x5

 5 2 7  
3 4 5
−n 1 a c a d
1.36. x y z ÷ x 4 y 3 z 12 =
2 5 6 a = n = ÷ =
a b d b c
√  √
= x 2 − 4 y 5 − 3 z 6 − 12 = x 4 y 15 z 4 = 4 y 15 y 2 4 z
3 5 4 2 5 7 1 2 1
1.3 Undefined Forms 7

  − 13 
3 2  −1  12 − 23  3 − 23  1 2
−1 2 3
= x − 12 x − 6
6 2
1.37. x 4 ÷ x = x 4 x
1
= x− 2 − 3 = x− 6 = √
1 1 5

6
x5
  − 13  
3 2   1 − 23 a c a d
1.38. x4 ÷ x −1 2 = ÷ =  4C 2) 2C (−1/3)
= x (3/ C (2/3)
 x (−1) (1/2) C
b d b c
1
= x− 2 − 3 = x− 6 = √
1 1 5

6
x5
√ 2 √ √  n  m  √
3
4a 2 b = 24 a 4 b2 = 2 · 23 a 3 a b2 = a m = a n
3 3
= 3 2(2a)3 a b2 = 2a 2ab2
3
1.39.

√ √ n2 −a 2
x n ÷ x a = x a ÷ x n = x a x − n = x an
n a n a
1.40. a n

1.41. Roots are easier to handle in the form of fractional powers, thus starting from most inner root

√ √ 1 3 1 4 3 3 C
42 1
2
3 1

x x=x xx2 = x x2 = x
3 3
x x x3x x xx3 x x3 xx 2
C x 3

14 7
√
x 3 x 2 = x x 3 2 x 2 = x 1+ 6 + 2 = x 6 3 = x 3 = x 2+ 3 = x 2 3 x
5 1 5 1 1 5 1 7 1
=x

1.42. Whether specific numbers or variables, identities apply as

√ √ √ 
x

a 3x−4 a 1−x a 3−x = a x a x a x = a  x  = a x = a, (x = 0)

x x x 3x−4 1−x 3−x 3x−4+1−x+3−x

1.3 Undefined Forms

1.43. Strictly speaking there is ∞ term in the expression, thus one argument may be that therefore
1∞ is not defined. However, equally valid argument is that this case is special because number one is
the neutral element for multiplication, thus 1∞ = 1 · 1 · 1 · · · = 1. The answer depends on the context.
In the higher level mathematical theory, rigorous comparing of infinities is still in the research domain,
thus not considered here.

1.44. Any number to the power of zero is assumed equal one, that is to say including 00 = 1.
However, depending on the context this expression may be declared undefined.

1.45. Expression 0 · ∞ is not defined. That is to say, this product may produce any arbitrary number
as the result. For example, consider the following two cases:
8 1 Numbers

  (10) · (10) = 100   (2) · (3) = 6

10 2
(10 · 100) = 100 (3 · 200) = 6
 100  200
10 2
(10 · 1000) = 100 (3 · 2000) = 6
1000 2000
 (·  · · ) (· · · ) = 100  (·· · ) (· · · ) = 6
10 2
(10 · ∞) = 100 (3 · ∞) = 6
∞ ∞
(0) (∞) = 100 (0) (∞) = 6

Which is to say that by starting with any product of two numbers, it is possible to show that 0 · ∞
product equal that same product. This is because any non–zero number divided by infinity equal zero,
and any non–zero number multiplied by infinity equal infinity.

1.46. The form of ‘∞0 ’ is assumed undefined. Through the properties of logarithmic function, this
power form may be converted into 0/0 or 0 · ∞, thus normally declared undefined.

1.47. Difference of two infinite terms ‘ ∞ − ∞’ is undetermined. Comparing multiple infinites is

still in the research domain.

1.48. Ratio of two infinite terms ‘∞/∞’ is a classic undefined form. With simple algebra it can be
converted into ‘0/0’ form.

1.49. Ratio of two zero terms ‘0/0’ is a classic undefined form. With simple algebra it can be
converted into ‘∞/∞’ form. (Recall that 1/0 = ∞ and 1/∞ = 0).

27(23 − 8) 27(0) 0
1.50. −3
= = (undefined)
1 − 27 · 3 1 − 27/27 0
   
1 1 1 1 1
1.51. (−2)−3 + = − + = 0 · ∞ (undefined)
8 64 − 26 8 8 0

1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions

1.52. One abs function is equivalent to two functions, thus two equations

x−3≥0⇒x ≥3 ∴ |x − 3| = x − 3 ∴ x − 3 = 7 ∴ x1 = 10
|x − 3| = 7
x−3<0⇒x <3 ∴ |x − 3| = −(x − 3) ∴ −(x − 3) = 7 ∴ x2 = −4

Therefore, there are two discrete solutions, x1 = 10 if (x ≥ 3), and x2 = −4 if (x < 3), see
Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Example P.1.52

−4 10 x
1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 9

1.53. An inequality with abs function is split into two inequalities, thus two intervals as the
solutions,

3−x ≥0⇒x ≤3 ∴ |3 − x| = 3 − x ∴ 3 − x > 4 ∴ x < −1
|3 − x| > 4
3−x <0⇒x >3 ∴ |3 − x| = −(3 − x) ∴ −(3 − x) > 4 ∴ x > 7

Therefore, there are two intervals x ∈ [−∞, −1] and x ∈ [7, +∞], see Fig. 1.2.

1.54. There are two abs functions: |x| and ||x| − 5|, thus in total there are four possible cases in

||x| − 5| > 4

systematically decomposed as follows:

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x

x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ |x − 5| = x − 5 ∴ x − 5 > 4 ∴ x>9
∴ |x − 5| > 4
x − 5 < 0 ⇒ |x − 5| = −(x − 5) ∴ −x + 5 > 4 ∴ x<1

x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x

− x − 5 ≥ 0 ⇒ | − x − 5| = −x − 5 ∴ −x − 5 > 4 ∴ x < −9
∴ | − x − 5| > 4
− x − 5 < 0 ⇒ | − x − 5| = −(−x − 5) ∴ x + 5 > 4 ∴ x > −1

These four resulting inequalities must be satisfied at the same time, thus summarized as (see Fig. 1.3)

x ∈ [−∞, −9] and − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and x ∈ [9, +∞]

This conclusion my be verified by plotting ||x| − 5| vs. “4.” The three regions where ||x| − 5| > 4
is satisfied are clearly visible, see Fig. 1.4.

1.55. Absolute function may be viewed as an efficient method to encode two equations

Fig. 1.2 Example P.1.53 x < −1 x>7

−1 7 x

Fig. 1.3 Example P.1.54 x > −1

x < −9 x<1 x>9

−9 −1 1 9 x
10 1 Numbers

Fig. 1.4 Example P.1.54

||x| − 5|

x
0

−9 −1 1 9

f (x) f (x)

0 x 1

−1 0 x

0 0 1

Fig. 1.5 Examples P.1.55, P.1.56

⎧ ⎫
⎪ |x| x ⎪
⎪
⎪ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ = = 1 (x = 0) ⎪
⎪
|x| ⎨ x x ⎬
= = sign (x)
x ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 :⇒ |x| = −x |x| −x ⎪
∴ = = −1 (x = 0) ⎭
x x

Indeed, this |x|/x = x/|x| = ±1 ratio is known as sign (x) function. By convention sign (0) = 0,
see Fig. 1.5 (left).

1.56. Signs of abs function’s argument are

⎧ ⎫
⎪ |x| + x x+x 2Ax
⎪
⎨ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x
⎪ ∴ = = =x⎪
⎪
⎪
⎬
|x| + x 2 2 2A
= = ramp (x)
2 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x |x| + x −x + x 0 ⎪
∴ = = = 0⎭
2 2 2

This is one of possible definitions for the function known as the ramp (x) function, see Fig. 1.5 (right).
1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 11

Fig. 1.6 Example P.1.57

f (x)
3

0 x

−1

−3 0 1

1.57. Absolute functions are replaced with their equivalent forms as

⎧
⎪ |x| + 2x x + 2x
⎪
⎪ x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ + |x| + x = + x + x = 3x
|x| + 2x ⎨ 3 3
+ |x| + x =
3 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x |x| + 2x −x + 2x x
∴ + |x| + x = −x+x =
3 3 3

This result is an example of a general “piecewise linear” function, see Fig. 1.6. It is noted that there
is a point where limits (and by extension, derivatives) are not defined (here, at x = 0).

1.58. Given inequality

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1

systematically decomposed as follows:

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ |x| + x = x + x = 2x and, |2x| = 2x


(x − 2x) ≥ 0 ⇒ | − x| ≥ 0 ∴ x≥0 
∴
(x − 2x) < 0 ⇒ | − x| < 0 ∴ n.a.

∴
|x − |2x|| x1 1
= A =
|x| + x 2 xA 2
|x − |2x|| |x − |2x||
x < 0 ⇒ |x| = −x ∴ |x| + x = −x + x = 0 ∴ = = ∞ ∴ n.a.
|x| + x 0

and,

x ≥ 0 ⇒ |x| = x ∴ |x| + 1 = x + 1
12 1 Numbers


(x − 2) ≥ 0 ⇒ |x − 2| = x − 2 ∴ x≥2
|x − 2| =
(x − 2) < 0 ⇒ |x − 2| = −(x − 2) ∴ x<2

In summary, as x ≥ 0, (otherwise, inequality is not defined due to infinity term) then

(a) 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 : note that within given interval (x + 1) > 0

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1
1 −(x − 2)
− >0
2 x+1
(x + 1) + 2(x − 2)
>0
2(x + 1)
3(x − 1)
>0 ⇒x>1
2(x + 1)

(b) x ≥ 2 : note that within given interval (x + 1) > 0

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0
|x| + x |x| + 1
1 x−2
− >0
2 x+1
(x + 1) − 2(x − 2)
>0
2(x + 1)
5−x
>0 ⇒x<5
2(x + 1)

These sub-inequalities inequalities must be satisfied at the same time, see Fig. 1.7.

|x − |2x|| |x − 2|
− >0 ∴ x ∈ (1, 5)
|x| + x |x| + 1

1.59. Given expression

 2  2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2|
+
2 2

Absolute function |x − 2| term is decomposed into two cases as

1.4 Absolute Numbers and Expressions 13

Fig. 1.7 Example P.1.58

f (x)

x
0

0 1 2 5

1. x − 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = (x − 2)
 2  2    
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2| x − 2 + (x − 2) 2 x − 2 − (x − 2) 2
+ = +
2 2 2 2
 2  2
2A(x − 2) x − 2A − x
+ 2A 0
= +
= (x − 2)2
2A 2

2. x − 2 < 0 ∴ x < 2 ⇒ |x − 2| = −(x − 2)

 2  2  2  
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2| x − 2 − (x − 2) x − 2 + (x − 2) 2
+ = +
2 2 2 2
 2  2
x − 2A − x
+ 2A 0 2A(x − 2)
=
+ = (x − 2)2
2 2A

In summary,
 2  2
x − 2 + |x − 2| x − 2 − |x − 2|
+ = (x − 2)2 , ∀x
2 2
Polynomials
2

Problems

2.1 Polynomial Expansion

Multiply polynomials in P.2.1 to P.2.6

2.1. (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) 2.2. (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9)

2.3. (3x 2 − 5x + 6)(2x − 7) 2.4. (x 4 + x 3 + 2)(x 2 − 3x + 4)

2.5. (3y 2 + 2x − 6xy)(2x 2 + 4xy − 2y 3 ) 2.6. (x − y)(y − z)(z − x)

Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1 in P.2.7 to P.2.9, calculate

2.7. P (x) + Q(x) 2.8. P (x) − Q(x) 2.9. 2xP (x) − 2Q(x)

Given P (x) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c calculate parameters a, b, c so that P (x) is divisible by binomials

given in P.2.10 to P.2.13:

2.10. x, (x − 1), and (x − 2). 2.11. (x + 1), (x − 1), and (x − 2).

2.12. (x + 1), (x − 2), and (x + 3). 2.13. (x − 5), (x + 2), and (x + 4).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 15

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_2
16 2 Polynomials

Fig. 2.1 Pascal’s triangle n=0 1

n=1 1 1
n=2 1 2 1
n=3 1 3 3 1
n=4 1 4 6 4 1
n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1
n=6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
n=7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
···

2.2 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle)

Reminder: Formal expression for binomial expansion is

n  
 n  

n n
(a + b)n = a n−k bk = a k bn−k
k=0
k k=0
k

Due to their symmetry, the polynomial coefficients are arranged in the form of Pascal’s triangle
(Fig. 2.1).
Each row lists polynomial coefficients of the corresponding n-th binomial power. Note that
each row coefficient is calculated as the sum of two neighboring coefficients, left and right in
the row above.
For example, binomial square form is

(ax)2 ± 2abx + b2 = (ax ± b)2

By using Pascal’s triangle, develop binomial powers in P.2.14 to P.2.19.

2.14. (a + b)3 2.15. (xy − z)5 2.16. (−a − bc)4

2.17. (x + 2)5 2.18. (2x + 1)4 2.19. (x − 1)6

Factorize quadratic and bi-quadratic polynomials given in P.2.20 to P.2.25.

√
2.20. x 2 − 2x + 1 2.21. x 2 − 6x + 9 2.22. x 2 − 2 2x + 2

2.23. 4x 2 − 12x + 9 2.24. x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 2.25. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1

2.3 Long Division

Divide polynomials in P.2.26 to P.2.29.

2.26. (x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) 2.27. (6x 3 + 10x 2 + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1)

2.4 Factorization 17

2.28. (4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5) 2.29. (x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3)

2.4 Factorization

Factorize polynomials in P.2.30 to P.2.41.

2.30. 5a + 5x 2.31. 2a − 2 2.32. 7a − 14 2.33. 3a 2 + 9

2.34. 3a + 6b + 9 2.35. 6x + ax + bx 2.36. 9a 2 − 6a + 12 2.37. a 2 − a 3

2.38. 3a 2 − 6a 2.39. x 3 a 2 − x 3 2.40. 3a 3 + 2a 2 + a 2.41. 4x 2 − 2x + xy

Factorize polynomials in P.2.42 to P.2.53.

2.42. x 3 y 3 − x 3 y + x 4 y 3 2.43. x 3 y 3 − x 2 y 8 2.44. 6x 2 y 2 − 4xy 3

2.45. 5x 3 − 15x 2 y 3 2.46. 6x 3 y − 9x 2 y 2 + 3x 3 y 2 2.47. x 3 − x 7 − 2x 5

2.48. a 3 b2 + 2a 4 b2 − 4ab5 2.49. 3a 3 b3 − 9a 2 b4 + 12a 5 b4 2.50. a(m + n) + b(m + n)

2.51. m(a − b) + n(a − b) 2.52. 7q(p − q) + 2p(q − p) 2.53. 3(x + y) + (x + y)2

Factorize the following polynomials by finding the common terms: P.2.54 to P.2.63.

2.54. am − an + bm − bn 2.55. am − an − bm + bn 2.56. an − ab − mn + mb

2.57. 5ax + 5ay − x − y 2.58. 2x 2 + 2xy − x − y 2.59. 4ym − 4yn − m + n

2.60. ax 2 − bx 2 − bx + ax − a + b 2.61. 6by − 15bx − 4ay + 10ax

2.62. 2x 2 − 2xy + xz − yz 2.63. 5ax 2 − 10ax − bx + 2b − x + 2

Factorize polynomials in P.2.64 to P.2.65.

2.64. xyz + x 2 y 2 − 3x 4 y 5 − 3x 3 y 4 − xy − z 2.65. m2 x 4 − mnx 3 + 2mx 2 − 2nx + n − mx

Factorize polynomials in P.2.66 to P.2.70.

2.66. a 2n + a n 2.67. a 3x − 2a 2x bx 2.68. 2x m+n + 6x n

18 2 Polynomials

2.69. a 3x + 3a 2x + 5a x 2.70. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1

Simplify expressions in P.2.71 to P.2.73

x n+2 x 3n+2 + x 3n+1 x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn

2.71. 2.72.
2x x n x 2 x 3n 2.73. 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 3 + ··· + n
x x x x

2.5 Difference of Squares

Reminder: Difference of two squares identity is used in many practical sitautions

a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)

Factorize polynomials in P.2.74 to P.2.89.

2.74. x 2 − 49 2.75. a 2 − 36 2.76. 16x 2 − 9 2.77. 9x 2 − 49

2.78. 25 − x 2 2.79. 81 − x 4 2.80. x 2 −

1 x2 4
2.81. −
49 4 9

9x 2 4y 2 49x 2 2.84. x 2 − 0.36 2.85. x 2 − 0.0009

2.82. − 2.83. − 9y 2
4 9 25

2.86. 0.04x 2 − 0.25 2.87. 2.88. x 4 y 2 − 0.01 2.89.

0.01x 2 − 0.04y 2 0.25x 2 y 2 − 0.0001

Factorize expressions in P.2.90 to P.2.101.

2.90. (x − 3)2 − 4 2.91. (a + 5)2 − 9 2.92. y 2 − (x − y)2

2.93. x 2 − (x + y)2 2.94. (x + 2)2 − 4x 2 2.95. 9x 2 − (x − 1)2

2.96. (x − y)2 − 16(x + y)2 2.97. (x + 2y)2 − 9(x − 2y)2 2.98. 4(x − y)2 − 25(x + y)2

2.99. 36(x − 2)2 − 25(x + 1)2 (x + y − z)2 (x + y − 3)2

2.100. 2.101.
−(x − y + z)2 −25(x + 2)2

Calculate products in P.2.102 to P.2.110 without using a calculator.

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas 19

2.102. 98 × 102 2.103. 99 × 101 2.104. 83 × 77 2.105. 79 × 81

2.106. 18 × 22 2.107. 201 × 199 2.108. 1.05 × 0.95

2.109. 1.01 × 0.99 2.110. 9.9 × 10.1

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas

Reminder: The relations between the sum and product of polynomial roots, attributed to
François Viète, are rather practical, among other applications in mathematics, for rapid
factorization of quadratic polynomials. Trinomial

b c
ax 2 + bx + c = x 2 + x + = x 2 + b x + c
a a

may be factorized as

x 2 + b x + c = x 2 + x1 x + x2 x + x1 x2 = x(x + x1 ) + x2 (x + x1 ) = (x + x1 )(x + x2 )

where, x1 , x2 are factors of c and x1 + x2 = b

Factorize quadratic polynomials in P.2.111 to P.2.119.

2.111. x 2 − 6x + 5 2.112. x 2 − 9x + 14 2.113. x 2 − 6x + 8

2.114. 2x 2 + 3x + 1 2.115. 3x 2 − 14x + 8 2.116. −2x 2 + x + 3

√ √ √
2.117. −x 2 + 5x − 4 2.118. −6x 2 + 5x + 4 2.119. x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6

Factorize bi-quadratic polynomials in P.2.120 to P.2.125.

2.120. x 4 − 13x 2 + 36 2.121. x 4 − 10x 2 + 9 2.122. x 6 − 2x 3 + 1

2.123. x 6 + 3x 3 + 2 2.124. x 6 − 9x 3 + 8 2.125. 2x 2m+2 − 11x m+1 + 9

20 2 Polynomials

2.7 Completing the Square

Reminder: Technique of completing the square helps convert a quadratic polynomial of the
form

ax 2 + bx + c to the form a(x − m)2 + n

where m and n are some suitable constants.

That is to say, completing the square creates a square trinomial inside of a quadratic
expression.

Solve quadratic equations in P.2.126 to P.2.131.

2.126. x 2 + 6x − 7 = 0 2.127. 2x 2 − 10x − 3 = 0 2.128. −x 2 − 6x + 7 = 0

2.129. x 2 + 3x = 0 2.130. 2x 2 + 6x + 2 = 0 2.131. x 2 − x − 6 = 0

2.8 Factor Theorem

Reminder: Given n-th-order polynomial

Pn (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = (x − xn )(x − xn−1 ) · · · (x − x1 )

where, xn , xn−1 , . . . , x1 , are zeros of Pn (x) (in total, there are n zeros).

1. Factorization of polynomials takes advantage of fundamental theorems in algebra (very

loosely interpreted as):
(a) The total number of polynomial roots n (i.e., both real and complex) is equal to the
polynomial degree n, where the complex roots come in pairs, i.e., each complex root
is accompanied by its complex conjugate pair. Consequently, in odd order polynomials,
there must be at least one real root (i.e., the one that does not have its pair).
(b) Polynomial roots may be found among the factors of the (an a0 ) product.
(c) If (x − x0 ) is one of Pn (x) factors, that is, x0 is one of Pn (x) zeros, then Pn (x0 ) = 0.
2. The factor theorem states that (x − n) is binomial factor of a polynomial P (x) if and only
if P (n) = 0, that is, n is one of the P (x) roots. Otherwise, if the value P (n) = r = 0, it is
said that R = r/(x − n) is the reminder of division P (x) ÷ (x − n).

Factorize: P.2.132 to P.2.143

2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 21

2.132. x 3 − 1 2.133. x 3 − y 3 2.134. x 3 + 1 2.135. x 3 + x + 2

2.136. x 3 + y 3 2.137. x 4 + 4 2.138. x 4 + x 2 + 1 2.139. x 5 + x + 1

2.140. (x + y + z)3 − x 3 − y 3 − z3 2.141. x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4

2.142. (x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 + x 2 + 1) − 1 2.143. (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) + 15

Calculate parameters a, b, c so that P (x) = Q(x) in P.2.144 to P.2.145, if

2.144. P (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 + 3, Q(x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c)

2.145. P (x) = 2x 3 − x 2 + x + 4, Q(x) = (x − 2)(ax 2 + bx + c)

Without doing the actual division, calculate the reminder of polynomial divisions in P.2.146 to
P.2.149.

2.146. (x 4 − 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x + 1) ÷ (x − 1) 2.147. (x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1)
       
2.148. x 1965 − 256x 1961 + 1 ÷ x 2 − 4x 2.149. x 2023 − 2x 2022 − 1 ÷ x 2 − 3x + 2

Given polynomials in P.2.150 to P.2.151, calculate parameter k so that P (x, k) is divisible by Q(x).

2.150. P (x, k) = 4x 5 + k x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2, Q(x) = x + 2.

2.151. P (x, k) = x 3 − 3k x + 4(k 2 + 1)x − (k 3 + 5), Q(x) = (x − 1)

2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition

Reminder: Partial fraction form of a rational function is very useful for calculating its integral.
A general case of rational expression of two polynomials, for example, k-th order Pk (x) and
m-th order Qm (x), where m > k, may be written as

Pk (x) P (x)
=
Qm (x) (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 )n (ax 2 + bx + c)
α β γ1 γ2 γn δx + η
= + + + + ··· + +
x − x1 x − x2 (x − x3 )1 (x − x3 )2 (x − x3 )n (ax + bx + c)
2

where, α, β, γ , . . . are the coefficient constants to be calculated, and partial decomposition

rational forms are created as follows:

1. For each unique zero of Q(x), such as x1 , x2 , there is one rational term.

(continued)
22 2 Polynomials

2. For zeros with n multiplicity, such as x3 , there is a series of n rational terms.

3. When quadratic term (ax 2 + bx + c) has complex zeros, then its corresponding numerator
must be linear binomial.

Derive the partial fraction form of rational functions in P.2.152 to P.2.166.

x x+2 2x 2
2.152. 2.153. 2.154.
(x + 1)(x − 4) x3− 2x 2 x4−1

2.155.
1 x3 + x − 1 2.157.
4
2.156.
x3 −1 (x 2 + 2)2 x4 +1

x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16 x−1 x
2.158. 2.159. 2.160.
x 2 − 4x + 3 x2 + x (x + 1)(x − 4)

1 x+2 2x 2
2.161. 2.162. 2.163.
x2 −1 x3− 2x 2 x4−1

1 4 1
2.164. 2.165. 2.166.
x3 −1 x4 +1 (x + 1)(x + 2)
2.1 Polynomials 23

Answers

2.1 Polynomials

2.1. (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) = x 3 + x 2 + x
− x 2 − x
− 1 = x 3 − 1

3x2 + 
2.2. (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9) = x 3 +  −
9x 3x2 − 
 − 27 = x 3 − 27 = x 3 − 33
9x

2.3. (3x 2 − 5x + 6)(2x − 7) = 6x 3 − 21x 2 − 10x 2 + 35x + 12x − 42 = 6x 3 − 31x 2 + 47x − 42

2.4. (x 4 + x 3 + 2)(x 2 − 3x + 4) = x 6 − 3x 5 + 4x 4 + x 5 − 3x 4 + 4x 3 + 2x 2 − 6x + 8
= x 6 − 2x 5 + x 4 + 4x 3 + 2x 2 − 6x + 8

2.5. (3y 2 + 2x − 6xy)(2x 2 + 4xy − 2y 3 )

= 6x 2 y 2 + 12xy 3 − 6y 5 + 4x 3 + 8x 2 y − 4xy 3 − 12x 3 y − 24x 2 y 2 + 12xy 2
= −18x 2 y 2 + 8xy 3 − 6y 5 + 4x 3 + 8x 2 y − 12x 3 y + 12xy 4

2.6. (x − y)(y − z)(z − x) = (xy − xz − y 2 + yz)(z − x)

=  − xz2 − y 2 z + yz2 − x 2 y + x 2 z + xy 2 − 
xyz 
xyz
= x 2 z + yz2 + xy 2 − xz2 − y 2 z − x 2 y

2.7. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

P (x) + Q(x) = (x 2 + x + 1) + (x 3 − 1) = x 3 − 1
+ x 2 + x + 1
= x(x 2 + x + 1)

2.8. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

P (x) − Q(x) = (x 2 + x + 1) − (x 3 − 1) = −x 3 + 1 + x 2 + x + 1 = −x 3 + x 2 + x + 2

2.9. Given P (x) = x 2 + x + 1 and Q(x) = x 3 − 1

2x3 + 2x 2 + 2x − 
2xP (x) − 2Q(x) = 2x(x 2 + x + 1) − 2(x 3 − 1) =  2x3 + 2
= 2x 2 + 2x + 2 = 2(x 2 + x + 1)

2.10. Third-order polynomial Q(x) that is divisible by x, (x − 1), and (x − 2) must have form

Q(x) = (x +0)(x − 1)(x − 2) = x(x 2 − 3x + 2) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x

Therefore,

P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x ∴ a = −3, b = 2, and c = 0

2.11. Third-order polynomial Q(x) that is divisible by (x + 1), (x − 1), and (x + 2) must have form

Q(x) = (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 2) = (x 2 − 1)(x + 2) = x 3 + 2x 2 − x − 2

24 2 Polynomials

Therefore,

P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = x 3 + 2x 2 − x − 2 ∴ a = 2, b = −1, and c = −2

2.12. Third-order polynomial Q(x) that is divisible by (x + 1), (x − 2), and (x + 3) must have form

Q(x) = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6

Therefore,

P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6 ∴ a = 2, b = − 5, and c = − 6

2.13. Third-order polynomial Q(x) that is divisible by (x − 5), (x + 2), and (x + 4) must have form

Q(x) = (x − 5)(x + 2)(x + 4) = x 3 + x 2 − 22x − 40

Therefore,

P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c=x 3 + x 2 − 22x − 40 ∴ a =1, b = − 22, and c = − 40

2.2 Binomial Theorem (Pascal’s Triangle)

2.14. Given (a + b)3 , coefficients of the third-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s triangle
as 1, 3, 3, 1. Then, the powers of a and b are systematically written in the descending and ascending
orders, respectively, as

(a + b)3 = 1 a 3 b0 + 3 a 2 b1 + 3 a 1 b2 + 1 a 0 b3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab2 + b3

2.15. Given (xy − z)5 , coefficients of the fifth-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s triangle
as 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. Then,

(xy − z)5 = 1 (xy)5 (−z)0 + 5 (xy)4 (−z)1 + 10 (xy)3 (−z)2 + 10 (xy)2 (−z)3
+ 5 (xy)1 (−z)4 + 1 (xy)0 (−z)5
= x 5 y 5 − 5zx 4 y 4 + 10z2 x 3 y 3 − 10z3 x 2 y 2 + 5z4 xy − z5

2.16. Given (−a−bc)4 , coefficients of the fourth-order binomial power are listed in Pascal’s triangle
as 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Then,

(−a − bc)4
= 1 (−a)4 (−bc)0 + 4 (−a)3 (−bc)1 + 6 (−a)2 (−bc)2 + 4 (−a)1 (−bc)3 + 1 (−a)0 (−bc)4
= a 4 + 4a 3 bc + 6a 2 b2 c2 + 4ab3 c3 + b4 c4
2.3 Long Division 25

2.17. (x + 2)5 = 1 x 5 20 + 5 x 4 21 + 10 x 3 22 + 10 x 2 23 + 5 x 1 24 + 1 x 0 25
= x 5 + 10x 4 + 40x 3 + 80x 2 + 80x + 32

2.18. (2x + 1)4 = 1 (2x)4 10 + 4 (2x)3 11 + 6 (2x)2 12 + 4 (2x)1 13 + 1 (2x)0 14

= 16x 4 + 32x 3 + 24x 2 + 8x + 1

2.19. (x − 1)6 = 1 x 6 (−1)0 + 6 x 5 (−1)1 + 15 x 4 (−1)2 + 20 x 3 (−1)3 +

15 x 2 (−1)4 + 6 x 1 (−1)5 + 1 x 0 (−1)6
= x 6 − 6x 5 + 15x 4 − 20x 3 + 15x 2 − 6x + 1
 
2.20. x 2 − 2x + 1 = (1x )2 − 2 (1) (1)x + 1 2 = n = 2 = (x − 1)2

2.21. x 2 −6x + 9 = x 2 −2 · 3x + 32 = (x − 3)2

√ √ √ √
2.22. x 2 − 2 2x + 2 = x 2 − 2 2x + ( 2)2 = (x − 2)2

2.23. 4x 2 − 12x + 9 = (2x)2 − 2 · (3 · 2x) + 32 = (2x − 3)2

2.24. x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 = (x 2 )2 − 2x 2 + 1 = (x 2 − 1)2 = (x + 1)2 (x − 1)2

 2  
2.25. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1 = x 2(n+1) − 2x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 2 x n+1 + 1 = ( x n+1 − 1)2

2.3 Long Division

2.26. Division of two polynomials follows the same procedure as division of any two large numbers.
There are multiple techniques to organize the polynomial coefficients and visual tabulation of the
intermediate results. Here, one possible way is to first rearrange all terms of the two given polynomials
in descending powers. Then, if the last step results in zero it is said that two polynomials are divisible,
otherwise, there is reminder r. Step by step procedure may be as,

1. Divide only the two highest power terms terms (underlined) and write the result, that is to say
x 4 ÷ x = x 3 , so that

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3

2. Multiply x 3 with the divisor polynomial (x − 3) and write the product under dividend

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x−3) = x 3
x 4 − 3x 3 Multiply
26 2 Polynomials

3. Subtract terms that are aligned vertically, i.e., (x 4 − 2x 3 ) − (x 4 − 3x 2 ) = x 3 , then add the next
term from dividend, i.e., “−7x 2 .” Now, division is (x 3 − 7x 2 ) ÷ (x − 3) as

(x 4 − 2x 3 −7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3
−(x 4 − 3x 3 )
= 0 + x 3 −7x 2

4. Next term in the solution polynomial is found as x 3 ÷ x = x 2 , then repeat the previous steps until
the last term in the solution is found as

(x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12) ÷ (x − 3) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4
−(x 4 − 3x 3 )
x 3 − 7x 2
− (x 3 − 3x 2 )
− 4x 2 + 8x
− (−4x 2 + 12x)
− 4x + 12
− (−4x + 12)
=0

Because the last subtraction equals zero means that r = 0, that is to say x = 3 is zero of P (x) =
x 4 − 2x 3 − 7x 2 + 8x + 12. It is verified by setting x = 3 in P (x) as

P (3) = (3)4 − 2(3)3 − 7(3)2 + 8(3) + 12 = 81 − 54 − 63 + 24 + 12 = 0

2.27. Given (6x 3 + 10x 2 + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1), long division gives,

−3x + 3
(6x 3 + 10x 2 +0x + 8) ÷ (2x 2 + 1) = 3x + 5 +
2x 2 + 1
r

6x 3 +0x 2 + 3x

10x 2 − 3x + 8
10x 2 +0x + 5

−3x + 3 = 0

2.28. Given (4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5), long division gives,

2.4 Factorization 27

(4x 3 − 7x 2 − 11x + 5) ÷ (4x + 5) = x 2 − 3x + 1

4x 3 + 5x 2

− 12x 2 − 11x
− 12x 2 − 15x

4x + 5
4x + 5

= 0

2.29. Given (x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3), long division gives,

1
(x 2 + x − 5) ÷ (x + 3) = x − 2 +
x+3
r

x 2 + 3x

− 2x − 5
− 2x − 6

= 1

2.4 Factorization

2.30. 5 a + 5 x = 5 (a + x)

2.31. 2a − 2 = 2(a − 1)

2.32. 7a − 14 = 7(a − 2)

2.33. 3a 2 + 9 = 3(a 2 + 3)

2.34. 3a + 6b + 9 = 3(a + 2b + 3)

2.35. 6x + ax + bx = x(6 + a + b)

2.36. 9a 2 − 6a + 12 = 3(3a 2 − 2a + 4)

2.37. a 2 − a 3 = a 2 (1 − a)

2.38. 3a 2 − 6a = 3a(a − 2)

2.39. x 3 a 2 − x 3 = x 3 (a 2 − 1) = x 3 (a + 1)(a − 1)
28 2 Polynomials

2.40. 3a 3 + 2a 2 + a = a(3a 2 + 2a + 1)

2.41. 4x 2 − 2x + xy = x(4x − 2 − y)

2.42. x 3 y 3 − x 3 y + x 4 y 3 = x 3 y y 2 − x 3 y + x 3 x y y 2 = x 3 y (y 2 − 1 + xy 2 )

2.43. x 3 y 3 − x 2 y 8 = x 2 y 3 (x − y 5 )

2.44. 6x 2 y 2 − 4xy 3 = 2xy 2 (3x − 2y)

2.45. 5x 3 − 15x 2 y 3 = 5x 2 (x − 3y 3 )

2.46. 6x 3 y − 9x 2 y 2 + 3x 3 y 2 = 3x 2 y(2x − 3y + xy)

2.47. x 3 − x 7 − 2x 5 = x 3 (1 − x 4 − 2x 2 )

2.48. a 3 b2 + 2a 4 b2 − 4ab5 = ab2 (a 2 + 2a 3 − 4b3 )

2.49. 3a 3 b3 − 9a 2 b4 + 12a 5 b4 = 3a 2 b3 (a − 3b + 4a 3 b)

2.50. a(m + n) + b(m + n) = (m + n)(a + b)

2.51. m(a − b) + n(a − b) = (a − b)(m + n)

2.52. 7q(p − q) + 2p(q − p) = (p − q)(7q − 2p)

2.53. 3(x + y) + (x + y)2 = (x + y)(3 + x + y)

2.54. a m − a n + b m − b n = a (m − n) + b (m − n) = (m − n) (a + b)

2.55. am − an − bm + bn = a(m − n) − b(m − n) = (m − n)(a − b)

2.56. an − ab − mn + mb = a(n − b) − m(n − b) = (n − b)(a − m)

2.57. 5ax + 5ay − x − y = 5a(x + y) − (x + y) = (x + y)(5a − 1)

2.58. 2x 2 + 2xy − x − y = 2x(x + y) − (x + y) = (x + y)(2x − 1)

2.59. 4ym − 4yn − m + n = 4y(m − n) − (m − n) = (m − n)(4y − 1)

2.60. ax 2 − bx 2 − bx + ax − a + b = x 2 (a − b) + x(a − b) − (a − b) = (a − b)(x 2 + x − 1)

2.61. 6by − 15bx − 4ay + 10ax = 2y(3b − 2a) − 5x(3b − 2a) = (3b − 2a)(2y − 5x)

2.62. 2x 2 − 2xy + xz − yz = 2x(x − y) + z(x − y) = (x − y)(2x + z)

2.5 Difference of Squares 29

2.63. 5ax 2 − 10ax − bx + 2b − x + 2 = 5ax(x − 2) − b(x − 2) − (x − 2)

= (x − 2)(5ax − b − 1)

2.64. xyz + x 2 y 2 − 3x 4 y 5 − 3x 3 y 4 z − xy − z = xy(xy + z) − 3x 3 y 4 (xy + z) − (xy + z)

= (xy + z)(xy − 3x 3 y 4 − 1)

2.65. m2 x 4 − mnx 3 + 2mx 2 − 2nx + n − mx = mx 3 (mx − n) + 2x(mx − n) − (mx − n)

= (mx − n)(mx 3 + 2x − 1)

2.66. a 2n + a n = a n a n + a n = a n (a n + 1)

2.67. a 3x − 2a 2x bx = a 2x (a x − 2bx )

2.68. 2x m+n + 6x n = 2x n (x m + 3)

2.69. a 3x + 3a 2x + 5a x = a x (a 2x + 3a x + 5)

 2    2
2.70. x 2n+2 − 2x n+1 + 1 = x 2(n+1) − 2x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 2 x n+1 + 1 = x n+1 − 1

x n+2 
x n+1
x x
2.71.
n
= 
n+1
=
2x x 2
x 2

x 3n+2 + x 3n+1   (x + 1)
x 3n+1 x+1
2.72. =  =
2
x x 3n xx 3n+1 x

x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn
= n−1
2.73. 1 1 1 1 x + x n−2 + x n−3 + · · · + 1
+ 2 + 3 + ··· + n
x x x x  xn 
x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn xn
= n−1
x + x n−2 + x n−3 + · · · + 1
 ((( ( 
1 +( +(
x 2( x 2(+(· (
· · + x n−1 x n+1
=( ( ( = x n+1
(
n−2((n−3 ((((
x n−1
+( x( +x + ··· + 1
(((

2.5 Difference of Squares

2.74. x 2 − 49 = x 2 − 72 = (x + 7)(x − 7)

2.75. a 2 − 36 = a 2 − 62 = (a + 6)(a − 6)

2.76. 16x 2 − 9 = (4x)2 − 32 = (4x + 3)(4x − 3)

2.77. 9x 2 − 49 = (3x)2 − 72 = (3x + 7)(3x − 7)

2.78. 25 − x 2 = 52 − x 2 = (5 + x)(5 − x)
30 2 Polynomials

2.79. 81 − x 4 = 92 − (x 2 )2 = (9 + x 2 )(9 − x 2 ) = (9 + x 2 )(3 + x)(3 − x)

  
1 1 1
2.80. x 2 − = x+ x−
49 7 7
 2   
x2 4 x 2 2 x 2 x 2
2.81. − = − = + −
4 9 2 3 2 3 2 3
  
9x 2 4y 2 3x 2y 3x 2y
2.82. − = + −
4 9 2 3 2 3
 2   
49x 2 7x 7x 7x
2.83. − 9y 2 = − (3y) =
2
+3 −3
25 5 5 5
 2   
2.84. x 2 − 0.36 = x 2 −

9 36 3 3 3
= x2 − = x+ x−
 100
25 5 5 5

2.85. x 2 − 0.0009 = x 2 − 0.032 = (x + 0.03) (x − 0.03)

1
2.86. 0.04x 2 − 0.25 = (0.2x)2 − 0.52 = (0.2x + 0.5)(0.2x − 0.5) = (2x + 5)(2x − 5)
100

2.87. 0.01x 2 − 0.04y 2 = (0.1x)2 − (0.2y)2 = (0.1x + 0.2y)(0.1x − 0.2y)

1
= (x + 2y)(x − 2y)
100
 2
2.88. x 4 y 2 − 0.01 = x 2 y − 0.12 = (x 2 y + 0.1)(x 2 y − 0.1)

2.89. 0.25x 2 y 2 − 0.0001 = (0.5xy + 0.01)(0.5xy − 0.01)

2.90. (x − 3)2 − 4 = (x − 3 + 2)(x − 3 − 2) = (x − 1)(x − 5)

2.91. (a + 5)2 − 9 = (a + 5 + 3)(a + 5 − 3) = (a + 8)(a + 2)

2.92. y 2 − (x − y)2 = (y
+ x − y)(y

− (x − y)) = x(2y − x)

2.93. x 2 − (x + y)2 = (x + x + y)(x
− x
− y) = −y(2x + y)

2.94. (x + 2)2 − 4x 2 = (x + 2 + 2x)(x + 2 − 2x) = (3x + 2)(2 − x)

2.95. 9x 2 − (x − 1)2 = (3x + x − 1)(3x − (x − 1)) = (4x − 1)(2x + 1)

2.96. (x − y)2 − 16(x + y)2 = (x − y + 4x + 4y)(x − y − 4x − 4y)

= (5x + 3y)(−3x − 5y) = −(5x + 3y)(3x + 5y)
2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas 31

2.97. (x + 2y)2 − 9(x − 2y)2 = (x + 2y + 3x − 6y)(x + 2y − (3x − 6y))

= (4x − 4y)(8y − 2x) = 4(x − y) 2(4y − x)
= 8 (x − y)(4y − x)

2.98. 4(x − y)2 − 25(x + y)2 = (2x − 2y + 5x + 5y)(2x − 2y − 5x − 5y)

= (7x + 3y)(−3x − 7y) = −(7x + 3y)(3x + 7y)

2.99. 36(x − 2)2 − 25(x + 1)2 = (6x − 12 + 5x + 5)(6x − 12 − 5x − 5) = (11x − 7)(x − 17)

2.100. (x + y − z)2 − (x − y + z)2 = (x + y
−
z + x − y
+
z)(x
+ y − z − x
+ y − z)

= 2x(2y − 2z) = 4x(y − z)

2.101. (x + y − 3)2 − 25(x + 2)2 = (x + y − 3 + 5x + 10)(x + y − 3 − 5x − 10)

= (6x + y + 7)(y − 4x − 13)

2.102. 98 × 102 = (100 − 2)(100 + 2) = 1002 − 22 = 10,000 − 4 = 9996

2.103. 99 × 101 = (100 − 1)(100 + 1) = 1002 − 1 = 9 999

2.104. 83 × 77 = (80 + 3)(80 − 3) = 802 − 32 = 6 400 − 9 = 6 391

2.105. 79 × 81 = (80 − 1)(80 + 1) = 802 − 1 = 6 400 − 1 = 6 399

2.106. 18 × 22 = (20 − 2)(20 + 2) = 400 − 4 = 396

2.107. 201 × 199 = (200 + 1)(200 − 1) = 40 000 − 1 = 39 999

2.108. 1.05 × 0.95 = (1 + 0.05)(1 − 0.05) = 1 − 0.052 = 1 − 0.0025 = 0.9975

2.109. 1.01 × 0.99 = (1 + 0.01)(1 − 0.01) = 1 − 0.012 = 1 − 0.0001 = 0.9999

2.110. 9.9 × 10.1 = (10 − 0.1)(10 + 0.1) = 100 − 0.01 = 99.99

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas

2.111. Given x 2 − 6x + 5, in accordance to Viète formulas the goal is to check existence of x1 , x2

pair so that

x1 x2 = 5 and x1 + x2 = 6

Being prime number, ‘five’ is divisible only with ±1, ±5. Therefore, its factors −1 and −5 satisfy
both equalities, i.e. their product equals +5 and their sum is −6. Thus,

x 2 −6x + 5 = x 2 − (1)x − 5x + 5 = x(x − 1) − 5(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x − 5)

32 2 Polynomials

2.112. Two factors of “+14” whose sum equals “−9” are “−2” and “−7”; thus

x 2 −9x + 14 = x 2 −2x − 7x + 14 = x(x − 2) − 7(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x − 7)

2.113. Two factors of “+8” whose sum equals “−6” are “−2” and “−4”; thus,

x 2 −6x + 8 = x 2 −2x − 4x + 8 = x(x − 2) − 4(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x − 4)

2.114. If the leading coefficient a = 1 in ax 2 + bx + c, e.g., a = 2 = 1, then,

Method 1: first, factor the leading coefficient in trinomial as ax 2 + bx + c = a[x 2 + (b/a)x + (c/a)],
then search factors of (c/a) whose sum equals (b/a), i.e.
 
3 1
2x + 3x + 1 = 2 x + x +
2 2
2 2
 
1 1 1 3
= factors of 1/2 result in, 1 × = and 1 + =
2 2 2 2
   
1 1 1
= 2 x2 + x + x + = 2 x(x + 1) + (x + 1)
2 2 2
  
1
= 2 (x + 1) x + = (x + 1)(2x + 1)
2

Method 2: search factors of (ac) whose sum equals b, i.e.

 
2x 2 + 3x + 1 = ac = 2 × 1 = 2 ∴ 1 × 2 = 2 and 1 + 2 = 3
= 2x 2 +3x + 1 = 2x 2 +2x + x + 1 = 2x(x + 1) + x + 1
= (x + 1)(2x + 1)

2.115. Search factors of (ac) whose sum equals b, i.e.

 
3 × 8 = 24, (−12) × (−2) = 24 and
3x −14x + 8 =
2
(−12) + (−2) = −14
= 3x 2 −12x − 2x + 8 = 3x(x − 4) − 2(x − 4)
= (x − 4)(3x − 2)

2.116. Search factors of (ac) whose sum equals b, i.e.

 
−2x 2 +x + 3 = −2 × 3 = −6, (−2) + 3 = 1
= −2x 2 −2x + 3x + 3 = −2x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1)
= (x + 1)(3 − 2x)

2.117. −x 2 +5x − 4 = −x 2 +x + 4x − 4 = −x(x − 1) + 4(x − 1) = (x − 1)(4 − x)

2.6 Quadratic Polynomial—Viète Formulas 33

2.118. −6x 2 +5x + 4 = −6x 2 −3x + 8x + 4 = −3x(2x + 1) + 4(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)(4 − 3x)
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
2.119. x 2 + ( 2 + 3)x + 6 = x 2 + x 2 + x 3 + 2 × 3 = x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)
√ √
= (x + 2)(x + 3)

2.120. After writing x 2n as (x n )2 , this bi-quadratic polynomial form is converted into quadratic
relative to (x n ), then by applying Viète formulas it follows:

x 4 −13x 2 + 36 = (x 2 )2 −4(x 2 ) − 9(x 2 ) + 36 = x 2 (x 2 − 4) − 9(x 2 − 4)

= (x 2 − 4)(x 2 − 9) = (x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 3)

2.121. After writing x 2n as (x n )2 , this bi-quadratic polynomial form is converted into quadratic
relative to (x n ), then by applying Viète formulas it follows:

x 4 −10x 2 + 9 = x 4 −x 2 − 9x 2 + 9 = x 2 (x 2 − 1) − 9(x 2 − 1) = (x 2 − 1)(x 2 − 9)

= (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)

2.122. Convert this bi-quadratic polynomial form into quadratic form, as

x 6 − 2x 3 + 1 = (x 3 )2 − 2x 3 + 1 = (x 3 − 1)2
 
= (x 3 − 1) ÷ (x − 1) = x 2 + x + 1
= [(x 2 + x + 1)(x − 1)]2 = (x 2 + x + 1)2 (x − 1)2
= (x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)2

2.123. This is bi-quadratic polynomial; thus

x 6 +3x 3 + 2 = x 6 + x 3 + 2x 3 + 2 = x 3 (x 3 + 1) + 2(x 3 + 1)
 
= (x 3 + 1)(x 3 + 2) (by long divisions)
√ √ √
= (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x + 2)(x 2 − x 2 + 4)
3 3 3

2.124. This is bi-quadratic polynomial; thus

x 6 +9x 3 + 8 = x 6 +x 3 + 8x 3 + 8 = x 3 (x 3 + 1) + 8(x 3 + 1)
= (x 3 + 1)(x 3 + 8) = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x 3 + 8)
= (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)(x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4)

2.125. This is bi-quadratic polynomial; thus

 2    2    
2x 2m+2 − 11x m+1 + 9 = 2 x m+1 − 11 x m+1 + 9 = 2 x m+1 − 2 x m+1 − 9 x m+1 + 9
      
= 2x m+1 x m+1 − 1 − 9 x m+1 − 1 = x m+1 − 1 2x m+1 − 9
34 2 Polynomials

2.7 Completing the Square

2.126. Complete the binomial square form as follows:

x 2 + 6x − 7 = x 2 + 2(3)x +32 −32 − 7 = (x + 3)2 − 16 = 0

(x + 3)2 −16

Therefore, the quadratic equation is solved as

(x + 3)2 = 16 ∴ x + 3 = ±4 ∴ x1,2 = −3 ± 4 ∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −7

2.127. The leading coefficient (i.e., “2”) is not equal to one so it can be factored. In addition, the
linear term coefficient “5” is a prime number, consequently it is not possible to factor “2” that is
necessary for the complete square form. The workaround is to multiply and divide “5” by two, as
     
3 5 3
2x − 10x − 3 = 2 x − 5x −
2 2
=2 x − 2
2
x−
2 2 2
⎛ ⎞
   2  2
5 5 5 3
= 2 ⎝x 2 − 2 x+ − − ⎠
2 2 2 2
 2  
   
5 5 2 31
25 3 5 2 31
=2 x− =2 x− − −− =0 ∴ x− − =0
2 24 24 2 4
    √
5 2 31 5 31 5 31 5 ± 31
∴ x− = ∴ x− =± ∴ x1,2 = ± =
2 4 2 4 2 4 2

2.128. Factor the leading coefficient “−1" as

−x 2 − 6x + 7 = −[x 2 + 2(3)x +32 −32 − 7] = −[(x + 3)2 − 16] = 0

∴ (x + 3)2 − 16 = 0
√
∴ x + 3 = ± 16
∴ x1,2 = −3 ± 4
∴ x1 = 1, x2 = −7

Note however, that although the roots of (−x 2 − 6x + 7) and (x 2 + 6x − 7) are same, these two
quadratic polynomials are not the equal.

2.129. For the sake of exercising,

Method 1: Force the completing square form as
   2   2  
3 3 3 3 2 9
x + 3x = x + 2
2 2
x+ − = x+ − =0
2 2 2 2 4
3 3 3 3
∴ x+ =± ∴ x1,2 = − ± ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = −3
2 2 2 2
2.8 Factor Theorem 35

Method 2: Of course, in this case factorization is faster

x 2 + 3x = x(x − 3) ∴ x1 = 0, x2 = −3

2.130. Factorize the leading coefficient, as well as 6 = 2 × 3, so that

    2  2 
3 3 3
2x 2 + 6x + 2 = 2 x 2 + 2 x+ − +1
2 2 2
  
3 2 9
=2 x+ − +1 =0
2 4
 √
3 5 −3 ± 5
∴ x+ =± ∴ x1,2 =
2 4 2
 2
1 25
2.131. x 2 − x − 6 = 0 ∴ x− − = 0 ∴ x1 = −2, x2 = 3
2 4

2.8 Factor Theorem

2.132. Given Q3 (x) = 1x 3 − 1, the only two factors of a3 a0 = 1 × (−1) = −1 product are “+1”
and “−1.” That is because “−1 × 1 = −1” and “1 × (−1) = −1.” Possible roots of Q3 (x) may be
one of these two factors; thus, first step is to verify if Q3 (±1) = 0, as

Q3 (−1) = (−1)3 − 1 = −2 ∴ Q(−1) = 0

Q3 (1) = (1)3 − 1 = 0 ∴ x1 = 1

That is to say, because Q(1) = 0, it must be that x1 = 1 is one of its roots; by consequence, (x − 1)
is one of Q3 (x) factors, and furthermore Q3 (x) polynomial can be factorized as

Q3 (x) = (x − 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) ⇒ Q3 (x) ÷ (x − 1) = ax 2 + bx + c

where, (ax 2 + bx + c) must be second-order polynomial that is left after the factorization, i.e.,

ax 2 + bx + c = Q3 (x) ÷ (x − x1 ) ⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = (x 3 − 1) ÷ (x − 1)

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 − 1) ÷ (x − 1) = x 2 + x + 1
−(x 3 − x 2 )
x2 − 1
− (x 2 − x)
x−1
36 2 Polynomials

− (x − 1)
=0

Therefore, Q3 (x) = x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1). The quadratic polynomial factor may be itself
further factorized by multiple methods. For example, its discriminant is negative, therefore the last
two roots of Q3 are complex,

 = b2 − 4ac = 12 − 4 × 1 × 1 = −3 < 0
∴
√ √
−b ±  −1 ± i 3
x2,3 = =
2a 2
∴
Q(x) = x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
 √  √ 
1+i 3 1−i 3
= (x − 1) x + x+
2 2

Note that this procedure for factorizing higher-order polynomials is quite general, and it illustrates
the use of basic theorems of algebra.

2.133. An important polynomial form is known as the difference of two cubes. Given P (x) = x 3 −y 3
note that P.2.132 may be considered as special case where y = 1. Then, similarly, by inspection of
P (x) it may be concluded that one of its roots must be x1 = y, that is because P (y) = 0. Therefore,
P (x) is divisible by (x − y).

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 +0x 2 y +0xy 2 − y 3 ) ÷ (x − y) = x 2 + xy + y 2
x3 − x2y

x 2 y +0xy 2
x 2 y − xy 2

xy 2 − y 3
xy 2 − y 3

=0

Therefore, (x 3 − y 3 ) = (x − y)(x 2 + xy + y 2 ), and it is usually listed among other basic polynomial

identities, e.g., difference of squares, square of a binomial, etc..

2.134. Given R3 (x) = 1x 3 + 1, the only two factors of a3 a0 = 1 × 1 = 1 product are “+1” and
“−1.” That is because“(−1) × (−1) = 1” and “1 × 1 = 1.” Possible roots of R3 (x) may be one of
these two factors; thus, first step is to verify if R3 (±1) = 0, as
2.8 Factor Theorem 37

R3 (−1) = (−1)3 + 1 = 0 ∴ x1 = −1
R3 (1) = (1)3 + 1 = 2 ∴ R3 (1) = 0

That is to say, because R(−1) = 0, it must be that x1 = −1 is one of its roots; by consequence,
x − (−1) is one of R3 (x) factors, and furthermore R3 (x) polynomial can be factorized as

R3 (x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) ⇒ R3 (x) ÷ (x + 1) = ax 2 + bx + c

where, (ax 2 + bx + c) must be second-order polynomial that is left after the factorization, i.e.,

ax 2 + bx + c = R3 (x) ÷ (x − x1 ) ⇒ ax 2 + bx + c = (x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1)

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 + 1) ÷ (x + 1) = x 2 − x + 1
−(x 3 + x 2 )
− x2 + 1
− (−x 2 − x)
x+1
− (x + 1)
=0

Therefore, R3 (x) = x 3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1). The quadratic polynomial factor may be itself
further factorized by multiple methods. For example, its discriminant is negative, therefore the last
two roots of R3 are complex,

 = b2 − 4ac = (−1)2 − 4 × 1 × 1 = −3 < 0

∴
√ √
−b ±  1±i 3
x2,3 = =
2a 2
∴
R(x) = x 3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)
 √  √ 
1+i 3 1−i 3
= (x + 1) x − x−
2 2

2.135. Given R3 (x) = 1x 3 + x + 2, factors of a3 a0 = 1 × 2 = 1 product are “+1, +2” and

“−1, −2.” Possible roots of R3 (x) may be one of these factors. Thus, by inspection, R3 (−1) = 0, as
(−13 ) + (−1) + 2 = 0. The long polynomial division results in
38 2 Polynomials

(x 3 + x + 2) ÷ (x + 1) = x 2 − x + 2
−(x 3 + x 2 )
− x2 + x
− (−x 2 − x)
2x + 2
− (2x + 2)
=0

Therefore, (x 3 + x + 2) = (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 2). The quadratic term has two complex zeros.

2.136. Given P (x) = x 3 + y 3 note that P.2.134 may be considered as special case where y = 1.
 its roots must be x1 = −y,
Then, similarly, by inspection of P (x) it may be concluded that one of
that is because P (−y) = 0. Therefore, P (x) is divisible by x − (−y) .

The long polynomial division results in

(x 3 +0x 2 y +0xy 2 + y 3 ) ÷ (x + y) = x 2 − xy + y 2
x3 + x2y

− x 2 y +0xy 2
−x 2 y − xy 2

xy 2 + y 3
xy 2 + y 3

=0

Therefore, (x 3 + y 3 ) = (x + y)(x 2 − xy + y 2 ), and it is usually listed among other basic polynomial

identities, e.g., difference of squares, square of a binomial, etc..

2.137. Factorization of higher-order polynomials usually requires multiple steps and techniques.
Consequently, there is no unique path to the solution; sometimes, the solutions are elegant, as
 
x 4 + 4 = x 4 +4x 2 + 4 −4x 2 = (x 2 + 2)2 − (2x)2 = a 2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
= (x 2 + 2x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 2)

which is to say that all four zeros of (x 4 + 4) are complex.

2.138. Similarly to P.2.137, it is possible to take advantage of difference of squares identity, as

x 4 + x 2 + 1 = x 4 +2x 2 + 1 −x 2 = (x 2 + 1)2 − (x)2 = (x 2 − x + 1)(x 2 + x + 1)

thus, all four zeros of (x 4 + x 2 + 1) are complex.

2.8 Factor Theorem 39

2.139. As some prerequisite work is already done in the previous examples,

x 5 + x + 1 = x 5 −x 2 +x 2 + x + 1 = x 2 (x 3 − 1) + x 2 + x + 1
 
= x 3 − 1 = (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) see A.2.132
= x 2 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) + (x 2 + x + 1)
 
= (x 2 + x + 1) x 2 (x − 1) + 1
= (x 2 + x + 1)(x 3 − x 2 + 1)

Where, quadratic polynomial (x 2 + x + 1) has two complex zeros, and cubic polynomial (x 3 − x 2 + 1)
has one real and two complex zeros (see chapter on function analysis).

2.140. As some prerequisite work is already done in the previous examples,

(x + y + z)3 −x 3 − y 3 − z3 = (x + y + z)3 − x 3 − (y 3 + z3 )
 3 
a − b3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab + b2 ) see P.2.133
=
a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 − ab + b2 )
 
= (x
+ y + z − x)

(x + y + z) + (x + y + z) x + x − (y + z)(y − yz + z )
2 2 2 2

 
= (y + z) (x + y + z)2 + (x + y + z) x + x 2 − y 2 + yz − z2
 
= (y + z) 2xy + 2xz + x 2 +y2 + 2yz+z2 + x 2 + xy + zx + x 2
−y2 + yz−z2
  
= (y + z) 3xy + 3xz + 3yz + 3x 2 = 3(y + z) xy + xz + yz + x 2
 
= 3(y + z) x(x + y) + z(x + y) = 3(y + z)(x + y)(x + z)

2.141. Given P (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4, factors of “−4 × 1 = −4” are “{±1, ±4, ±2}.” That is
because:

(−1) × 4 = −4, 1 × (−4) = −4, (−2) × 2 = −4

Thus, P (x) calculated for each factor is

P (−1) = ((−1)3 + (−1)2 − 4(−1) − 4) = 0 ∴ x1 = −1

P (1) = ((1)3 + (1)2 − 4(1) − 4) = −6 ∴ P (1) = 0
P (−2) = ((−2)3 + (−2)2 − 4(−2) − 4) = 0 ∴ x2 = −2
P (2) = ((2)3 + (2)2 − 4(2) − 4) = 0 ∴ x3 = 2
P (−4) = ((−4)3 + (−4)2 − 4(−4) − 4) = −36 ∴ P (−4) = 0
P (4) = ((4)3 + (4)2 − 4(4) − 4) = 60 ∴ P (4) = 0

Therefore,
40 2 Polynomials

P (x) = x 3 + x 2 − 4x − 4 = (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 2)

As it happen, all three roots are real.

2.142. By algebraic transformations,

  
x 2 + x + 1 x 3 + x 2 + 1 − 1 = (x 2 + 1 + x )(x 3 + x 2 + 1 ) − 1
   
first, expand by x 2 + 1 left to right as,
    
= x2 + 1 x3 + x2 + 1 x2 + 1
 
then, expand by x as,
 
+ x x 3 + x x 2 + 1 −1
 4 
x − 1, use difference of squares identity
   2     
= x2 + 1 x3 + x2 + 1 + x2 + 1 x + x2 − 1 x2 + 1
 
     
= x 2 + 1 x 3 + x 2  + x + x 2
+1 −1
     
= x 2 + 1 x 3 + 2x 2 + x = x x 2 + 1 x 2 + 2x + 1
 
= x x 2 + 1 (x + 1)2

2.143. In many occasions, the change of variables technique is best way to temporarily simplify
complicated forms. Along the way, one can take advantage of any other applicable identity as

(x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 5)(x + 7) + 15 = (x + 1)(x + 7) (x + 3)(x + 5) + 15

= (x 2 + 8x + 7)(x 2 + 8x + 15) + 15

= (x 2 + 8x + 7 )(x 2 + 8x + 7 + 8) + 15
 
= substitution: x 2 + 8x + 7 = t
= t (t + 8) + 15 = t 2 + 8t + 15
= t 2 + 3t + 5t + 15 = t (t + 3) + 5(t + 3) = (t + 3)(t + 5)
 
= back substitution: t = x 2 + 8x + 7
 
= x 2 + 8x + 7 + 3)(x 2 + 8x + 7 + 5
 
= x 2 + 8x + 10)(x 2 + 8x + 12
  
= x 2 + 2(4)x +42 − 42 + 10 x 2 + 2x + 6x + 12
 
= (x + 4)2 − 6 (x + 2)(x + 6)
 
= a 2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
√ √
= (x + 4 − 6)(x + 4 + 6)(x + 2)(x + 6)
2.8 Factor Theorem 41

2.144. Two polynomials are equal if each of their corresponding monomials are equal. First, product
of (x + 1) and parametric quadratic polynomial is

Q(x) = (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + ax 2 + bx + c
= ax 3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c)x + c ∴
if, Q(x) = P (x) ⇒ ax 3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c)x + c = x 3 − 2x 2 + 3
x 3 terms: ∴ a=1
x 0 terms: ∴ c=3
x 2 terms: a + b = −2 ∴ 1 + b = −2 ∴ b = −3
x 1 terms: b + c = 0 ∴ −3 + 3 = 0 

In conclusion, P (x) = Q(x) ∴ x 3 − 2x 2 + 3 = (x + 1)(x 2 − 3x + 3)

2.145. Similarly to A.2.144,

Q(x) = (x − 2)(ax 2 + bx + c) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx − 2ax 2 − 2bx − 2c ∴

if, Q(x) = P (x) ⇒ ax 3 + (b − 2a)x 2 + (c − 2b)x − 2c = 2x 3 − x 2 + x + 4
∴
x 3 terms: ∴ a=2
x 0 terms: − 2c = 4 ∴ c = −2
x 2
terms: b − 2a = −1 ∴ b − 4 = −1 ∴ b = 3
x 1
terms: c − 2b = 1 ∴ −2 − 6 = 1

In conclusion, there is no Q(x) that satisfies this P (x) = Q(x) equation.

2.146. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 4 − 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x + 1) and divisor (x − 1), i.e., n = 1,

r = P (1) = (1)4 − 2(1)3 + 3(1)2 − 4(1) + 1) = −1

Therefore n = 1 is not the root of P (x), consequently (x − 1) is not one of P (x) factors because
reminder of this division is

1
R=−
x−1
42 2 Polynomials

2.147. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 3 + 1) and divisor (x + 1) = (x − (−1)), i.e., n = −1,

r = P (−1) = (−1)3 + 1 = 0

Therefore n = −1 is one of the roots of P (x), consequently reminder R = 0, in other words, P (x) is
divisible by (x + 1). Indeed,

x3 + 1
= x2 − x + 1
x+1
 
2.148. Given polynomial P (x) = x 1965 − 256x 1961 + 1 and its divisor Q(x) = x 2 − 4x, it means
that if P (x) is divisible by Q(x) it must be divisible by all factors of Q(x) as well, where

Q(x) = x 2 − 4x = x(x − 4) = (x − 0)(x − 4)

It is necessary therefore to calculate reminders for both (x − 0) and (x − 4) factors as

:0
 :0

(0)
r(0) = P (0) =  1965
(0)
− 256 1961
+1=1
r(4) = P (4) = (4)1965 − 256(4)1961 + 1 = 41965 − 44 (4)1961 + 1

=  − 41965

41965  +1=1

In conclusion, both reminders are equal r = 1; therefore, reminder of this division is

1 P (x) 1
R= ⇒ = N1963 (x) + 2
x 2 − 4x Q(x) x − 4x

where N1963 (x) is a 1963th-order polynomial. This is because 1965th-order polynomial is divided by
second-order polynomial; the resulting polynomial must be 1965 − 2 = 1963rd order.

2.149. Given polynomial P (x) = (x 2023 − 2x 2022 − 1) and its divisor Q(x) = (x 2 − 3x + 2), it
means that if P (x) is divisible by Q(x), it must be divisible by all factors of Q(x) as well, where

Q(x) = x 2 − 3x + 2 = x 2 − x − 2x + 2 = x(x − 1) − 2(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x − 2)

It is necessary to calculate reminders at two points, i.e., for both (x − 1) and (x − 2) factors as

:1 
 :1

(1)
r(1) = P (1) =  2023
− 2
(1)2022 − 1 = −2

r(2) = P (2) = (2)2023 − 2(2)2022 − 1 =   − 22023


22023  − 1 = −1

There are two different values of r, and there are two points in consideration, x = 1 and x = 2; the
conclusion is that reminder must be in the form of first-order polynomial r(x) = ax + b, so that
 
x = 1 : r(1) = −2 = a(1) + b a + b = −2
∴ ∴ a = 1, b = −3
x = 2 : r(2) = −1 = a(2) + b 2a + b = −1
2.8 Factor Theorem 43

In conclusion, the reminder in division P (x)/Q(x) is r(x) = ax + b = x − 3, so that

x−3 P (x) x−3

R= ⇒ = N2021 (x) + 2
x2 − 3x + 2 Q(x) x − 3x + 2

where N2021 (x) is a 2021th-order polynomial. This is because 2023th-order polynomial is divided by
second-order polynomial; the resulting polynomial must be 2023 − 2 = 2021st order.

2.150. Given parametrized polynomial P (x, k) = 4x 5 + k x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2 and its divisor

Q(x) = x + 2, i.e., n = −2, for P (x) to be divisible by (x + 2), it is necessary that r = P (−2) = 0.
Therefore

r = P (−2) = 4(−2)5 + k(−2)4 + 8(−2)3 + 5(−2)2 + 3(−2) + 2

= −128 + 16k − 64 + 20 − 6 + 2 = 0 ∴ 16k − 176 = 0
176
∴ k= = 11
16

Indeed,

4x 5 + 11x 4 + 8x 3 + 5x 2 + 3x + 2
= 4x 4 + 3x 3 + 2x 2 + x + 1
x+2

2.151. Given parametrized polynomial P (x, k) = x 3 − 3k x + 4(k 2 + 1)x − (k 3 + 5) and its divisor
Q(x) = x − 1, i.e., n = 1, for P (x, k) to be divisible by (x − 1), it is necessary that r = P (1) = 0.
Therefore

r = P (1) = (1)3 − 3k(1) + 4(k 2 + 1)(1) − (k 3 + 5)

= 1 − 3k + 4k 2 + 4 − k 3 − 5
= −k 3 + 4k 2 − 3k = −k(k 2 − 4k + 3) = −k(k 2 − k − 3k + 3)
 
= −k k(k − 1) − 3(k − 1) = −k(k − 1)(k − 3) = 0

Therefore, there are three values of k that produce r = 0, i.e., k = 0, 1, 3. Indeed,

P (x, k) x 3 + 4x − 5
k=0: = = x2 + x + 5
x−1 x−1
P (x, k) x 3 + 5x − 6
k=1: = = x2 + x + 6
x−1 x−1
P (x, k) x 3 + 31x − 32
k=3: = = x 2 + x + 32
x−1 x−1
44 2 Polynomials

2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition

2.152. Given

P (x) x
=
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4)

denominator Q(x) has two unique zeros at x = −1 and x = 4, thus

P (x) x A B A(x − 4) + B(x + 1) Ax − 4A + Bx + B

= = + = =
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4) x+1 x−4 (x + 1)(x − 4) (x + 1)(x − 4)
(A + B)x + B − 4A
=
(x + 1)(x − 4)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,

x ≡ (A + B)x + B − 4A
∴
term x 1 : 1 = A + B ∴ A = 1 − B
term x 0 : 0 = B − 4A ∴ B = 4A
∴
4 4 1
B = 4(1 − B), ∴ B = ∴ A=1− =
5 5 5

Finally,

P (x) x 1 4
= = +
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4) 5(x + 1) 5(x − 4)

2.153. Given

P (x) x+2 x+2

= 3 = 2
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2)

denominator Q(x) has one unique zero at x = 2 and one double zero x = 0, thus

P (x) x+2 x+2  

= 3 = 2 = Q(x) = x 2 (x − 2) ∴ x1,2 = 0, x3 = 2
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2)
A B C Ax(x − 2) + B(x − 2) + Cx 2
= + 2+ =
x x x−2 x 2 (x − 2)
Ax 2 − 2Ax + Bx − 2B + Cx 2 (A + C)x 2 + (B − 2A)x − 2B
= =
x (x − 2)
2 x 2 (x − 2)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 45

x + 2 ≡ (A + C)x 2 + (B − 2A)x − 2B
∴
term x 2 : 0 = A + C ∴ A = −C
term x 1 : 1 = B − 2A
term x 0 : 2 = −2B ∴ B = −1
∴
B = −1, ∴ 1 = (−1) − 2A ∴ A = −1 ∴ C = 1

Finally,

P (x) x+2 x+2 1 1 1

= 3 = 2 =− − 2 +
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2) x x x−2

2.154. Given

P (x) 2x 2
= 4
Q(x) x −1

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 1 and x = −1, as well as two complex zeros, as

P (x) 2x 2   2x 2
= 4 = a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b) = 2
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x 2 + 1)
2x 2 A B Cx + D
= = + + 2
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 1)
2 x−1 x+1 x +1
A(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) + B(x − 1)(x 2 + 1) + (Cx + D)(x − 1)(x + 1)
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)
(A + B + C)x 3 + (A − B + D)x 2 + (A + B − C)x + A − B − D
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,

2x 2 ≡ (A + B + C)x 3 + (A − B + D)x 2 + (A + B − C)x + (A − B − D)

∴
term x 3 : 0 = A + B + C
term x 2 : 2 = A − B + D
term x 1 : 0 = A + B − C
term x 0 : 0 = A − B − D

The above system of linear equations may be solved, for example, by the reduction method. From
first equation 0 = A + B + C ∴ B = −A − C, then
46 2 Polynomials

2 = A − B + D ∴ 2 = A − (−A − C) + D = 2A + C + D
0 = A + B − C ∴ 0 = A + (−A − C) − C = −2C ∴ C = 0
0 = A − B − D ∴ 0 = A − (−A − C) − D = 2A − @
C − D = 2A − D ∴ 2A = D
2 = 2A + @
C + D ∴ D = 2 − 2A
1
2A = D ∴ 2A = 2 − 2A ∴ A = ∴ D=1
2
1
B = −A − @
C ∴ B=−
2

Finally,

P (x) 2x 2 2x 2 1 1 1
= 4 = = − +
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)(x 2 + 1) 2(x − 1) 2(x + 1) x 2 + 1

2.155. Given,

Pk (x) 1
= 3
Qm (x) x −1

denominator Q(x) has one unique real zero x = 1 and two complex zeros, thus

P (x) 1   1
= 3 = see A.2.132 =
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
A Bx + C A(x 2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
= + 2 =
x−1 x +x+1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
(A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C)x + A − C
=
(x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,

1 ≡ (A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C)x + A − C
∴
term x 2 : 0 = A + B ∴ A = −B
term x 1 : 0 = A − B + C ∴ 0 = (−B) − B + C ∴ C = 2B
1
term x 0 : 1 = A − C ∴ 1 = (−B) − (2B) ∴ B = −
3
2 1
C=− ∴ A=
3 3

Finally,
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 47

P (x) 1 1 1 x+2
= 3 = = −
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) 3(x − 1) 3(x 2 + x + 1)

2.156. Given

P (x) x3 + x − 1
=
Q(x) (x 2 + 2)2

denominator Q(x) has multiple complex pair of zeros, thus

P (x) x3 + x − 1 Ax + B Cx + D (Ax + B)(x 2 + 2) + Cx + D

= = 2 + 2 =
Q(x) (x + 2)
2 2 x +2 (x + 2)2 (x 2 + 2)2
Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (C + 2A)x + 2B + D
=
(x 2 + 2)2

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,

x 3 + x − 1 ≡ Ax 3 + Bx 2 + (C + 2A)x + 2B + D
∴
term x 3 : A = 1
term x 2 : B = 0
term x 1 : 1 = C + 2A ∴ C = −1
0
+ D ∴ D = −1
term x 0 : −1 = 2B

Finally,

P (x) x3 + x − 1 x x+1
= = 2 − 2
Q(x) (x + 2)
2 2 x + 2 (x + 2)2

2.157. Given

P (x) 4
= 4
Q(x) x +1

numerator Q(x) has two complex pairs of zeros. Complete the squares to enforce bi-quadratic form,
and then use difference of squares identities to rearrange resulting fourth-order polynomial.

P (x) 4 4 4
= 4 = 4 = √ 2
Q(x) x +1 x +2x + 1 −2x
2 2
(x 2 + 1)2 − 2x

4 Ax + B Cx + D
= √ √ = √ + √
(x 2 + 1 − 2 x)(x + 1 + 2 x)
2 x − 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
2 2
48 2 Polynomials

√ √
(Ax + B)(x 2 + 2 x + 1) + (Cx + D)(x 2 − 2 x + 1)
= √ √ =
(x 2 − 2 x + 1)(x 2 + 2 x + 1)
√ √ √ √
(A + C)x 3 + ( 2A + B − 2C + D)x 2 + (A + C + 2B − 2D)x + B + D
√ √
(x 2 − 2 x + 1)(x 2 + 2 x + 1)

Denominator Q(x) did not change; therefore, numerator P (x) must not change before and after
decomposition, that is,
√ √ √ √
4 ≡ (A + C)x 3 + ( 2A + B − 2C + D)x 2 + (A + C + 2B − 2D)x + B + D
∴
term x 3 : 0 = A + C ∴ A = −C
√ √ √
term x 2 : 0 = 2A + B − 2C + D ∴ 0 = −2 2C + B + D
√ √ √ √
term x 1 : 0 = A + C + 2B − 2D ∴ 0 = + 2B − 2D ∴ B = D
term x 0 : 4 = B + D ∴ 4 = D + D ∴ D = 2 ∴ B = 2
√ √ √
∴ 0 = −2 2C + 4 ∴ C = 2 ∴ A = − 2

Finally,
√ √
P (x) 4 − 2x + 2 2x + 2
= 4 = √ + √
Q(x) x +1 x − 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
2 2

2.158. Given rational form

x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16
x 2 − 4x + 3

note that numerator polynomial is of higher order than the denominator. For that reason, first use the
long division and then partial fraction decomposition, as

x+1
(x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16) ÷ (x 2 − 4x + 3) = x + 5 +
x2 − 4x + 3
(−) x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x
5x 2 − 19x + 16
(−) 5x 2 − 20x + 15
x+1

Denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros of x = 1 and x = 3, thus

P (x) x+1 x+1 A B

= 2 = = +
Q(x) x − 4x + 3 (x − 1)(x − 3) x−1 x−3
A(x − 3) + B(x − 1) (A + B)x − 3A − B
= =
(x − 1)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 3)
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 49

By equality of left and right side denominators and numerators it follows that

x + 1 ≡ (A + B)x − 3A − B
∴
term x 1 : 1 = A + B ∴ A = 1 − B
term x 0 : 1 = −3A − B ∴ 1 = −3(1 − B) − B
∴
B=2 ∴ A = −1

Finally,

P (x) x 3 + x 2 − 16x + 16 1 2
= =x+5− +
Q(x) x 2 − 4x + 3 x−1 x−3

2.159. Given

P (x) x−1 x−1

= 2 =
Q(x) x +x x(x + 1)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 0 and x = −1, as

x−1 A B A(x + 1) + Bx
= + =
x(x + 1) x x+1 x(x + 1)
∴ (A + B) x + A = 1
∴ A = −1
∴ A+B =1 ∴ B =1−A= ∴ B =2

Therefore,

x−1 1 2
=− +
x2 + x x x+1

2.160. Given

P (x) x
=
Q(x) (x + 1)(x − 4)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = −1 and x = 4, as

x A B A(x − 4) + B(x + 1)
= + =
(x + 1)(x − 4) x+1 x−4 (x + 1)(x − 4)
∴ (A + B) x + (B − 4A) = x
∴ A+B =1 ∴ A=1−B
4 1
∴ B − 4A = 0 ∴ B − 4(1 − B) = 0 ∴ B = ∴ A=
5 5
50 2 Polynomials

Therefore,

x 1 1 4 1
= +
(x + 1)(x − 4) 5 x+1 5 x−4

2.161. Given

P (x) 1 1
= 2 =
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + 1)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = 1 and x = −1, as

1 1 A B A(x + 1) + B(x − 1)
= = + =
x2 −1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x−1 x+1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
∴ (A + B) x + (A − B) = 1
∴ A + B = 0 ∴ A = −B
1 1
∴ A − B = 1 ∴ 2A = ∴ A = ∴ B=−
2 2

Therefore,

1 1 1 1 1
= −
x2 −1 2 x−1 2 x+1

2.162. Given

P (x) x+2 x+2

= 3 = 2
Q(x) x − 2x 2 x (x − 2)

denominator Q(x) has double zero at x = 0 and unique real zero at x = 2, as

x+2 A B C Ax(x − 2) + B(x − 2) + Cx 2

= + + =
x 2 (x − 2) x x2 x−2 x 2 (x − 2)
(A + C)x 2 + (B − 2A)x − 2B
=
x 2 (x − 2)
∴ (A + C) = 0 ∴ A = −C
B −1
∴ B − 2A = 1 ∴ A =
2
∴ −2B = 2 ∴ B = −1 ∴ A = −1 ∴ C = 1

Therefore,

x+2 1 1 1
=− − 2 +
x3 − 2x 2 x x x−2
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 51

2.163. Given

P (x) 2x 2 2x 2
= 4 =
Q(x) x −1 (x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + 1)

where, (x 4 − 1) term may be factorized by the factor theorem, or as

   
(x 4 − 1) = (x 2 )2 − 1 = a 2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
= (x 2 + 1)(x 2 − 1) = (x 2 + 1)(x + 1)(x − 1)

Thus, denominator Q(x) has unique real zero at x = −1, unique real zero at x = 1, and two complex
zeros, as

2x 2 2x 2 A B Cx + D
= = + + 2
x −1
4 (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
2 x+1 x−1 x +1
 2   2 
A (x − 1) x + 1 + B (x + 1) x + 1 + (Cx + D) (x + 1)(x − 1)
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + 1)
(A + B + C)x 3 + (−A + B + D)x 2 + (A + B − C)x − A + B − D
=
(x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + 1)
∴
⎫ ⎧
A+B +C =0 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ (1) − (3) ⇒ 2C = 0 ∴ C=0
⎪ ⎪
−A + B + D =2 ⎬ ⎨ (2) − (4) ⇒ 2D = 2 ∴ D=1
=
A+B −C =0 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ∴ A + B = 0 ⇒ A = −B
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎭ ⎩ (3) + (4) ⇒ 2B − 1 = 0 ∴ B = 1/2
−A + B − D =0

which leads to A = −1/2. Therefore,

2x 2 1 1 1 1 1
=− + + 2
x 2 (x− 2) 2 x+1 2 x−1 x +1

2.164. Given

P (x) 1 1  
= 3 = see P.2.132
Q(x) x −1 (x − 1)(x + x + 1)
2

denominator Q(x) has unique real zero at x = 1 and two complex zeros, as

1 1 A Bx + C A(x 2 + x + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)

= = + 2 =
x3 −1 (x − 1)(x + x + 1)
2 x−1 x +x+1 (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
(A + B)x 2 + (A − B + C)x + A − C
=
(x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
∴ A + B = 0 ∴ A = −B
∴ A − B + C = 0 ∴ C = 2B = −2A
52 2 Polynomials

1 2 1
∴ A − C = 1 ⇒ 3A = 1 ∴ A = ∴ C=− ∴ B=−
3 3 3

Therefore,

1 1 1 1 x+2
= −
x3 − 1 3 x − 1 3 x2 + x + 1

2.165. Given rational function is transformed into its partial fraction form as,
 2 √ 2  
x 4 + 1 = x 4 +2x 2 + 1 −2x 2 = x 2 + 1 − 2x = a 2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
 √  √ 
= x 2 + 2x + 1 x 2 − 2x + 1

So that partial fraction is,

4 Ax + B Cx + D
= √ + √
x4 +1 x + 2x + 1 x − 2x + 1
2 2
 √   √ 
(Ax + B) x 2 − 2x + 1 + (Cx + D) x 2 + 2x + 1
=  √  √ 
x 2 + 2x + 1 x 2 − 2x + 1
√ √ √ √
x 3 (A + C) + x 2 ( 2C + D + B − 2A) + x(A − 2B + C + 2D) + B + D
=  √  √ 
x 2 + 2x + 1 x 2 − 2x + 1

which is equivalent to the following system

A + C = 0 ∴ C = −A
√ √
− 2A + B + 2C + D = 0
√ √
A − 2B + C + 2D = 0
B +D =4 ∴ D =4−B

√ √ √ √
− 2A + B − 2A + 4 − B = 0 ∴ A = 2 ∴ C = − 2
√ √ √
A − 2B − A + 4 2 − 2B = 0 ∴ B = 2 ∴ D = 2

2.166. Given

P (x) 1
=
Q(x) (x + 1)(x + 2)

denominator Q(x) has two unique real zeros at x = −1 and x = −2, as

1 A B
= +
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1 x+2
A(x + 2) + B(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(x + 2)
2.9 Partial Fraction Decomposition 53

∴ (A + B) x + (2A + B) = 1
∴ A + B = 0 ∴ A = −B
∴ 2A + B = 1 ∴ −B = ∴ B = −1 ∴ A = 1

Therefore,

1 1 1
= −
(x + 1)(x + 2) x+1 x+2
Linear Equations and Inequalities
3

Problems

3.1 Linear Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.3.1 to P.3.6.

x−1 3−x 3.2. 3x + 14 = 5x − 2 (x − 7) 3.3. 1 + 3x 6x + 3 x

3.1. 1 − = − =
3 3 4 12 4

x 2x + 3 x2 1 x2 x 2x + 3 7x
3.4. − = 3.5. = 3.6. −2 =−
x−2 x+2 4 − x2 x−1 4 x−2 2x + 1 3

Solve “telescopic” forms of equations in P.3.7 to P.3.9.

1 1 1 5 1 16
3.7. 1 − = 3.8. 2 + =
3.9. 2 +
=
1 − 1−x
1 2 1
1
2+ 2−x
12
3+
1
1 37
3
4+ x+1

3.2 System of Linear Equations

Solve systems of equations in P.3.10 to P.3.13.

 
x + 2y = 2x − 5 xy = 10
3.10. 3.11.
x−y =3 x+y =2

⎧ 14 24 ⎧ 4 1
⎪ ⎪
⎨x + y
⎪ = 10 ⎪
⎨ +
x+y−1 x−y+1
=1
3.12. 3.13.
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ 7 − 18 = −5 ⎩ 16
−
2
=1
x y x + y − 1 (x − y + 1)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 55

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_3
56 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.3 Linear Inequalities

Solve inequalities in P.3.14 to P.3.22.

3.14. (x + 3)2 ≤ 10x + 6 3.15. (x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 1 1 x2 − 2

3.16. + < 2
x x+1 x +x

3.17. −3x 2 + 30x − 75 > 0 3.18. x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0 3.19. −2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0

 
2x 2 − 5x − 3  4x  (x + 2) |x − 2|
3.20. ≤0 
3.21.  <3 3.22. >1
−2x + 1 2x + 4  x2 + 2

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities

Solve systems of inequalities in P.3.23 to P.3.28.

 ⎧ 
y > 2x ⎪−2(x + 1) ≥ 4
⎪
⎨
y ≥ 2x ; y ≤ 2x
3.23. 3.25.
y < −x − 3 3.24. −2x ≥6 x ≤ 4; x ≥ 4
⎪
⎪
⎩
x ≤ −3

  ⎧
−4x + 6y > 6 −2x − y < −1 ⎪
⎪ x+y <6
3.26.
2x − 3y > 3
3.27.
4x + 2y ≤ 6 ⎪
⎪
⎨ 5x + y ≥4
3.28. x + 4y > −3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x ≤5
⎩
y <4
3.1 Linear Equations 57

Answers

3.1 Linear Equations

Solution to linear equation (i.e., with a single variable) is a single number. If the variable is canceled
however, then there may be either infinity of solutions (i.e., an identity) or no solution (i.e., impossible
equation). Sometimes, higher-order polynomial terms may cancel, leaving only the linear part of the
equation.

3.1. After a simple calculation,

x−1 3−x 3−x+1 3−x

1− = ∴ = ∴ 4 − x
= 3 − x
∴ 4 = 3
3 3 3 3

Conclusion: this equation is not possible; there are no valid solution regardless of x.

3.2. After a simple calculation,

+Z
3x + 14 = 5x − 2 (x − 7) ∴ 
3x Z−
14 −Z
3x Z= 0 ∴ 0 = 0
14

Conclusion: this equation is true for any x; thus, there are infinitely many solutions.

3.3. After a simple calculation,

1 + 3x 6x + 3 x 3
+ 9x − 6x − 3
3x
− = ∴ = ∴ 3
x = 3
x
4 12 4 
12 

12
∴ x = x ∴ xA − xA = 0 ∴ 0 = 0

Conclusion: this equation is an identity that is true for any x; thus, there are infinitely many solutions.

3.4. In this example, the equation is not defined for x = ±2, because for each of the three rational
terms, either x = +2 or x = −2 results in polynomial division by zero. Then

x 2x + 3 x2 x(x + 2) − (2x + 3)(x − 2) x2

− = ∴ =
x−2 x+2 4 − x2 (x − 2)(x + 2) 4 − x2
−x 2 + 3x + 6 x2
∴ =
x2 − 4 4 − x2
x 2 − 3x − 6 x2
=
4−x 2 4 − x2

After factorizations and simplifications, denominator on the left side equals to denominator on the
right side; thus, it must be true that the two numerators are also equal, i.e.,

x 2 − 3x − 6 = x 2

x 2 − 3x − 6 − x 2 = 0
−3x − 6 = 0 ∴ x = −2
58 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

However, value of the solution x = −2 is already excluded. Thus, the conclusion is that this example
does not have valid solutions.

3.5. Note that given equation is not defined for x = 1 due to division by zero on the left side,

1 x2
= ∴ 4 = x 2 (x − 1) ∴ x 3 − x 2 − 4 = 0
x−1 4

A third-order polynomial must have at least one zero, here by inspection at x = 2; thus, by long
polynomial division

(x 3 − x 2 − 4) ÷ (x − 2) = x 2 + x + 2
−(x 3 − 2x 2 )
x2 − 4
− (x 2 − 2x)
2x − 4
− (2x − 4)
=0

where x 2 + x + 2 does not have real zeros (check its discriminant). Thus, x = 2 is the only real
solution to the given equation; the other two are complex.

3.6. In this example, given equation is not defined for x = +2 or x = −1/2 because it results in
polynomial division by zero. Then

x 2x + 3 7x x(2x + 1) − 2(2x + 3)(x − 2) 7x

−2 =− ∴ =−
x−2 2x + 1 3 (x − 2)(2x + 1) 3
−2x 2 + 3x + 12 7x
∴ =−
(x − 2)(2x + 1) 3
3(−2x 2 + 3x + 12) = −7x(x − 2)(2x + 1)
−6x 2 + 9x + 36 = −14x 3 + 21x 2 + 14x
14x 3 − 27x 2 − 5x + 36 = 0

Third-order polynomial must have at least one real zero, here by inspection at x = −1. Long
polynomial division gives

(14x 3 − 27x 2 − 5x + 36) ÷ (x + 1) = 14x 2 − 41x + 36

−(14x 3 + 14x 2 )
− 41x 2 − 5x
− (−41x 2 − 41x)
3.1 Linear Equations 59

36x + 36
− (36x + 36)
=0

where 14x 2 − 41x + 36 does not have real zeros (check its discriminant). Thus, x = −1 is the only
real solution to the given equation.

3.7. “Unfold” this form by add fraction and then invert repetition.

1 1 1 1 1
1− = ∴ =1− = ∴ invert both sides
1 2 1 2 2
1− 1−
1−x 1−x
1 1
∴ 1− =2 ∴ 1−2=
1−x 1−x
∴ 1 − x = −1
∴ x=2

3.8. “Unfold” this form by invert and then add fractions repetition

1 5 1 12 1 2
= ∴ invert both sides ∴ 2+ = ∴ =
1 12 1 5 1 5
2+ 2+ 2+
1 2−x 2−x
2+
2−x
1 5 1 1
∴ 2+ = ∴ =
2−x 2 2−x 2
∴ 2−x =2
∴ x=0

3.9. “Unfold” this form by invert and then add fractions repetition
⇒ ∴
1 16 1 5
= ∴ = ∴
2+ 1
1 37 3+ 1
3
4+ x+1
16
3+ 3
4+ x+1

1 16
1 37 3+ = ∴
2+ = ∴ 4 + x+1
3 5
3+ 1
3
4+ x+1
16
1 16 1
1 37 = −3= ∴
= −2 4 + x+1
3 5 5
3+ 1
3
4+ x+1
16
3
4+ =5 ∴
∴ ⇒ x+1
3
=1
x+1

Therefore, x + 1 = 3 ∴ x = 2.
60 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.2 System of Linear Equations

Geometrical interpretation of solution to a system of two linear equations with two unknowns is
that it represents spatial coordinates (x, y) of the intersection point of these two lines in the plane.
That is to say, the only point that is shared by two lines. If two lines are not parallel, there must be
one intersection point. However, if two lines are parallel, either all points are the solution (i.e., the
two lines are superimposed) or none of the points are common (i.e., the two lines are parallel and
separated by a distance). In the following examples, only the real solutions (i.e., only those that can
be shown in xy plane) are illustrated.
3.10. This simple system is easily resolved by the substitution method as

x + 2y = 2x − 5
x−y =3 ⇒x =3+y
∴ x + 2y = 2x − 5 ∴ 3 + y + 2y = 2(3 + y) − 5 ∴ 3y + 3 = 2y + 1
∴ y = −2 and x = 1

Thus, the solution of this system is (x, y) = (1, −2) point. With simple transformations, this system
may be written explicitly as two linear functions and then show their intersect point (see Fig. 3.1).

x−5
x + 2y = 2x − 5 ⇒ y =
2
x−y =3⇒y =x−3

After equalizing the two equations, it follows as same as in the previous method.

x−5
= x − 3 ⇒ x − 5 = 2x − 6 ∴ x = 1 ⇒ y = −2
2

Fig. 3.1 Example P.3.10

y(x)

x
0

2
5)/
3
x−

x−
=(
y=

y
−2
(1, −2)

0 1
3.2 System of Linear Equations 61

Fig. 3.2 Example P.3.11

y(x)

y = 10/x

x
0
y = 10/x

y=
2−
x
0

3.11. By the substitution method,

⎧
⎪
⎨xy 10
= 10 ⇒ y =
x
⎪
⎩x + y =2 ⇒y =2−x
10
∴ x+ = 2 ∴ x 2 − 2x + 10 = 0
x

Note that form of this system (where there is product of xy) is a quadratic equation in disguise. In
this case, the resulting quadratic equation does not have real solutions due to its discriminant being
 = (−2)2 − 4 · 1 · 10 = −36 < 0. Thus, there are no real solutions to this system. In order to
illustrate that there are no intersect points, two equations are shown in graph that clearly show no
intersect point (see Fig. 3.2).

3.12. Given system in the form of f (1/x , 1/y ) that may appear to be nonlinear, the inverse functions
of two original variables may be replaced by new variables, so that this nonlinear system relative to
(x, y) is transformed into linear system relative to (t, k) as
⎧ 14 24
⎪
⎪ + = 10  
⎨ x y 1 1 14t + 24k = 10
∴ t= , k= ∴
⎪
⎪ x y 7t − 18k = −5 expand by (×2)
⎩ 7 − 18 = −5
x y

14t + 24k = 10 1
⇒ ∴ Eq.(1) − −(2) ∴ 60k = 20 ∴ k = ⇒
14t − 36k = −10 3

1 1 1 1
y= =3 ∴ 14t + 24 = 10 ∴ 14t + 8 = 10 ∴ t = ∴ x= =7
k 3 7 t

Thus, the solution of this system is (x, y) = (7, 3) point.

After simple transformations, the original nonlinear system may be written as two explicit
functions of x as,

14 24 12x
+ = 10 ⇒ y =
x y 5x − 7
62 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

7 18 18x
− = −5 ⇒ y =
x y 7 + 5x

And linear version of the system may be written as

5 − 7t
7t + 12k = 5 ⇒ k =
12
7t + 5
7t − 18k = −5 ⇒ k =
18

Both pairs of functions and their intersection points are shown by graphs, nonlinear system in
Fig. 3.3 (left) and its equivalent linear system in Fig. 3.3 (right).

3.13. By the change of variables method, two denominators are replaced as

⎧ 4 1
⎪
⎪ + =1 
⎨ x+y−1 x−y+1 1 1
∴ t= , k=
⎪
⎪ 16 2 x+y−1 x−y+1
⎩ − =1
x+y−1 x−y+1
∴
⎧
⎪
⎨4t + k 1−k
=1 ⇒t =
4
⎪
⎩16t − 2k =1

∴
1−k 1 1
Z
Z4
16 − 2k = 1 ∴ 4 − 6k = 1 ∴ k = ∴ =2
4A 1 2 k

1 1 1 1
∴ 4t + = 1 ∴ 4t = ∴ t= ∴ =8
2 2 8 t

y(x) k(t)
y = 18x/(7 + 5x) k=
(7t
3 + 5)/
(7, 3) 18 (1/7, 1/3)
1/3
y = 12x/(5x − 7) x 2
)/1
0
(5 − 7t
k =
t
0

0 7 0 1/7

Fig. 3.3 Example P.3.12

3.3 Linear Inequalities 63

After returning back the original variables, there is the following system of equations:

⎧
⎪ 1 
⎪
⎨ =x+y−1 =8
t x+y =9
∴ ∴ x = 5, y = 4
⎪1
⎪ x−y =1 ⇒x =y+1
⎩ =x−y+1 =2
k

Therefore, solution to this system is (x, y) = (5, 4) point.

3.3 Linear Inequalities

Solution to inequalities may be one or more intervals, one or more points, or no solution at all.

3.14. Given inequality may be resolved similarly to equations by balancing the left and right sides.
This time however, it is very important to balance correctly ≤ and ≥ sides (which was not an issue in
the case of simple equations), as

(x + 3)2 ≤ 10x + 6
x 2 + 6x + 9 ≤ 10x + 6
x 2 − 4x + 3 ≤ 0
x 2 − 3x − x + 3 ≤ 0
x(x − 3) − (x − 3) ≤ 0
(x − 1)(x − 3) ≤ 0

Reminder: Product of two numbers is negative only if the two numbers have opposite signs,
i.e., if AB < 0, then either A < 0 and B > 0 or A > 0 and B < 0.

In this case,
⎧
⎪
⎪ x−1 ≤0 ∴ x≤1
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−3 ≥0 ∴ x≥3
⎨
(x − 1)(x − 3) ≤ 0 ⇒ or,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−1 ≥0 ∴ x≥1
⎪
⎪
⎩
x−3 ≤0 ∴ x≤3

First of the two possibilities results in no solutions, i.e., if x ≤ 1 and x ≥ 3, then there is no x
that satisfies both conditions at the same time. Second of the two possibilities, i.e., if x ≥ 1 and
x ≤ 3, then the solution is x ∈ (1, 3) interval, where both x = 1 and x = 3 points are included
in the solution set. Solutions of inequalities may be shown in graph form as shaded intervals, where
solid boundary lines and crossed circles indicate that the associated boundary point is included, while
64 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

f (x) f (x)

0 x 0 x

0 1 3 −5 0 5

Fig. 3.4 Examples P.3.14, P.3.15

dashed boundary lines and non-crossed circles indicate that the boundary point is not included in the
solution set. In this case, both boundary points are included (due to non-strict inequality “≤”) (see
Fig. 3.4 (left)).

3.15. Given factorized form,

(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0

In this case,
⎧
⎪x + 5
⎪
⎪
> 0 ∴ x > −5
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x−5 >0 ∴ x>5
⎪
⎨
(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 ⇒ or,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x+5 < 0 ∴ x < −5
⎪
⎪
⎩
x−5 <0 ∴ x<5

Therefore, first two conditions x > −5 and x > 5 are satisfied at the same time if x > 5. Similarly,
conditions x < −5 and x < 5 are satisfied at the same time if x < −5.
In summary,

(x + 5)(x − 5) > 0 ⇒ x < −5 or x > 5

Note that in this case, both boundary points (x = −5 and x = 5) are not included (due to strict
inequalities “<>”) (see Fig. 3.4 (right)).

3.16. Given inequality of two rational functions, it is noted that x = 0 and x = −1 are to be excluded
due to division by zero, as

1 1 x2 − 2 x2 − 2
+ < 2 =
x x+1 x +x x(x + 1)
3.3 Linear Inequalities 65

With that in mind, this inequality may be converted to the form of inequality relative to zero as

1 1 x2 − 2
+ <
x x+1 x(x + 1)
x+1+x x2 − 2
<
x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
x2 − 2 2x + 1
0< −
x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
x 2 − 2 − 2x − 1
0<
x(x + 1)
x 2 − 2x − 3
0<
x(x + 1)
x 2 + x − 3x − 3
0<
x(x + 1)
x(x + 1) − 3(x + 1)
0<
x(x + 1)

x + 1)(x − 3)
(
0<  (x =
 −1)
x+
x( 1)
∴
x−3
>0
x

Note how left- and right-side expressions must keep correct “<>” relationship when changing the
sides. (Still, x = 0 and x = −1.)
The last rational function is positive only when both numerator and denominator have the same
sign.
⎧
⎪
⎪ x−3 >0 ∴ x>3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ x >0 ∴ x>0
x−3 ⎨
>0 ⇒ or,
x ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪x − 3
⎪
⎪
<0 ∴ x<3
⎪
⎩
x <0 ∴ x<0

Therefore, first two conditions x > 3 and x > 0 are satisfied at the same time if x > 3. Similarly,
conditions x < 3 and x < 0 are satisfied at the same time if x < 0.
In summary,

x−3
> 0 ⇒ x < 0 or x > 3 (x = −1)
x
66 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.5 Example P.3.16

f (x)

0 x

−1 0 3

Note that in this case, boundary point (x = 0) is not included (due to strict inequality “<” and division
by zero), boundary point (x = 3) is not included due to strict inequality “>,” and (x = −1) is not
included due to division by zero (see Fig. 3.5).

3.17. Given,

−3x 2 + 30x − 75 > 0 ∴ −3(x 2 − 10x + 25) > 0

−3(x 2 − 5x − 5x + 25) > 0
−3[x(x − 5) − 5(x − 5)] > 0
∴
− 3 (x − 5)2 > 0 ∴ not possible
     
<0 >0

because product of negative and positive terms is always negative.

3.18. Given,

x 4 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0
(x 2 )2 − 2x 2 + 1 < 0
(x 2 − 1)2 < 0
(x + 1)2 (x − 1)2 < 0 ∴ not possible
     
≥0 ≥0

3.19. Given,

−2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0
−2x 2 + 4x − 2 > 0
3.3 Linear Inequalities 67

−2(x 2 − 2x + 1) > 0
− 2 (x − 1)2 > 0 ∴ not possible
     
<0 >0

because product of one negative and one positive terms is always negative.

3.20. Given

2x 2 − 5x − 3
≤0
−2x + 1
2x 2 − 6x + x − 3
≤0
−2x + 1
2x(x − 3) + (x − 3)
≤0
−2x + 1
(x − 3)(2x + 1)
≤0
−2x + 1

Note that division by zero occurs when x = 1/2; thus, it must be excluded. This inequality is possible
only if numerator and denominator have opposite signs. That may be summarized systematically by
examining sign of each factorized term and the total sign of the rational term as

x −1/2 1/2 3
x−3 − − − − − 0 +
2x + 1 − 0 + + + + +
−2x + 1 + + + 0 − − −
Total sign + 0 − n.d. + 0 −
In conclusion

(2x + 1)(x − 3) 1 1
≤0 ∴ − ≤x< and x ≥ 3
−2x + 1 2 2

Note that in this case, boundary point (x = −1/2) is included (due to non-strict inequality “≤”),
boundary point (x = 1/2) is not included due to division by zero, and (x = 3) is included due to
non-strict inequality “≥” (see Fig. 3.6).

3.21. Absolute value terms are converted into two inequalities

 
 4x  4x
 
 2x + 4  < 3 ∴ −3 < 2x + 4 < 3 ⇒
4x
< 3 ∴ 4x < 6x + 12 ∴ −2x < 12 ∴ x < −6
2x + 4
4x 6
> −3 ∴ 4x > −6x − 12 ∴ 10x > −12 ∴ x > −
2x + 4 5
68 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

Fig. 3.6 Example P.3.20

f (x)

0 x

− 12 0 1
2
3

Fig. 3.7 Example P.3.21

f (x)

0 x

−6 − 65 0

Note that in this case, both boundary points, x = −6 and x = −6/5, are not included (due to strict
inequality “<>”) (see Fig. 3.7).

3.22. Absolute value terms are converted into two inequalities,

 
(x + 2) |x − 2| 1) x − 2 ≥ 0 ∴ x ≥ 2 ∴ |x − 2| = x − 2
>1
x2 + 2 2) x − 2 < 0 ∴ x < 2 ∴ |x − 2| = −(x − 2)

(x ≥ 2) :

Method 1:
 
(x + 2)(x − 2) x2 − 4 x2 1 − 4
x2
>1 ∴ 2 >1 ∴   >1
x2 + 2 x +2 x2 1 + 2
x2
3.3 Linear Inequalities 69

Method 2:

x2 − 4
>1
x2 + 2
x2 − 4 > x2 + 2

x2 − 4 − x2 − 2 > 0
−6>0

In Method 1, numerator is inferior to “1,” and denominator is greater than “1”; thus their ratio is
always less than “1,” not greater. In Method 2, it is obvious that “−6” is negative, not positive. In
conclusion, for (x ≥ 2), there is no solution to this inequality.

(x < 2) :

−(x + 2)(x − 2)
>1
x2 + 2
4 − x2
>1
x2 + 2
4 − x2 > x2 + 2
4 − 2 > 2x 2
∴
√ √
1 > x2 ⇒ x 2 < 1 ∴ |x| < 1
∴
−1 < x < +1

Note that both boundary points (x = ±1) are not included (due to strict inequality “<”) (see Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8 Example P.3.22

f (x)

0 x

−1 0 1
70 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities

3.23. Given system of inequalities,

y > 2x
y < −x − 3

the solution sets for each inequality may be shown graphically in Fig. 3.9.
Then, the superimposed region represents the solution set of this system of inequalities (see
Fig. 3.10 (left)). Note that the boundary lines are not included in the solution set (due to strict non-
equalities “<>”). In addition, coordinates of the intersection point A = (−1, −2) are found as

2x = −x − 3 ∴ 3x = −3 ∴ x = −1 ∴ y = 2x = −2 (or, y = −x − 3 = −2)

y(x) y(x)

0 x 0 x
y<
−x
2x

−
y>

−3 −3 3

3 0 3 0

Fig. 3.9 Example P.3.23

y(x) y(x)
2x
y=

x
0 x 0

−2
−3 y=
−x
−

−3 −1 0 −3 0

Fig. 3.10 Examples P.3.23, P.3.24

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities 71

3.24. Given system of inequalities

−2(x + 1) ≥ 4 ∴ −x − 1 ≥ 2 ∴ −3 ≥ x ∴ x ≤ −3
−2x ≥ 6 ∴ −x ≥ 3 ∴ −3 ≥ x ∴ x ≤ −3
x ≤ −3 ∴ x ≤ −3

all three inequalities reduce to the same (x ≤ −3) interval (see Fig. 3.9 (right)).

3.25. Given system of inequalities,

y ≥ 2x ; y ≤ 2x
x ≤ 4; x ≥ 4

The first two inequalities, y ≥ 2x and y ≤ 2x, cover space both above and below y = 2x line, thus
the whole space. Note that y = 2x line is included in the solution set. The second two inequalities,
however, add constrains that x ≤ 4 and x ≥ 4 at the same time. Therefore, there is only one point
x = 4 that satisfies all four inequalities, and consequently y = 2x = 8. The solution set is a single
point (4, 8).

3.26. Given system of nonlinearities

6 + 4x 2
−4x + 6y > 6 ∴ y > = x+1
6 3
2x − 3 2
2x − 3y > 3 ∴ >y ∴ y < x−1
3 3

is solved graphically as in Fig. 3.11. Obviously, there is no overlapping region; thus, the solution
set is empty. Note that the two boundary lines are not included in the solution due to strict “<>”
inequalities.

Fig. 3.11 Example P.3.26

y(x)

+1
3)x
(2/
1 y=
x
0
−1
−1
3)x
(2/
y=

0
72 3 Linear Equations and Inequalities

3.27. Given system of inequalities,

−2x − y < −1 ∴ −2x + 1 < y ∴ y > −2x + 1

4x + 2y ≤ 6 ∴ 2y ≤ 6 − 4x ∴ y ≤ −2x + 3

graphical solution is in Fig. 3.12. Note that y = −2x + 1 line is not in the solution set due to strict
inequality.

3.28. Given system of inequalities,

x+y <6 ∴ y <6−x

5x + y ≥ 4 ∴ y ≥ 4 − 5x
3 1
x + 4y > −3 ∴ y > − − x
4 4
x≤5
y<4

graphical solution is in Fig. 3.12 (right). The solution set is bound by these five linear functions, where
the intersection points are:

A: y=4 and y = −5x + 4 ∴ −5x + 4 = 4 ∴ −5x = 0 ∴ x = 0 ⇒ (0, 4)

B: y=4 and y = −x + 6 ∴ −x + 6 = 4 ∴ x = 2 ⇒ (2, 4)
C: x=5 and y = −x + 6 ∴ y = −5 + 6 ∴ y = 1 ⇒ (5, 1)

D: x=5 and y = (−x − 3)/4 ∴ y = (−5 − 3)/4 ∴ y = −2 ⇒ (5, −2)

E : y = (−x − 3)/4 and y = −5x + 4 ∴ −5x + 4 = (−x − 3)/4 ∴ −20x + 16 = −x − 3

∴ x=1 ∴ y = −5 + 4 ∴ y = −1 ⇒ (1, −1)

y(x) y(x)
3
y=
−2
x
+1

1 4
y=−

x y=
0 −x
+
5x + 4

6
1
y=

x
0 y
−2

= (−x
−1 − 3)/4
x

)
+3

−2

0 0 1 2 5

Fig. 3.12 Examples P.3.27, P.3.28

3.4 System of Linear Inequalities 73

Note that due to non-strict inequalities, the following lines and points are not part of the solution set:

y=4
y = −x + 6
A and B (they belong to y = 4)
C (it belongs to y = −x + 6 line)
Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
4

Problems

4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Sketch graphs, and show important points of basic exponential and logarithmic functions in P.4.1 to
P.4.12

4.1. f (x) = 2x 4.2. f (x) = ex 4.3. f (x) = 10x

4.4. f (x) = log2 (x) 4.5. f (x) = ln(x) 4.6. f (x) = log(x)

4.7. f (x) = 2−x 4.8. f (x) = e−x 4.9. f (x) = 10−x

4.10. f (x) = ln2 (−x) 4.11. f (x) = ln(−x) 4.12. f (x) = log(−x)

Knowing forms of basic exponential and logarithmic functions (see P.4.1 to P.4.12), deduce and sketch
graphs of functions in P.4.13 to P.4.17

4.13. f (x) = 2x − 2 4.14. f (x) = 2 ln(x) − 1 4.15. f (x) = 3 ln(−x) + 3

√
4.16. f (x) = 2 x2 4.17. f (x) = eln x 4.18. f (x) = 3x + 3−x

 
4.19. f (x) = | log2 x| 4.20. f (x) = 5|x| − 2 4.21. f (x) = 3 ln(−x + 2) + 3

4.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations

Without using calculator, calculate logarithms in P.4.22 to P.4.39

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 75

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_4
76 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

√
1 4.23. log0.1 1000 4.24. log2 3
512
4.22. log3
81
√
4.25. log2
1 4.26. log√2 8 4.27. loga
5
a2
128

4.28. log10 10 4.29. log10 100 4.30. log10 1000

4.31. log2 16 1 1
4.32. log25 4.33. log8
625 4
√
4.34. 25log5 3 4.35. log5 5 243
4.36. log2/3
32
    
4.37. log21/2 (4) 4.38. log1/2 (4) 4.39. log8 log4 log2 (16)

4.3 Exponential Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.4.40 to P.4.49

4.40. 2x = 8 4.41. 2x−1 = 16 4.42. 2x−5 = 3

4.43. e7−4x = 6 4.44. e2x − 3ex + 2 = 0 4.45. 5x+1 − 5x−1 = 24

 x 2 −1
4.46. x2 − x − 1 =1

4.47. 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1

 x  x
√ √
4.48. 5 + 24 + 5 − 24 = 10

4.49. 81x − 16x − 2 × 9x (9x − 4x ) + 36x = 0

4.4 Logarithmic Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.4.50 to P.4.55

4.50. log2 x = 4 4.51. ln(3x − 10) = 2 4.52. ln(x 2 − 1) = 3

4.53. ln x + ln(x − 1) = 1 4.54. ln(ln x) = 1 4.55. log4 (x + 1) = 1

4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities 77

4.5 Exponential–Logarithmic Equations

Solve and comment on the solutions of equations in P.4.56 to P.4.58

4.56. x log3 x = 9 4.58. 52(log5 2+x) − 2 = 5x+log5 2

2
4.57. 4(log4 x) + x log4 x = 512

4.6 Exponential Inequalities

Solve and comment on the solutions of inequalities in P.4.59 to P.4.61

 1/x 
4.60. 1 < 3|x −x| < 9
2

4.59. 2 x+2 1 4.61. 9x − 3x+2 > 3x − 9

>
4

4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities

Solve and comment on the solutions of inequalities in P.4.62 to P.4.64

x−1 4.63. log2x+3 x 2 < 1 4.64. log2x 2 −x (2x + 2) < 1
4.62. log >0
x+2
78 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Answers

4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Among all functions in mathematics, arguably, logarithmic and exponential forms are most challeng-
ing for beginners. Nevertheless, mastery of their basic forms and properties is the key for many other
practical problems. In this section, exponential and logarithmic functions are reviewed from the visual
perspective, in addition to some of the basic transformation techniques.

4.1. Regardless of its base, exponential functions cross vertical axis at (x, y) = (0, 1) point. Note
that exponential functions are always positive (see Fig. 4.1 (left)). In addition, at x = 1, exponential
function equals to its base, i.e., 2, e, 10, etc. Exponential functions limit to “0” as x → −∞ and limit
to +∞ as x → ∞.

4.2. Exponential function with base e has basically the same general form as the other exponential
function, where its value at x = 1 equals to e. See Fig. 4.1 (left) where three typical exponential
functions are compared.

4.3. Exponential function with base 10 has basically the same form as the other exponential function,
where its value at x = 1 equals to 10. See Fig. 4.1 (left) where three typical exponential functions are
compared.

4.4. Logarithmic function with the base 2 (see Fig. 4.1 (right)) has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base. Note that all basic logarithmic functions are defined
for x > 0, they cross the horizontal axis at (x, y) = (1, 0) point, and their respective value equals
to “1” when x equals to their base, i.e., 2, e, 10, etc. Logarithmic function limit to −∞ as x → 0
from the positive side and limit to +∞ as x → ∞. Note rotational symmetry relative to exponential
functions. Due to its relatively slow rise to infinity, in the communication theory, logarithmic functions
are sometimes referred to as “compression” functions.

4.5. Logarithmic function with the base e (see Fig. 4.1 (right)) has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base.

2x f (x) f (x)
ex
10 x 1
e 0 x
2

1
ln2 (x)
x
0 ln(x)
log(x)
0 1 0 1 2 e

Fig. 4.1 Example P.4.1

4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 79

f (x) f (x)
2−x
e−x
10−x 1
e 0 x
2

1
ln2 (−x)
x
0 ln(−x)
log(−x)
1 0 e 2 1 0

Fig. 4.2 Example P.4.7

4.6. Logarithmic function with the base 10 (see Fig. 4.1 (right)) has basically the same general form
as logarithmic functions with some other base.

4.7. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (left))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.8. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (left))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.9. Regardless of its base, basic exponential functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (left))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.10. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (right))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.11. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (right))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.12. Regardless of its base, basic logarithmic functions with negative argument (see Fig. 4.2 (right))
are simple mirrored version of their respective form with the positive argument.

4.13. Starting from the basic exponential form 2x , function f (x) = 2x − 2 is found as 2x simply
shifted down along the vertical axis by “−2” (see Fig. 4.3 (left)).

4.14. Starting with the basic form of ln(x), first it is multiplied by “2” to create 2 ln(x) and then
shifted by “−1” along the vertical axis to create 2 ln(x) − 1 (see Fig. 4.3 (right)). For a simple sketch,
it is sufficient to consider only a few typical points and to follow their movement. For example,
ln(1) = 0; therefore, 2 ln(1) = 0, and ln(e) = 1; therefore, 2 ln(e) = 2. Then, 2 ln(e) − 1 = 1, etc.

4.15. Starting with the basic form of ln(−x), first it is multiplied by “3” to create 3 ln(−x) and
then shifted by “+3” along the vertical axis to create 3 ln(−x) + 3 (see Fig. 4.4 (left)). For a simple
sketch, it is sufficient to consider only a few typical points and to follow their movement. For example,
ln(−1) = 0; therefore, 3 ln(−1) = 0, and ln(−e) = 1; therefore, 3 ln(−e) = 3. Then, 3 ln(−e) + 3 =
6, 3 ln(−1) + 3 = 3, etc.
80 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

2x f (x) f (x)
2x − 2 2
1
2 0 x
1 −1
−1
x
0
−2 −2
−1 ln(x)
2 ln(x)
2 ln(x) − 1
0 1 0 1 e

Fig. 4.3 Example P.4.13, P.4.14

f (x) f (x)
6

+3
3
2
1
0 x 1
ln(−x) 2−x
3 ln(−x) 0 2x
√ x
3 ln(−x) + 3 2 x2

−e −1 0 −1 0 1

Fig. 4.4 Example P.4.15, P.4.16

4.16. Simple transformation shows that

√ f (x) = 2x ; x≥0
x2 |x|
f (x) = 2 =2 ∴
f (x) = 2−x ; x≤0
√
Therefore, function f (x) = 2 x2
is created by plotting only positive part of 2x and negative part
of 2−x (see Fig. 4.4 (right)).

4.17. Knowing the basic function forms, first, argument of a logarithmic function must be strictly
positive; thus, x > 0. Then, the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions is that
they are inverse to each other (similar like “+” and “−” or × and ÷), that is,

A = x; (x > 0)
f (x) = Aelnx

In conclusion, this is a simple f (x) = x function that is strictly defined only for x > 0 side.
4.1 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 81

Fig. 4.5 Example P.4.18

f (x)
3−x
3x
3x + 3−x

3
1
0
−1 x
−1 0 1

Fig. 4.6 Example P.4.19

f (x)

0 x

log2 (x)
| log2 (x)|
0 1 2

4.18. Starting with the basic functions 3x and 3−x , their sum may be sketched as in Fig. 4.5 For
example, 30 = 1, and 3−0 = 1; thus, 30 + 3−0 = 2, and the rest of the sum is sketched by following
the asymptotic limits.

4.19. Starting from the basic form “log2 x” and knowing that absolute value of a positive arguments
stays the same, while absolute value of a negative argument is multiplied by “−1” and becomes
positive, then | log2 x| is sketched as in Fig. 4.6

4.20. As already seen in P.4.16, exponent with the absolute argument may be created by combining
exponent 5x for x ≥ 0 and exponent 5−x for x ≤ 0 to create 5|x| (see Fig. 4.7 (left)). Then, the final
form of 5|x| − 2 can be deduced by the following series of transformations:
 
5±x → 5|x| → 5|x| − 2 → 5|x| − 2

As the last transformation, the negative interval (shaded region) of 5|x| − 2 is simply mirrored to the
positive side (see Fig. 4.7 (right)).
82 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

f (x) f (x)
5±x 5|x| − 2
5|x| |5|x| − 2|
5|x| − 2

5 5

3 3

1 1
0 x 0 x
−1 −1
−2
−1 0 1 −1 0 1

Fig. 4.7 Example P.4.20

Fig. 4.8 Example P.4.21
f (x)

+3
3
+2
1
0 x
3 ln(−x)
3 ln(−x + 2)
3 ln(−x + 2) + 3
−e −1 0 1

4.21. Starting from the basic function ln(−x), the final form of “3 ln(−x + 2) + 3” can be deduced
by the following series of transformations:

ln(−x) → 3 ln(−x) → 3 ln(−x + 2) → 3 ln(−x + 2) + 3

that appears as amplitude multiplied by “3”; then “3 ln(−x)” function is shifted to the right by “2”
and moved up by “3” (see Fig. 4.8).

4.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations

Problems in this section are intended for practicing hand calculations of logarithms with arbitrary
base. The goal is to develop basic hand calculation skills needed for solving mathematical problems
that include logarithmic functions.

Reminder: Arbitrary base logarithms are converted to rational functions of ln(x) as

ln b
loga b =
ln a
4.2 Simple Logarithmic Calculations 83

4.22. Given x = log3 (1/81), argument of an logarithm with the arbitrary base may be resolved by
using the powers of the same base as

1 H3 (1/81) ∴ 3x = 1 = 1 = 3−4 ∴ x = log3 1 = −4

x = log3 ∴ 3x = 3AH
log
81 81 34 81

which is result of a simple deduction: if 3x = 3−4 , then it must be that x = −4 (because of the same
power base).

4.23. Note that the logarithm’s base is 0.1, and by following the same reasoning as in P.4.22, it
follows that

1
x = log0.1 1000 ∴ 0.1x = 1000 = 103 = = 0.1−3 ∴ x = log0.1 1000 = −3
10−3
√ √  1/3 √
4.24. x = log2 3
512 ∴ 2x = 512 = 29
3
= 23 ∴ x = log2 512 = 3
3

1 H2 (1/128) ∴ 2x = 1 = 1 = 2−7 ∴ x = log2 1 = −7

4.25. x = log2 ∴ 2x = 2AH
log
128 128 27 128
√ x √ H √ 6
2 = ZZ
√
4.26. x = log√2 8 ∴ 2logH2 8 = 8 = 2 ∴ x = log√2 8 = 6

√ √ √ 2
4.27. x = loga
5
a 2 ∴ a x = a 2 = a 2/5 ∴ x = loga a 2 =
5 5

4.28. x = log10 10 ∴ 10x = 10 ∴ x = 1

4.29. x = log10 100 ∴ 10x = 100 ∴ x = 2

4.30. x = log10 1000 ∴ 10x = 1000 ∴ x = 3

In addition, writing “log” without specific index number assumes the base 10, while writing “ln”
assumes the base e. Note that, for example, x = log 1,000,000 may be found by simply counting the
zeros; therefore x = 6, x = log 1000; therefore x = 3, etc.

4.31. x = log2 16 ∴ 2x = 16 ∴ 2x = 24 ∴ x = log2 16 = 4

4.32. x = log25
1 1
= log25 2 = log25 25−2 = −2 log :1 1
25 25 ∴ x = log25 = −2
625 25 625
where logarithm of its base always equals to “1” and identity “log a = b log a” is used to simplify
b

powers of logarithm’s argument.

1 1 1 2 :1
 1 2
= log8 √ = log8 √ = log8 8− /3 = − log
8 8 ∴ log8 =−
2
4.33. log8 3 3
4 64 8 2 3 4 3
 log 3
4.34. 25log5 3 = 52 5 = 5(2 log5 3) = 5AHH5 32 ∴ 25log5 3 = 9
log

√ 1 √ 1
5 = log5 5 /2 = log :1

5 5 ∴ log5 5=
1
4.35. log5
2 2
84 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

 −5 >

1
5
4.36. log 243 = log 3 = log 2 2 243
2/3 2/3 2/3 = −5 log
2/3 ∴ log2/3 = −5
32 25 3  3 32
 
  −2   1 
    >
 
 1   
1 
4.37. log21/2 (4) = log1/2 (4) = log1/2 =
  −2 
log  = |−2| ∴ log21/2 (4) = 2
    /2 2 
1
2
 

  −2 >

1

4.38. 1 1 √ √
log1/2 (4) = log1/2 = −2 log
1/2 = −2 ∴ log1/2 (4) = j 2
2  2
  
4.39. Given a general composed “telescopic” form x = log8 log4 log2 (16) , start unfolding it
from the inside (as the “Russian doll”), as

  
      4  :
 1
x = log8 log4 log2 (16) = log8 log4 log2 2 log
= log8 log4 4 
2 (2)

 
= log8 log: 1 ⇒ x = log (1)

44 8

∴ 8x = 8AHH8 (1) ⇒ 8x = 1 = 80 ∴ x = 0
log

∴
  
log8 log4 log2 (16) =0

4.3 Exponential Equations

Exponentials of an arbitrary base are often resolved with the help of logarithm with the same base.

4.40. 2x = 8 ∴ 2x = 23 ∴ x = 3

4.41. 2x−1 = 16 ∴ 2x−1 = 24 ∴ x − 1 = 4 ∴ x = 5

  ln 3 5 ln 2 + ln 3
4.42. 2x−5 = 3 ∴ H
logH2 2Ax−5 = log2 3 ∴ x − 5 = log2 3 = ∴ x=
ln 2 ln 2
  7 − ln 6
ln Ae7−4x = ln 6 ∴ 7 − 4x = ln 6 ∴ 7 − ln 6 = 4x ∴ x =
4.43. e7−4x = 6 ∴ @
4

4.44. This exponential equation is in reality quadratic equation in disguise; by the change of
variables technique, it is converted into a simple quadratic equation as
 2  
e2x − 3ex + 2 = 0 ∴ ex − 3 ex + 2 = 0 ∴ t = ex
∴ t 2 − 3t + 2 = 0
t 2 − 2t − t + 2 = 0
4.3 Exponential Equations 85

t (t − 2) − (t − 2) = 0
(t − 2)(t − 1) = 0 ∴ t1 = 2, t2 = 1
 
Case t1 = 2: ∴ ex1 = 2 ∴ ln ex1 = ln 2 ∴ x1 = ln 2
 
Case t2 = 2: ∴ ex2 = 1 ∴ ln ex2 = ln 1 ∴ x1 = 0

4.45. After factorization of 52 term, it follows that

5x+1 − 5x−1 = 24
5x−1 52 − 5x−1 = 24
 
5x−1 52 − 1 = 24
5x−1 × 24 = 24 ∴ 5x−1 = 1 = 50 ∴ x − 1 = 0 ∴ x = 1

 x 2 −1
4.46. Given f (x) = x 2 − x − 1 = 1, note that the general form of this function is a b = 1,
which is equivalent to logarithmic form

ln a b = ln 1 ∴ b ln a = 0

where argument of a logarithmic function must be strictly positive, that is, a > 0. In this problem, it
must be that x 2 − x − 1 > 0. Roots of this polynomial are
√ √
1− 5 1+ 5
x − x − 1 = 0 ∴ x1 =
2
and x2 =
2 2

where inequality x 2 − x − 1 > 0 defines two intervals: x < x1 and x > x2 .

By consequence, in this problem, equation a b = 1 is possible in two cases: 1) if a > 0 and b = 0,

or 2) a = 1. Thus,

Case 1 : a b = 1 ⇒ a > 0 and b = 0, that is to say

 x 2 −1 x 2 − x − 1 > 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x > 0
x2 − x − 1 =1 ∴
x2 − 1 = 0 ∴ x = ±1

which is to say,

x = 1 : ⇒ x 2 − 1 = 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x = 0 − 1 > 0 ∴ −1 > 0
x = −1 : ⇒ x 2 − 1 = 0 ∴ (x 2 − 1) − x = 0 − 1 = 0 − (−1) = 0 ∴ 1 > 0 

therefore, x = −1 satisfies both conditions.

Case 2 : a b = 1 ⇒ a = 0, thus

x 2 − x − 1 = 1 ∴ x 2 − x − 2 = 0 ∴ x 2 − 2x + x − 2 = 0 ∴ x(x − 2) + x − 2 = 0
86 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Fig. 4.9 Example P.4.46

f (x)

0 x
a.v. a.v.
−1 x1 0 x2 2

∴ (x + 1)(x − 2) = 0 ∴ x = −1, x = 2

Thus, in total x = −1 (double root) and x = 2. These three solutions for f (x) = 1 are illustrated in
Fig. 4.9

4.47. Given equation 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1 note that it must be (see P.4.46)

1
3x + 1 > 0 ∴ x >
3

then, this function may be converted into the following form:

2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1) = (3x + 1)x+1

2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (3x + 1)x+1 = x − 1
2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (3x + 1)(3x + 1)x = x − 1
 
(3x + 1)x 2(x + 1) − (3x + 1) = x − 1
−(x − 1)(3x + 1)x = x − 1

Note that (3x + 1)x > 0 for all x > 1/3, and −(x − 1) = (x − 1); thus, the last equation is possible
only if x = 1, i.e.,

x = 1 : −(1 − 1)(3(1) + 1)1 = 1 − 1 ∴ −(0)(4) = 0 

In conclusion, x = 1. This solution may be illustrated by finding the intersection point between the
left and right sides of equation (see Fig. 4.10), i.e.

f1 (x) = 2(x + 1)(3x + 1)x − (x − 1)

f2 (x) = (3x + 1)x+1
4.3 Exponential Equations 87

Fig. 4.10 Example P.4.47

f2 (x) f (x)
f1 (x)
16

0 x
a.v.
−1/3 0 1

4.48. By using the change of variables technique, given equation is converted as

 x  x
√ √
5 + 24 + 5 − 24 = 10
  √ x  x
√ 5 − 24 √
5 + 24  √ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
⎛ √ √ ⎞x  x
(5 + 24)(5 − 24) √
⎝  √ ⎠ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
√ x  x
25 − 24 √
 √ + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24
 x
1 √
 √ x + 5 − 24 = 10
5 − 24

 √ x
This form is converted into quadratic equation with 5 − 24 = t change, as

1 √
+ t = 10 ∴ t 2 − 10 t + 1 = 0 ∴ t1,2 = 5 ± 24
t

Return to the original variable results in

 x  x
√ √ √
5 − 24 = t ∴ 5 − 24 = 5 − 24 ∴ x = 2
 x
√ √ 1
∴ 5 − 24 = 5 + 24 = √ ∴ x = −2
5 − 24
 
1
x −n = n ; (a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2
x
88 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

4.49. After factorization, this equitation is transformed into quadratic equation as

81x − 16x − 2 × 9x (9x − 4x ) + 36x = 0

(34 )x − (24 )x − 2 × 92x + 2 × 9x 4x ) + (62 )x = 0
34x − 24x − 2 × 34x + 2 × 32x 22x + 62x = 0
34x − 2 × 34x − 24x + 2 × 62x + 62x = 0
−34x − 24x + 3 × 62x = 0
 
34x + 24x − 3 × 62x = 0 factor 24x

34x  2
4x
2
32x  2x
+ − 3 =0
24x  2
4x 2Z4x 2x
  2  2x
3 2x 3
−3 +1=0
2 2

Thus, change of variable leads to

 2x √
3 3± 5
t= ∴ t − 3t + 1 = 0 ∴ t1,2 =
2
2 2

Return to the original variable gives

 2x  x √ √ √
3 9 3± 5 9 3± 5 ln(3 ± 5) − ln 2
= = ∴ x1,2 ln = ln ∴ x1,2 =
2 4 2 4 2 ln 9 − ln 4

4.4 Logarithmic Equations

Logarithmic and exponential functions reverse each other, similar as add/subtract or multiply/divide
do; thus, the general strategy for solving these types of equations is to apply opposite function to both
left and right sides of equation.

Reminder: Given a logarithmic equation, its solution is found by rising both left and right side
of the equation as

loga f (x) = b ⇒ aAHHa f (x) = a b ⇒ f (x) = a b

log

or, given exponential function

log
a f (x) = b ⇒ loga a f (x) = loga b ⇒ f (x)  :1

a a = loga b ⇒ f (x) = loga b
4.5 Exponential–Logarithmic Equations 89

4.50. log2 x = 4 ∴ 2AHH2 x = 24 ∴ x = 24 = 16

log

e2 + 10
4.51. ln(3x − 10) = 2 ∴ eln(3x−10) = e2 ∴ 3x − 10 = e2 ∴ x =
3

4.52. ln(x 2 − 1) = 3 ∴ eln(x
2
−1)
= e3 ∴ x 2 − 1 = e3 ∴ x = ± e3 + 1
 
4.53. ln x + ln(x − 1) = 1 ∴ ln x(x − 1) = 1 ∴ eln(x(x−1)) = e ∴ x 2 − x = e
√
1 ± 1 + 4e
x − x − e = 1 ∴ x1,2 =
2
2

4.54. ln(ln x) = 1 ∴ eln(ln x) = e ∴ ln x = e ∴ eln x = ee ∴ x = ee

4.55. log4 (x + 1) = 1 ∴ 4AHH4 (x+1) = 41 ∴ x + 1 = 4 ∴ x = 3

log

4.5 Exponential–Logarithmic Equations

Equations that contain various composite exp/log forms are resolved with successive use of identities
that gradually simplify the original form.

4.56. By using the identities for log and exp functions, it follows that
    :1

log
x log3 x = 9 ∴ log3 x log3 x = log3 9 ∴ log3 x log3 x = log3 32 ∴ log3 x log3 x = 2  33
 2 √ √
∴ log3 x log3 x = 2 ∴ log3 x = 2 ∴ log3 x = ± 2 ∴ 3log3 x = 3± 2
√
∴ x = 3± 2

4.57. By exploiting exponential/logarithmic identities, it follows that

2
 
2
4(log4 x) + x log4 x = 512 a b = a b b = (a b )b
H 
H4 x log4 x + x log4 x = 512
4Alog
x log4 x + x log4 x = 512
2 x log4 x = 512
x log4 x = 256
   
log4 x log4 x = log4 256 log a b = b log a, 256 = 44
 2
log4 x log4 x = H logH4 4A4 = 4 ∴ log4 x = 4 ∴ log4 x = ±2
4AH H4 x = 4±2 ∴ x = 4±2
log

1
x1 = 42 = 16, x2 = 4−2 =
16
90 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

4.58. As a consequence of exponential and logarithmic identities, any real number can be written as
exponent of an arbitrary base logarithm, e.g., 2 = 5log5 2 ; thus

52(log5 2+x) − 2 = 5x+log5 2

  b 
a b+c = a b a c ; a = nlogn a ; x ab = x a

52 log5 2 52x − 5log5 2 = 5x 5log5 2

 2
5log5 2 52x − 5log5 2 − 5x 5log5 2 = 0
 
5AHH5 2 5log5 2 52x − 1 − 5x = 0
log

 
2 5log5 2 52x − 1 − 5x = 0
5AHH5 2 52x − 5x − 1 = 0
log

2 × 52x − 5x − 1 = 0

By the change of variables technique, the last equation is converted into a quadratic equation.
 2  
2 × 5x − 5x − 1 = 0 5x = t
2t 2 − t − 1 = 0
2t 2 − 2t + t − 1 = 0
2t (t − 1) + (t − 1) = 0
(t − 1)(2t + 1) = 0 ∴
1
t1 = 1 or t2 = − ∴
2
1
5x = − not possible because 5x > 0 ∀x
2
5x = 1 ∴ x = 0

This solution may be illustrated by finding the intersection point between the left and right sides of
equation (see Fig. 4.11), i.e.,

f1 (x) = 52(log5 2+x) − 2

f2 (x) = 5x+log5 2

4.6 Exponential Inequalities

Similar to their equation counterparts, exponential inequalities result in non-unique answers. Instead,
the solution set consists of one or multiple intervals. In general, exponential forms are considered
easier to solve, because basic exponential functions are well-defined and positive.
4.6 Exponential Inequalities 91

Fig. 4.11 Example P.4.58 f (x)

f1 (x)
f2 (x)
2

0 x

4.59. The main idea is transform the inequality terms until it is possible to compare powers of the
same base, i.e.,
 1/x
1  −1/x
2 x+2
> ∴ 2x+2 > 4−1/x ∴ 2x+2 > 22 ∴ 2x+2 > 2−2/x
4

Therefore, this inequality is equivalent to

2 2
x+2>− ∴ x+2+ >0
x x

Note that for this inequality x = 0, due to division by zero in inverse function “2/x,” it is necessary
to examine two intervals:

1. x > 0 : Obviously, within this interval, the inequality is always satisfied because all three terms
on the left side are positive. Therefore, one solution is the interval x > 0.
2. x < 0 : Within this interval, the two terms that include x are obviously negative, while “+2” term
is always positive. Thus

2 x 2 + 2x + 2
x+2+ >0 ∴ >0
x x

Note that, given x < 0 interval, numerator “x 2 +2x +2” is always positive, while denominator “x”
is always negative. Consequently, rational term on the left side of inequality is always negative,
not positive.

In conclusion, solution to this inequality is “x > 0” interval.

4.60. Given double strict inequality with the absolute expression |x 2 − x| = |x(x − 1)|, there are
two expressions to be considered.
92 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

⎧
⎪ x(x − 1) > 0 ∴ x>0 and x−1 > 0 ∴ x > 1 ⇒ |x 2 −x|=x 2 −x
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ x < 0 and x − 1 < 0 ∴ x < 0 ⇒ |x 2 − x| = x 2 −x
|x(x−1)|=
⎪
⎪x2 − x < 0 ∴ x>0 and x−1<0 ∴ 0 < x < 1 ⇒ |x 2 −x|= − (x 2 −x)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
x < 0 and x − 1 > 0 ⇒ (empty interval)

Therefore,
2
−x
1. x > 1 or x < 0 : 1 < 3x <9

1 < 3x
2
−x
log
∴ : 0 H 3x 2 −x ∴ 0 < x 2 − x ⇒ x > 1 or x < 0

3 1 < log
H3A
2
−x 2
−x
3x < 9 ∴ 3x < 32 ∴ x 2 − x < 2 ∴ x 2 −x − 2 < 0 ∴ x 2 −2x + x − 2 < 0
∴ x(x − 2) + x − 2 < 0
(x − 2)(x + 1) < 0 ⇒ x > −1 and x < 2
x < −1 and x > 2 (empty interval)

2. 0 < x < 1 : 1 < 3−(x −x)

2
<9

1 < 3−(x
2
−x)
log
∴ : 0 H 3−(x 2 −x) ∴ 0 < −(x 2 − x) ∴ x 2 − x < 0 ⇒ 0 < x < 1

3 1 < log
H3A

3−(x −x)
< 9 ∴ 3−(x −x)
2 2
< 32 ∴ x − x 2 < 2 ∴ −x 2 + x − 2 < 0  (x ∈ ∀x)

In summary, the solution set is in interval (note strict inequalities)

⎫
−1 < x < 2 ⎪
⎪
⎬
x > 1 or x < 0 ∴ x ∈ (−1, 2) interval, where, x = (−1, 0, 1, 2)
⎪
⎪
⎭
0<x<1

This solution set is illustrated by non-shaded region in Fig. 4.12 (left). As a comparison, the rational
term itself that is bounded by “1” and “9” is shown in Fig. 4.12 (right), where points excluded due to
strict inequalities are crossed.

4.61. Following the idea of reducing all terms to the same base, we write

9x − 3x+2 > 3x − 9
 2

32x − 3x 32 > 3x − 32 


3

2x
3
− 3x 32 > 2x
− 2 × 3x 32 + 34
2 × 3x 32 − 3x 32 > 34

3x 32 > 34 2 ∴ x > 2

4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities 93

f (x) f (x)

0 x

1
0 x
−1 0 1 2 −1 0 1 2

Fig. 4.12 Example P.4.60

4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities

Similar to their equation counterparts, logarithmic inequalities result in non-unique answers, and the
solution set consists of one or multiple intervals. In general, solving logarithmic forms is a bit more
involved due to constrains of basic logarithmic functions.

4.62. Logarithmic function is positive when its argument is superior to one, i.e.,

x−1 x−1
log >0 ∴ > 1 where, x = −2
x+2 x+2

The solution set may be deduced as follows:

x−1 x−1 x − 1 − xA − 2 −3
>1 ∴ −1>0 ∴ A >0 ∴ >0 ∴ x+2<0
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2
∴ x < −2

Therefore, x < −2 is the solution set.

4.63. Given inequality

ln x 2
log2x+3 x 2 < 1 ∴ <1
ln(2x + 3)

Note that logarithm’s argument must be strictly positive; thus, x = 0. It is important to distinguish
logarithms whose base is inferior to “1” from those whose base is superior to “1.” Note that two
logarithmic functions with the inverse bases are symmetric relative to the horizontal axis. Also, note
that “1” can be written as an arbitrary base logarithm of that base, for example,

1 = log2x+3 (2x + 3)

Case 1: 0 < 2x + 3 < 1

94 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

⎫
3⎪
0 < 2x + 3 ∴ x>− ⎬ 3
2 ⇒− <x<1
⎪
∴ x < −1 ⎭
2
2x + 3 < 1

Then,

log2x+3 x 2 < 1
log2x+3 x 2 < log2x+3 (2x + 3)
∴ x 2 > 2x + 3 ∴ x 2 − 2x − 3 > 0 ∴ x 2 − 3x + x − 3 > 0
∴ x(x − 3) + x − 3 > 0 ∴ (x + 1)(x − 3) > 0
(x + 1) > 0 and (x − 3) > 0 ∴ x > 3 (note, x < 1 )
or,
(x + 1) < 0 and (x − 3) < 0 ∴ x < −1

Case 2: 2x + 3 > 1 ∴ x > −1, then

log2x+3 x 2 < 1
log2x+3 x 2 < log2x+3 (2x + 3) ∴ x 2 < 2x + 3 ∴ x 2 − 2x − 3 < 0
∴
(x + 1) > 0 and (x − 3) < 0 ∴ −1 < x < 3
or,
(x + 1) < 0 and (x − 3) > 0 (empty interval)

Therefore, the complete solution set is x ∈ (−3/2, 3) interval, where points that are not included due
to strict inequalities are (x = −3/2, −1, 0, 3). This solution set is illustrated by non-shaded region
in Fig. 4.13 (left). As a comparison, the arbitrary base logarithm term itself that is bounded by “1” is
shown in Fig. 4.13 (right), where points excluded due to strict inequalities are crossed.

4.64. Logarithm function of an arbitrary base may be evaluated by converting given function into
ratio of two logarithmic functions as
 
ln b ln(2x + 2)
log2x 2 −x (2x + 2) < 1 loga b = ∴ <1
ln a ln(2x 2 − x)

Basic properties of log(x) function are as follows: x > 0, if (0 < x < 1), log(1) = 0, then log x < 0,
and if (x > 1), then log x > 0. Thus,

1. Rational function is not defined when denominator equals to zero, i.e., the result of division is
either infinity or undetermined; thus

ln(2x 2 − x) = 0 ∴ 2x 2 − x = 1 ∴ 2x 2 − x − 1 = 0
4.7 Logarithmic Inequalities 95

f (x) f (x)
1

0 x

0 x −1

3/2 1 0 3 3/2 1 0 3

Fig. 4.13 Example P.4.63

1
∴ x = 1, x = −
2
1
ln(2x 2 − x) < 0 ∴ 0 < x(2x − 1) < 1 ∴ 0 < x <
2

and this logarithm function is defined for positive argument, i.e.,

1
2x 2 − x > 0 ∴ x(2x − 1) > 0 ∴ x < 0 or, x >
2

2. Similarly, logarithm in the numerator is defined for

2x + 2 > 0 ∴ x > −1 and,

1
ln(2x + 2) < 0 ∴ 0 < 2x + 2 < 1 ∴ x < −
2

3. Condition of inequality gives

ln(2x + 2)
f (x) = < 1 ∴ ln(2x + 2) < ln(2x 2 − x)
ln(2x 2 − x)
∴ 2x + 2 < 2x 2 − x
∴ 0 < 2x 2 − 3x − 2
∴ 0 < 2(x + 1)(x − 2)

which is satisfied when x > 2, because values x < −1 are already excluded.

In summary, the solution set is

1
−1 < x < 0 and < x < 1 and x > 2
2
96 4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

f (x) f (x)

0 1
x
0 x

a.v. a.v.
−1 0 −1/2 1 2 −1 0 1/2 1 2

Fig. 4.14 Example P.4.64

This solution set is illustrated by non-shaded region in Fig. 4.14 (left). As a comparison, the arbitrary
base logarithm term itself that is bounded by “1” is shown in Fig. 4.14 (right), where points excluded
due to strict inequalities are crossed.
Trigonometry
5

All problems in this chapter are to be solved without the use of calculator. Instead, the principal
objective is to master the use of “unit circle” showing “special” angles (see Fig. 5.1).
Among many trigonometric identities, some are more often used than the others, for example,

Pythagorean identities

a 2 + b = c2 (Pythagoras’s theorem )
sin2 α + cos2 β = 1 (Pythagoras’s theorem in disguise, for c = 1)

| sin α| = 1 − cos2 α

| cos α| = 1 − sin2 α
sin α
tan α =
cos α

Sum to product identities,

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
 
if, α = β, (note: double angle),
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α
cos 2α = cos2 α − sinα

Product to sum identities,

 
1
sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)
2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 97

R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_5
98 5 Trigonometry

cos sin cos sin

0 1 II 90◦ I 0 1
√ 120◦ 1 60◦ √
−1/2 3/2 135◦ 45◦ 1/2 3/2
√ √ √ √
− 2/2 2/2 150◦ 30◦ 2/2 2/2
√ √
− 3/2 1/2 3/2 1/2
180◦ 0◦
−1 0 1 0
√ −1 1 360◦ √
− 3/2 −1/2 3/2 −1/2
√ √ √ √
− 2/2 − 2/2 210◦ 330◦ 2/2 − 2/2
√ √
−1/2 − 3/2 225◦ 315◦ 1/2 − 3/2
0 −1 240◦ −1 300◦ 0 −1
III 270◦ IV

Fig. 5.1 Trigonometry, unit circle

 
1
cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)
2
 
1
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2

Square to double angle identities,

1 − cos(2α)
sin2 α =
2
1 + cos(2α)
cos2 α =
2

Problems

Problems in this chapter are grouped in five sections. Firstly, definitions and basic calculations with
angles expressed either in degrees (◦ ) or radians (rad) are practiced, followed by basic identities,
equations, and inequalities. The chosen examples are considered classic on this topic, so they should
be mastered by all engineering and science students.

5.1 Trigonometric Definitions

5.1. Briefly explain the concept of “similar triangles” (thus, “similar figures” in general), and
comment their properties that are used in trigonometry.

5.2. Right-angled triangles and Pythagoras’ theorem illustrate the definitions of sin x, cos x, and
tan x
5.2 Basic Calculations 99

5.3. Sketch the unit circle, and illustrate how angles in I I , I I I , and I V quadrant are related to
angles found in the first quadrant.

5.4. With the help of Pythagoras’ theorem and unit circle, calculate sin x, cos x, and tan x for each
of the following angles in the first quadrant: 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ .

5.2 Basic Calculations

Convert degrees into radians and vice versa in P. 5.5 to P. 5.14.

5.5. 30◦ 5.6. 45◦ 5.7. 60◦ 5.8. 90◦ 5.9. 300◦

5.10. 330◦ 5.11. −18◦ 5.12.

3π
5.13.
5π 5.14. 2◦
4 12

With the help of unit circle (see Fig. 5.1), calculate exact values of terms in P. 5.15 to P. 5.24.

π  
7π 3π
5.15. tan 5.16. sin 5.17. cos −
3 6 4

5.18. cos 150◦ 5.19. sin 120◦ π π

5.20. sin sin2
6 3

π π π π π π π π
5.21. sin cos + cos tan 5.22. cos cos + sin cos
4 4 6 3 4 6 4 6

π π π  π 
5.23. sin2 − 1/ tan2 5.24. sin sin2
3 3 6 3

In each of examples in P. 5.25 to P. 5.28, is it possible to have angle α so that both conditions are
satisfied at the same time? If yes, in which quadrant?

1 3 4 1
5.25. sin α = − and cos α = 5.26. sin α = √ and cos α = √
5 5 17 17

√ √ √
5.27. sin α = − 15 and cos α =
5 5.28. sin α = − 13 and cos α = −
3 3
5 5 14 14

Calculate trigonometry terms given in P. 5.29 to P. 5.40.

5.29. tan(−45◦ ) 5.30. tan(−60◦ ) 5.31. cos (−7π/6) 5.32. sin (−315◦ )

5.33. tan (−12π ) 5.34. sin(120◦ ) 5.35. cos(150◦ ) 5.36. tan(225◦ )

5.37. tan(300◦ ) 5.38. tan(480◦ ) 5.39. tan(840◦ ) 5.40. cos(1320◦ )

100 5 Trigonometry

5.3 Basic Identities

Problems in this section are resolved with the help of identities. The actual list of trigonometric
identities is much longer; however, the sum to product transformations, and vice versa, are among
most often used. In addition, identities involving double-angle arguments are heavily used in calculus.

Given α in P. 5.41 to P. 5.46, calculate sin α, cos α and tan α.

5.41. α = 15◦ 5.42. α = 75◦ 5.43. α = 105◦

5.44. α = π/12 5.45. α = 5π/12 5.46. α = 7π/12

5.47. Calculate the exact values of cos α and tan α given that

1 3π
sin α = − et π < α <
3 2

Calculate trigonometry products given in P. 5.48 to P. 5.57.

5.48. sin 20◦ cos 10◦ + cos 20◦ sin 10◦ 5.49. cos 43◦ cos 13◦ + sin 43◦ sin 13◦

5π 7π 1  π  π
5.50. −4 sin cos 5.51. + 2 sin 1 + cos 1 +
12 12 2 6 3
  π     
5π 5π 3π
5.52. 4 sin cos 5.53. 4 cos cos
8 8 8 8

   
7π 13π 5.55. tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦
5.54. −4 sin sin
12 12

5.56. 8 sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ 5.57. 8 cos 10◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦

5.58. Calculate sin(x + y) and sin(x − y) given that cos x = 4/5 and sin y = −3/5, where x is in
IV quadrant and y is in III quadrant.

5.59. Simplify the following expression:

√ π 
2 cos α − 2 cos +α
π  √4
2 sin + α − 2 sin α
4

Convert given trigonometric forms of products into forms of sums and given trigonometric sums into
forms of products, P. 5.60 to P. 5.64
5.5 Inequalities 101

5.60. sin α sin β 5.61. cos α cos β 5.62. sin α cos β

5.63. sin x + sin y 5.64. cos x + cos y

5.65. Given functions with double-angle arguments cos 2α, sin 2α, and tan 2α, derive identities that
include only functions of angle argument α.

5.4 Equations

Solve equations in P. 5.66 to P. 5.73.

5.66. sin x = 0 5.67. cos x = 0 5.68. sin x = sin α

5.69. sin x = cos x 5.70. sin x = sin 2x 5.71. 2 sin2 x + sin x = 0

5.72. cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3)

√ √ √
5.73. Solve for α in I quadrant if: tan α = 6 + 3 − 2 − 2.

Solve equations in P. 5.74 to P. 5.75 within given intervals.

π  π   π
5.74. cos − x = cos ; 0 < x ≤ 2π 5.75. sin (3x) = sin x − ; −π < x ≤ π
3 6 2

5.5 Inequalities

Solve the following inequalities for x.

5.76. 2 cos x + 1 < 0 5.78. cos x − sin x < 1 5.80. | sin x| ≥

1
2
√
5.77. 2 sin x − 1 > 0 3
5.79. sin 3x − ≥0 5.81. | sin x| ≤ sin x + 2 cos x
2
102 5 Trigonometry

Answers

5.1 Trigonometric Definitions

Building upon middle and high school knowledge of Pythagoras’ theorem, the following examples try
to emphasize its connection with fundamental trigonometric definitions and identities. Specifically,
the mastery of similar right-angled triangles is essential for resolving much more complicated
problems.

5.1. Two figures are said to be similar if one figure can be derived from the other by operations of
uniformly scaling, translation, rotation, and/or reflection. For example, starting with triangle OMN
in Fig. 5.2, triangle OP Q is derived after multiplying each side of OMN by factor of two; similarly,
any other triangle can be derived by using factor n, for example, triangle OKL.
By inspection of Fig. 5.2, it is evident that, except for the scaling factors, the original triangular
form did not change; thus, all derived figures are similar. By Pythagoras’ theorem, it is easily verified
that all three triangles are indeed right-angled, whose corresponding sides are proportional to each
other. That proportionality of matching sides among similar right-angled triangles is the key to
defining trigonometric functions of sin x, cos x, tan x, . . . etc.
Similarity affects angles as well. Note that α is shared by all similar triangles. Consequently,
knowing two angles in a triangle, the third angle β is calculated so that their sum adds to 90◦ +α+β =
180◦ . In conclusion, direct consequence of similarity is that not only all figure sides are proportional,
but also their corresponding angles are equal. The similarity of right-angled triangles is among the
most important and exploited properties in mathematics.

Fig. 5.2 Example P.5.1 K

P
c
n×

n×b
b
c
2×

M
2×b

b
c

a
O N Q L
a
2×a
n×a
5.1 Trigonometric Definitions 103

5.2. Evidently there are three basic proportions (ratios) related to triangle sides (see Fig. 5.2).

1. The cathetus forming α (i.e., adjacent) and hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) are
related as

ON OQ OL a 2
× a n×a
= = = = = ··· =
= const.
OM OP OK c 2
× c
×c
n

2. The cathetus opposite α and hypotenuse are related as

MN PQ KL b 2
× b n×b
= = = = = ··· =
= const.
OM OP OK c 2
× c
×c
n

3. The cathetus opposite and adjacent to α are related as

MN PQ KL b 2
× b
× b = const.
n
= = = = = ··· =
ON OQ OL a 2
× a
×a
n

These constant ratios of triangle sides relative to α are so important that they are named as

adjacent a opposite b opposite b

= = cos α, = = sin α, = = tan α
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c adjacent a

Similarly, the equivalent ratios exist relative to β, as

adjacent b opposite a opposite a

= = cos β, = = sin β, = = tan β
hypotenuse c hypotenuse c adjacent b

These ratios related to α et β do not change when triangles are rotated, scaled, translated, and/or
reflected. The only thing that is important is to keep track of which is “adjacent” and which is
“opposite” side relative to the angle under consideration. In addition, it is useful to notice that by
knowing sin x and cos x, the third ratio, i.e., tan x, is also known because

opposite
sin x ( ((((
hypotenuse opposite
= = = tan x
cos x adjacent adjacent
( ( ( (
(
hypotenuse

Very special case, when hypotenuse c = 1, is extensively used as normalized size for all similar
triangles. Note that, given c = 1, length of adjacent cathetus becomes numerically equal to the ratio
named cos α, i.e.,
a
= cos α ∴ a = c cos α ∴ (if c = 1) a = cos α
c

Equally, given c = 1, length of opposite cathetus becomes numerically equal to the ratio named sin α,
i.e.,

b
= sin α ∴ b = c sin α ∴ (if c = 1) b = sin α
c

Finally, it is useful to visualize length of adjacent cathetus as horizontal projection of hypotenuse and
length of opposite cathetus as vertical projection of hypotenuse relative to α.
104 5 Trigonometry

5.3. Trigonometric functions of sin and cos are commonly summarized in a graph known as “unit
circle” (see Fig. 5.1). Note that any point at the circle is found as x 2 + y 2 = c2 , i.e., by Pythagoras’
theorem. The circle radius, i.e., hypotenuse of the associated right-angled triangle, is normalized to
one. Consequently, the length of adjacent cathetus becomes numerically equal cos α, and the length
of opposite cathetus becomes numerically equal to sin α, because

adjacent adjacent
cos α = = ∴ adjacent = cos α
hypotenuse 1
opposite opposite
sin α = = ∴ opposite = sin α
hypotenuse 1

Typical angles 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ are found in the I quadrant (see Fig. 5.1). Relative to the
first quadrant, typical angles in the I I quadrant are shifted by 90◦ , i.e.,

30◦ + 90◦ = 120◦

45◦ + 90◦ = 135◦
60◦ + 90◦ = 150◦
90◦ + 90◦ = 180◦

Angles in the I I I quadrant are shifted again by another 90◦ , i.e., 180◦ thus

30◦ + 180◦ = 210◦

45◦ + 180◦ = 225◦
60◦ + 180◦ = 240◦
90◦ + 180◦ = 270◦

Angles in the I V quadrant are shifted again totalling 270◦ ; thus

30◦ + 270◦ = 300◦

45◦ + 270◦ = 315◦
60◦ + 270◦ = 330◦
90◦ + 270◦ = 360◦ = 0◦

The symmetry among these “key” angles is clearly visible in the graph (see Fig. 5.1), where the
associated right-angled triangle for each angle is clearly illustrated. Thus, the signed length (i.e.,
positive or negative) of horizontal and vertical catheti equate to their corresponding values of sin α
(horizontal) and cos α (vertical).
For example, an arbitrary angle β = 90◦ + α in the second quadrant and its corresponding α angle
in the first quadrant create similar right-angled triangles that are rotated by 90◦ (see Fig. 5.3). Thus,
there are following identities between I and I I quadrant angles (note that hypotenuse c = 1, and
positive and negative signs of the corresponding adjunct and opposite catheti)
5.1 Trigonometric Definitions 105

90◦ 1 90◦ 1 90◦ 1

II I II I II I

sin(α)
α

sin β
◦
β ◦ ◦
180 0 180 α 0◦ 180◦ 0◦
−1 1 −1 cos(α) 1 −1 cos β 1

III IV III IV III IV

270◦ 1 270◦ 1 270◦ 1

Fig. 5.3 Example P.5.3

Fig. 5.4 Example P.5.3

90◦ 1 90◦ 1

sin(p − a )
II I II I

−a cos(±a ) q ◦ −a q◦
−a 1 −a

sin(−a )
cos( m ± a ) −1 1

III IV III IV
270◦ −1 270◦ −1

 π
sin α + = sin β = cos α
2
 π 
− cos α + = − cos β = sin α
2

where the negative sign of cos β is direct consequence of its position in the second quadrant where
the horizontal cathetus is negative. In conclusion, by knowing sin α and cos α in the first quadrant, it
is easy to conclude that cos α = sin(α + 90◦ ) and sin α = − cos(α + 90◦ ). For example,
⎫
1⎪
cos 120◦ = − sin 30◦ = − ⎪ √
2⎬ ◦ 3/2
√
√ ∴ tan 120 = =− 3
⎪
3 ⎪ −1/2

sin 120◦ = cos 30◦ = ⎭
2

Similarly, for example, angles in fourth quadrant are negative values of the equivalent angles in the
first quadrant. After rotation of 180◦ (see Fig. 5.4) follows

cos(π ± α) = − cos ±α
sin(π − α) = − sin(−α) = sin α

In conclusion, knowing “key” angles in the first quadrant, unit circle is used to visually calculate sin
and cos values of their corresponding angles in the other three quadrants.

5.4. Angles between 0◦ and 90◦ are said to be “in the first quadrant” of the unit circle (see Fig. 5.1).
They are used to calculate trigonometric functions of angles in other three quadrants by rotating their
106 5 Trigonometry

45◦ 2 60◦
√
2
1 1

45◦ 30◦

√
1 3
Fig. 5.5 Example P.5.4

respective right-angled triangles into the first quadrant. Specifically, right-angled triangles containing
30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ are special right triangles (see Fig. 5.5).

Case: x = 0◦

In this special case, right-angled triangle whose hypotenuse equals one degenerates into a horizontal
line segment. Consequently, the hypotenuse is found “on top” of adjacent (horizontal) cathetus; thus,
the two horizontal line segments are equal. At the same time, the opposite (vertical) cathetus of the
triangle is reduced to zero. Then, by definitions, it follows that:

 sin 0◦
cos 0◦ =  (( = 1,
adjacent 0 0
sin 0◦ = = 0, tan 0◦ = = =0
( ((
hypotenuse hypotenuse cos 0◦ 1

Case: x = 30◦ = π/6

Special right triangle in Fig. 5.5 (left) is made so that its hypotenuse is two times longer than a one of
the cathetus. Due to similarity, the two associated angles must be in the same proportion. Thus

90◦ + α + β = 180◦
α = 2β ∴ 90◦ + 3β = 180◦
β = 30◦ ∴ α = 60◦

In addition, Pythagoras’ theorem normalized to c = 2 and a = 1 and results in

√
22 = 1 2 + b 2 ∴ b = 3

Then, by definitions:
√
◦ adjacent 3 opposite 1 opposite 1
cos 30 = = , sin 30◦ = = , tan 30◦ = =√
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 3
5.2 Basic Calculations 107

Case: x = 60◦ = π/3

The same special right triangle in Fig. 5.5 (left) is used, as

√ √
◦ adjacent 1 ◦opposite 3 ◦ opposite 3
cos 60 = = , sin 60 = = , tan 60 = =
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 1

Case: x = 45◦ = π/4

Special right triangle in Fig. 5.5 (right) is made so that its two cathetus are equal. Thus, the two
associated angles must be in the same proportion. By Pythagoras’ theorem, it follows that
√
c 2 = 12 + 12 = 2

Therefore,

adjacent 1 opposite 1 opposite 1

cos 45◦ = =√ , sin 45◦ = =√ , tan 45◦ = = =1
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2 adjacent 1

Case: x = 90◦

Similar to the Case: x = 0◦ , this special right triangle is created when its hypotenuse is found “on
top” of the opposite cathetus; thus, the two vertical line segments are equal. At the same time, length
of the adjacent cathetus of the triangle is reduced to zero. Thus


sin 90◦ =  (( = 1,
0 opposite opposite 1
cos 90◦ = = 0, tan 90◦ = = =∞
hypotenuse ( ((
hypotenuse adjacent 0

5.2 Basic Calculations

Knowing identity 180◦ = π rad, it follows that

30◦ α H
30H◦ π
5.5. = ∴ α = π X =
180 ◦ π X
X6
180 ◦
6

45◦ α H
45H◦ π
5.6. = ∴ α = π X =
180 ◦ π X
X ◦
180 4 4

60◦ α 60◦
 π
5.7. = ∴ α = π ◦ 3 = 3

180◦ π 
180

45◦ α H
45H◦ π
5.8. = ∴ α=πX ◦ =
180 ◦ π X
X4
180 4

300◦ α 5 ×H60H◦ 5π
5.9. ◦
= ∴ α = π H ◦ =
180 π 3 × 60H 3
108 5 Trigonometry

330◦ α 3
× 110A◦ 11π

5.10.
◦
= ∴ α = π ◦
=
180 π 3
× 60A 6

−18◦ α −18◦
5.11. = ∴ α = π
180◦ π 18◦
10 × 
π
=−
10

α 3π/4 3π
5.12. ◦
= ∴ α= 4A × 45◦
180 π 4A
π
= 135◦

α 5π/12 5
π ◦ ◦
5.13. = ∴ α= Z
Z × 15 = 75
12
180 ◦ π Z
Z
12 π

2◦ α 2◦ 1
 π
5.14. = ∴ α = π =
180◦ π 90 × 2◦ 90

5.15. By inspection of unit circle in Fig. 5.1, it is straightforward to find that angle π/3 is in the first
quadrant; thus
√
π sin(π/3) 3/2
√
tan = = = 3
3 cos(π/3) 1/2

5.16. By inspection of unit circle in Fig. 5.1, it is straightforward to find angle of 7π/6 in the third
quadrant, so that
  
7π 6π + π π
sin = sin = sin π + ≡ 210◦
6 6 6

As evident by inspection of unit circle, in the third quadrant, π + π/6 angle has both vertical (sin)
and horizontal (cos) projections negative (see Fig. 5.6); thus

7π  π π  1
sin = sin π + = − sin =−
6 6 6 2

Fig. 5.6 Example P.5.16 90◦

II I
p
6
p 1
2
180◦ 0◦
− sin p6

− 12
p + p6

III 270◦ IV
5.2 Basic Calculations 109

  π  √
3π π 2
5.17. cos − = cos ± π = − cos = −
4 4 4 2
√
5.18. cos 150◦ = cos(180◦ − 30◦ ) = − cos 30◦ = − 3
2
√
5.19. sin 120◦ = cos(90◦ + 30◦ ) = cos 30◦ = 3
2
√ 2
π π 1 3 13 3
5.20. sin sin2 = = =
6 3 2 2 24 8
√
π π π π 1 1 3√ 1 3
5.21. sin cos + cos tan = √ √ + 3= + =2
4 4 6 3 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ 
π π π π 1 3 1 3 3
5.22. cos cos + sin cos = √ +√ =
4 6 4 6 2 2 2 2 2

√ 2
π 1 3 1 3 1 9−4 5
5.23. sin 3 − π = − √ 2 = − = =
2

tan2 2 4 3 12 12
3 3

π  π  √ 2
1 3 1 3 3
5.24. sin sin 2
= = =
6 3 2 2 2 4 8

5.25. Assuming a, b to be the two catheti and c hypotenuse and knowing that hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle equals the unit circle radius, i.e., c = 1, then by Pythagoras’ theorem,

a = cos α, b = sin α ∴ a 2 + b2 = 12 ∴ cos2 α + sin2 α = 12

which is the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem. Therefore, a simple verification results in
   2
1 2 3 1 9 2

10 2
sin2 α + cos2 α = − + = + = = = 1
5 5 25 25  5
25 5

that is to say, it is not possible to have angle α whose sin α = −1/5 and cos α = 3/5.
   
4 2 1 2 16 1 17
5.26. sin α + cos α = √
2 2
+ √ = + = =1 
17 17 17 17 17
Both vertical (sin α) and horizontal (cos α) projections are positive; therefore, α is in the I quadrant.
√ 2 √ 2
15 5 15 5 4

20 4
5.27. sin α + cos α = −
2 2
+ = + = = = 1
5 5 25 25  5
25 5
√ √
that is to say, it is not possible to have angle α whose sin α = − 15/5 and cos α = 5/5.
110 5 Trigonometry

 2 √ 2
13 3 3 169 27 196
5.28. sin α + cos α = −
2 2
+ − = + = =1 
14 14 196 196 196
Both vertical (sin α) and horizontal (cos α) projections are negative; therefore, α is in the I I I
quadrant.

5.29. It is often possible to decompose given angles into linear combination of special angles given
in the unity circle, whose sin and cos (therefore, also tan) values are already known. In addition, it is
very important to visually understand relations among similar angles in different quadrants.
For example, note that horizontal projections, i.e., cos(±α), are the same length, as the conse-
quence of similarity of their respective right-angled triangles. Thus it is true that

cos α = cos(−α)

Similarly, angles of π ±α and ±α are related as in Fig. 5.7. It is evident that the horizontal projections
(i.e., cos) are the same length; however, they have opposite signs (see Fig. 5.7 (left)). Similarly,
vertical projections (i.e., sin) also have opposite signs (see Fig. 5.7 (right)); thus, it’s true that

cos(±α) = − cos(π ± α)
sin(±α) = − sin(π ± α)

Or, for example, relations between angles of α and 90◦ + α are also important (see Fig. 5.8). It is
evident that the vertical projection, i.e., sin α (in the first quadrant and positive) is the same length as
the horizontal projection, i.e., cos(90◦ + α) (in the second quadrant and negative) (see Fig. 5.8 (left)),
as their respective similar right-angled triangles are rotated by 90◦ . Or identity between cos α and
sin(90◦ + α), both positive, is found as in Fig. 5.8 (right); thus, it is true that

sin(α) = − sin(90◦ + α)
cos(α) = sin(90◦ + α)

Reminder:In summary, there are many trigonometric identities that are possible; thus, memo-
rizing them all requires extraordinary effort. Instead, after mastering the use of unit circle, all
these identities become evident.

Fig. 5.7 Example P.5.29 90◦ 90◦

II 1 I II 1 I
sin(p − a )

180◦ −a cos(±a ) 0◦ 180◦ −a 0◦

−a −a
sin(−a )

−1 1 −1 1
cos(p ± a )

III 270◦
−1 IV III 270◦
−1 IV
5.2 Basic Calculations 111

Fig. 5.8 Example P.5.29 90◦ 90◦

sin(90◦ + a )
II 1 I II 1 I

sin(a )
a a
180◦ a 0◦ 180◦ a 0◦

−1 1 −1 cos(a ) 1
cos(90◦ + a )

III 270◦
−1 IV III 270◦
−1 IV

In this example P. 5.29, by inspection of unit circle in Fig. 5.1, sin and cos of negative angle are
√
sin(−45◦ ) − sin(45◦ ) sin(45◦ ) Z2/2
tan(−45 ) = ◦
= =− = − √ Z = −1
◦
cos(−45 ) ◦
cos(45 ) ◦
cos(45 ) Z2/2
Z

5.30. By inspection of unit circle in Fig. 5.1, sin and cos of negative angle are
√
sin(−60◦ ) − sin(60◦ ) sin(60◦ ) 3/2 √
tan(−60 ) =◦
◦
= ◦
= − ◦
=− C =− 3
cos(−60 ) cos(60 ) cos(60 ) 1/2C

5.31. Given −7π/6 angle is equivalent to 5π/6 in the positive direction, or 150◦ , either way, by
inspection of unity circle, it follows that
    √
7π 5π 3 ◦
cos − = cos = cos(150 ) = −
6 6 2

5.32. Given −315◦ angle is equivalent to 45◦ from the positive side, thus
√
◦ 2 ◦
sin (−315 ) = sin(45 ) =
2

5.33. Given −12π angle is equivalent to (−6 × 2π ) = 0, thus

sin 0 0
tan (−12π ) = tan (0) = = =0
cos 0 1

5.34. Given 120◦ angle may be decomposed as sum of 90◦ and 30◦ (see Fig. 5.8), as
√
  3
sin(120 ) = sin(90 + 30 ) = cos(α) = sin(90◦ + α) = cos(30◦ ) =
◦ ◦ ◦
2

5.35. Angles outside of the first quadrant range may be decomposed into linear combination of
special angles. Then, it is possible to use trigonometric identities and resolve the problem. Here, 150◦
angle may be decomposed as difference of 180◦ and 30◦ (see Fig. 5.7) as
√
  3
cos(150◦ ) = cos(180◦ − 30◦ ) = cos(π ± α) = − cos(α) = − cos(30◦ ) = −
2
112 5 Trigonometry

5.36. Given 225◦ angle may be decomposed as sum of 180◦ and 45◦ (see Fig. 5.7) as
√
sin(180◦ + 45◦ ) − sin(45◦ ) sin(45◦ ) Z2/2
◦ ◦
tan(225 ) = tan(180 + 45 ) = ◦
= = = √Z = 1
◦ ◦
cos(180 + 45 ) ◦
− cos(45 ) cos(45 ) Z2/2
◦
Z
5.37. Given 300◦ angle may be decomposed as difference of 360◦ and 60◦ . Note that angles are
periodic: that is to say that after each full rotation, either in positive or negative direction, the rotating
point ends up at the original position α.

  sin(−60◦ )
tan(300◦ ) = tan(360◦ − 60◦ ) = ±n × 2π + α = α = tan(−60◦ ) =
cos(−60◦ )
 
= cos(−α) = cos(α), sin(−α) = − sin(α)
√
− sin(60◦ ) 3/2 √
= ◦
=− C =− 3
cos(60 ) 1/2
C

5.38. Given 480◦ angle may be decomposed as combination of 360◦ , 120◦ , and 60◦ ,

sin(−60◦ )
tan(480◦ ) = tan(360◦ + 120◦ ) = tan(180◦ − 60◦ ) = tan(−60◦ ) =
cos(−60◦ )
√
− sin(60◦ ) 2/2 √
= ◦
=− C =− 3
cos(60 ) 1/2C

5.39. Given 840◦ angle may be decomposed, for example, as combination of 360◦ , 180◦ , 120◦ , and
60◦ ,

tan(840◦ ) = tan(2 × 360◦ + 120◦ ) = tan(120◦ ) = tan(180◦ − 60◦ ) = tan(−60◦ )

√
= − tan(60◦ ) = − 3

5.40. Given 1320◦ angle may be decomposed, for example, as combination of 360◦ , 240◦ , 180◦ , and
60◦ ,

1
cos(1320◦ ) = cos(3 × 360◦ + 240◦ ) = cos(180◦ + 60◦ ) = − cos(60◦ ) = −
2

5.3 Basic Identities

5.41. Functions of sum or difference arguments may be resolved with the help of trigonometric
identities. For example, angle of 15◦ can be decomposed as (45◦ − 30◦ ), so that

sin 15◦ = sin(45◦ − 30◦ )

 
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
5.3 Basic Identities 113

√ √ √ √
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 2 3 2 1 2 √
= sin 45 cos 30 − cos 45 sin 30 = − = ( 3 − 1)
2 2 2 2 4

cos 15◦ = cos(45◦ − 30◦ )

 
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
= cos 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4
√
S2 √ √
sin 15◦ S ( 3 − 1) 3−1
◦
tan 15 = = √ 4 S √
cos 15◦ S 2 √ 3−1
( 3 + 1)
4SS
√ √ √ √
( 3 − 1)( 3 − 1) 3−2 3+1 2A(2 − 3) √
= √ √ = = =2− 3
( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1) 3−1 2A

5.42. Angle of 75◦ may be decomposed as (45◦ + 30◦ ), so that

sin 75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦ ) = sin 45◦ cos 30◦ + cos 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4
cos 75◦ = cos(45◦ + 30◦ ) = cos 45◦ cos 30◦ − sin 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 2 √
= − = ( 3 − 1)
2 2 2 2 4
√
S2 √ √
sin 75◦ S ( 3 + 1) 3+1
◦
tan 75 = = √4S √
◦
cos 75 S2 √ 3+1
S ( 3 − 1)
4S
√ √ √ √
( 3 + 1)( 3 + 1) 3+2 3+1 2A(2 + 3) √
= √ √ = = =2+ 3
( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1) 3−1 2A

5.43. Angle of 105◦ may be seen as (60◦ + 45◦ ), so that

sin 105◦ = sin(60◦ + 45◦ ) = sin 60◦ cos 45◦ + cos 60◦ sin 45◦
√ √ √ √
3 2 1 2 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4
cos 105◦ = cos(60◦ + 45◦ ) = cos 60◦ cos 45◦ − sin 60◦ sin 45◦
√ √ √ √
1 2 3 2 2 √
= − = (1 − 3)
2 2 2 2 4
114 5 Trigonometry

√
S2 √ √
sin 105◦ S ( 3 + 1) 1 + 3
◦
tan 105 = = √4 S √
cos 105◦ S 2 √ 1+ 3
(1 − 3)
4SS
√ √ √ √
( 3 + 1)( 3 + 1) 3+2 3+1 2A(2 + 3) √
= √ √ = = = −(2 + 3)
(1 − 3)(1 + 3) 1−3 H−2
H −1

5.44. Angle of π/12 may be seen as (π/3 − π/4), so that

π π π π π π π
sin = sin − = sin cos − cos sin
12 3 4 3 4 3 4
√ √ √ √
3 2 1 2 2 √
= − = ( 3 − 1)
2 2 2 2 4
π π π π π π π
cos = cos − = cos cos + sin sin
12 3 4 3 4 3 4
√ √ √ √
1 2 3 2 2 √
= + = ( 3 + 1)
2 2 2 2 4
√
π S2 √ √ √ √
π sin S ( 3 − 1) 3−1 ( 3 − 1)( 3 − 1) √
tan = 12 = √ 4S √ = √ √ =2− 3
π
12 cos S2 √ 3−1 ( 3 + 1)( 3 − 1)
12 S ( 3 + 1)
4S

5.45. Angle of 5π/12 may be seen as (π/4 + π/6), so that

  π √
5π π 2 √
sin = sin + = ··· = ( 3 + 1)
12 4 6 4
  π √
5π π 2 √
cos = cos + = ··· = ( 3 − 1)
12 4 6 4
  √
 
5π S2 √
5π
sin
12 S ( 3 + 1) √
tan =   = √4S = ··· = 2 + 3
12
cos
5π S2 √
( 3 − 1)
12 4SS

5.46. Angle of 7π/12 may be seen as (π/3 + π/4), so that

  π √
7π π 2 √
sin = sin + = ··· = ( 3 + 1)
12 3 4 4
  π √
7π π 2 √
cos = cos + = ··· = (1 − 3)
12 3 4 4
5.3 Basic Identities 115


7π
  sin √
7π 12 3+1 √
tan =   = ··· = √ = −(2 + 3)
12 7π 1− 3
cos
12

5.47. Knowing the trigonometric form of Pythagoras’ theorem

cos2 α + sin2 α = 12

and given

1 3π
sin α = − et π < α <
3 2

it follows that
 
1 2
cos2 α + sin2 α = 1 ∴ cos2 α = 1 − sin2 α = 1 − −
3
 √ √
1 8 2 2
cos α = 1 − ∴ cos α = =
9 3 3
√
However, α is in the third quadrant, i.e., cos x is negative (see Fig. 5.1, i.e. cos α = −2 2/3).
√
sin α −1/3
1 2
tan α = = √ = √ =
cos α −2 2/3
2 2 4

5.48. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as

sin 20◦ cos 10◦ + cos 20◦ sin 10◦ =

 
1 
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2
1 1 1 1
= sin(20◦ + 10◦ ) + sin(20◦ − 10◦ ) + sin(10◦ + 20◦ ) + sin(10◦ − 20◦ )
2 2 2 2
  

1 1

1 1
= sin(30◦ ) +  sin(10 ◦
) + sin(30◦ ) + sin(−10

◦
) = sin(−x) = − sin(x)
2 2 2 2
1
= sin 30◦ =
2

5.49. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as

cos 43◦ cos 13◦ + sin 43◦ sin 13◦ =

⎧ ⎫
⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪
⎨ cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) ⎪
⎬
2
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩sin α sin β = 1 (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)) ⎪⎭
2
116 5 Trigonometry

1 1 1 1
= cos(43◦ + 13◦ ) + cos(43◦ − 13◦ ) + cos(43◦ − 13◦ ) − cos(43◦ + 13◦ )
2 2 2 2
√
1
=   ◦ 1 ◦ 1
 ) + cos(30 ) + cos(30 ) − 
cos(56 ◦ 1  ◦
 ) = cos 30 =
cos(56 ◦ 3
2 2 2 2 2

5.50. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
 
5π 7π 1 
−4 sin cos = sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
12 12 2
    
1 5π 7π 5π 7π
= −4A 2 sin + + sin −
2A 12 12 12 12
    


12π 2Aπ  
= −2 sin + sin − sin(−x) = − sin(x)


12 ZZ6
12
  π   
1
= −2 0 − sin = −2 − =1
6 2

5.51. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
  
1 π  π 1 
+ 2 sin 1 + cos 1 + = sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2 6 3 2
1   π π  π π 
= + sin 1 + + 1 + + sin 1A + − 1A −
2 6 3 6 3
1   π   π 
= + sin 2 + + sin −
2 2 6
1   π   π 
= + sin + 2 − sin
2 2 6
 π   
sin + x = cos(x), see unit circle and Fig. 5.3
2
 
1 1
= + cos (2) −
2 2
= cos(2)

5.52. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
  π   
5π 1
4 sin cos = sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
8 8 2
    
1 5π π 5π π
= 4A sin + + sin −
2A 8 8 8 8
    √ 
3π π    2
= 2 sin + sin = (see unit circle) = 2 +1
4 2 2
√
= 2+2
5.3 Basic Identities 117

5.53. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
     
5π 3π 1
4 cos cos = cos α cos β = (cos(α + β) + cos(α − β))
8 8 2
    
1 5π 3π 5π 3π
= 4A cos + + cos −
2A 8 8 8 8
 √ 
  π    2
= 2 cos (π ) + cos = (see unit circle) = 2 −1 +
4 2
√
= 2−2

5.54. Inter-products of sin(x) and cos(x) may be resolved with trigonometric identities, as
     
7π 13π 1
−4 sin sin = sin α sin β = (cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
12 12 2
    
1 7π 13π 7π 13π
= −4A 2 cos − − cos +
2A 12 12 12 12
    
6Aπ  5π

20
= −2 cos − − cos
ZZ2
12 3

12
  
π  0
* 5π
= −2 cos − cos
 2 3
  π   
1
= −2 − cos − = −2 − =1
3 2

5.55. After replacing tan(x) functions with their equivalent sin(x)/ cos(x) ratios, the product
identities can be used to resolve numerator and denominator separately, as

sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦

tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦ =
cos 20◦ cos 40◦ cos 80◦

Then, numerator products are,

 
1
sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ = sin α sin β =
(cos(α − β) − cos(α + β))
2
1 
= cos(20◦ − 40◦ ) − cos(20◦ + 40◦ ) sin 80◦
2
 ◦ 
◦: cos 20
1 ◦
= 
cos(−20 ) − cos(60 ) sin 80◦
2 
1
= [cos 20◦ sin 80◦ − cos(60◦ ) sin 80◦ ] (cont.)
2
118 5 Trigonometry

 
1
sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2
  √  
1 1 :

 3/2  :
 1/2
= ◦
sin 100 +  sin
60 ◦
−cos60 ◦
sin 80 ◦
2 2
 √ 
1 ◦ ◦ 3
= sin(90 + 10 ) + − sin(90◦ − 10◦ )
4 2
 
sin(90◦ + α) = sin(90◦ − α), (see unit circle)
 √ 
1 ◦((( (
◦ 3 ◦((( (
◦
= ( ( + + − (( ( −
4 (
sin(90 10 ) sin(90 10 )
2
√
3
=
8

Similarly, note that cos(90◦ + 10◦ ) = − cos(90◦ − 10◦ ), as per unit circle, so that
 
◦ ◦ 1
◦
cos 20 cos 40 cos 80 = cos(20 + 40 ) + cos(20 − 40 ) cos 80◦
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
2
 ◦
1 
: 1/2 : cos 20

= cos60 ◦
+ ◦ )
cos(−20 cos 80◦
2
 
1 1 ◦ ◦ ◦
= cos 80 + cos 20 cos 80
2 2
 
1 1 ◦ 1 ◦ 1 :
 1/2
= cos 80 + 
 cos 100 +  
cos 60 ◦
2  2 ! "  2 ! " 2
cos(90−10)◦ cos(90+10)◦

1
=
8

Therefore,
√
3/8
√
tan 20◦ tan 40◦ tan 80◦ = = 3
1/8

5.56. In a similar manner as in P. 5.55,

# $
8 sin 20◦ sin 40◦ sin 80◦ = 4 cos(20◦ − 40◦ ) − cos(20◦ + 40◦ ) sin 80◦
# $
= 4 sin 80◦ cos(−20◦ ) − sin 80◦ cos 60◦
 
◦ ◦ 1 ◦
= 4 sin 80 cos(20 ) − sin 80
2
 
1 ◦ 1 ◦ 1 ◦
= 4 sin 100 + sin 60 − sin 80
2 2 2
 
sin 100 = sin(90 + 10 ) = sin(90◦ − 10◦ ) = sin 80◦
◦ ◦ ◦

 √ ◦ 
sin(90◦+ 
10
◦
) 3 sin(90◦ − 
10) √
= 4A  + −  = 3
2 4A 2
5.3 Basic Identities 119

5.57. In a similar manner as in P. 5.55,

# $
8 cos 10◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦ = 4 cos 60◦ + cos 40◦ cos 70◦
 
1
=4 cos 70◦ + cos 40◦ cos 70◦
2
 
1 1 1
=4 cos 70◦ + cos 110◦ + cos 30◦
2 2 2
 √ 
1 1 1 3
=4 cos 70◦ + cos 110◦ +
2 2 2 2
 
cos 110◦ = cos(90◦ + 20◦ ) = − cos(90◦ − 20◦ ) = − cos 70◦
 √ 
= 2A  

cos70 ◦
− 

cos70 ◦
+
3
2A
√
= 3

5.58. Given Pythagoras’ theorem, unit circle in Fig. 5.1, and the sum/difference identities, then
⎧ 2 ⎫
⎪
⎪ sin x + cos2 x = 1 ⎪
⎪
⎨ ⎬
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
sin (x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
⎧
 ⎫ ⎪ 3
cos x = 4/5 ∴ sin x = 1 − (4/5)2 = 3/5 ⎬ ⎪
⎨sin x =− (IV)
5
 ∴
sin y = −3/5 ∴ cos y = 1 − (−3/5)2 = 4/5⎭ ⎪
⎪
⎩cos y 4
= − (III)
5

Therefore,
     
3 4 4 3 12 12
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y = − − + − = − =0
5 5 5 5 25 25
     
3 4 4 3 12 12 24
sin (x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y = − − − − = + =
5 5 5 5 25 25 25

5.59. Given Pythagoras’ theorem, unit circle in Fig. 5.1, and the sum/difference identities, it follows
that
√ 
π 
√ π  2
2 cos α − cos +α
2 cos α − 2 cos +α 2 4
π  √ 4 = 
π  √
2 sin + α − 2 sin α 2
4 2 sin +α − sin α
4 2
% &
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
(cont.)
120 5 Trigonometry

 

π  π  π
2A  cos α − 
cos coscos α + sin sin α
=  4 4 4 
π π  π 
2A sin cos α + cossin α −  
cos  sin α
4  4 4
π
sin sin α
= 4 = tan α
π
sin cos α
4

5.60. Given the sum/difference identities,

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

it follows that

cos(α(
cos(α − β) − cos(α + β) = ( ((
cos cos(α(
β + sin α sin β − ( ((
cos β + sin α sin β
= 2 sin α sin β
∴
1 
sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)
2

5.61. Given the sum/difference identities,

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

it follows that
 
cos (α + β) + cos (α − β) = cos α cos β −  α
sin sinβ + cos α cos β +  α
sin sinβ
= 2 cos α cos β
∴
1
cos α cos β = (cos (α + β) + cos(α − β))
2

5.62. Given the sum/difference identities,

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

it follows that
5.3 Basic Identities 121

 
cosα
sin (α + β) + sin (α − β) = sin α cos β +  sin cosα
β + sin α cos β −  sin β
= 2 sin α cos β
∴
1
sin α cos β = (sin(α + β) + sin(α − β))
2

Note that identities in P. 5.60 to P. 5.62 are fundamental for RF electronics and communication theory.

5.63. Given the sum identities,

1 
sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) ∴ sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) = 2 sin α cos β
2
⎧ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ & ⎪ x+y ⎪
⎪
⎨α + β = x ⎪
⎨α = ⎪
⎬
2
∴
⎪ ⎪ x−y ⎪
⎩α − β = y
⎪ ⎪
⎩β = ⎪
⎭
2
∴
   
x+y x−y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2

Or, in general
   
α+β α−β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2

5.64. Given the sum identities

1 
cos α cos β = cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) ∴ cos(α + β) + cos(α − β) = 2 cos α cos β
2
⎧ ⎧ ⎫
⎪ & ⎪ x+y ⎪
⎪
⎨α + β = x ⎪
⎨α = ⎪
⎬
2
∴
⎪ ⎪ x−y ⎪
⎩α − β = y
⎪ ⎪
⎩β = ⎪
⎭
2
∴
   
x+y x−y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2

Or, in general
   
α+β α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
2 2
122 5 Trigonometry

5.65. Given trigonometric identities

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

end setting α = β it follows that

sin (α + α) = sin 2α = sin α cos α + cos α sin α = 2 sin α cos α

cos (α + α) = cos 2α = cos α cos α − sin α sin α = cos2 α − sin2 α
∴
sin 2α sin α cos α + cos α sin α sin α cos α + cos α sin α
tan 2α = = =  
cos 2α cos α cos α − sin α sin α sin α sin α
cos α cos α 1 −
cos α cos α
sin α cos
α  
cosα sin α
 + 
 
= cos α cos α  cos α cos α
1 − tan2 α
2 tan α
=
1 − tan2 α

Furthermore,
⎧
& ⎪ 1 − cos 2α
cos α + sin α
2 2
=1 ⎪
⎨2 sin α = 1 − cos 2α
2
∴ sin2 α =
2
∴
cos2 α − sin2 α = cos 2α ⎪
⎪ 1 + cos 2α
⎩2 cos2 α = 1 + cos 2α ∴ cos2 α =
2

In addition,

cos α sin α cos2 α cos2 α 1

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α =2 = 2 tan α = 2 tan α
cos α cos α 1 cos2 α + sin2 α cos2 α sin2 α
+
cos2 α cos2 α
2 tan α
=
1 + tan2 α
 
  sin2 α

cos α 1 −
2
cos2 α − sin2 α cos2 α − sin2 α cos2 α
cos 2α = = =  
1 cos α + sin α
2 2
  sin2 α

cos α 1 +
2
cos2 α
1 − tan2 α
=
1 + tan2 α

These identities are often used to integrate rational functions by trigonometric substitutions.
5.4 Equations 123

5.4 Equations

5.66. Equations that include periodic functions have periodic solution set. Sinusoidal function
crosses the horizontal axis every integer multiple of ±π starting with x = 0, that is to say

sin x = 0 ∴ x = nπ, where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

5.67. Equations that include periodic functions have periodic solution set. Co-sinusoidal function
crosses the horizontal axis every integer multiple of ±π starting with x = π/2, that is to say

π
cos x = 0 ∴ x = (2k + 1) , where, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2

5.68. Solving trigonometric equations is often done by deriving factorized form of the equation
(similar to P. 5.63); then by exploiting the general property: if A × B × C = 0, then either A = 0 or
B = 0 or C = 0. Thus,

sin x = sin α ∴ sin x − sin α = 0 ∴

    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
x+α x−α
2 cos sin =0
2 2

Therefore,
 
x+α x+α π
cos =0 ∴ = (2n + 1) ∴ x = −α + (2n + 1)π
2 2 2
 
x−α x−α
sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x = α + 2kπ
2 2

where (k, n) = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . but necessarily at the same time.

5.69. By exploiting the equivalence relationship between sin x and cos x functions (i.e., their
argument difference of π/2), their equality may be resolved as
 π π
sin x = cos x ∴ cos x − = cos x ∴ x − = ±x + 2nπ
2 2

because x takes both positive and negative signs. Therefore, there are two possible solutions that must
be reviewed as follows:
π
case ‘ + x‘ : ∴ x
− = x
+ 2nπ ∴ no solution
2
π π π
case ‘ − x‘ : ∴ x − = −x + 2nπ ∴ 2x = 2nπ + ∴ x = nπ +
2 2 4

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . For example, within the interval n = −2, −1, 0, 1 the solution set
124 5 Trigonometry

Fig. 5.9 Example P.5.69 f (x) sin x

√ cos x
2
2

x
0

√
2
−
2

0 p
− 74p − 34p 4
5p
4

⎧
⎪
⎪ n = −2 ∴ x = −2π +
π
=−
8π π
+ =−
7π
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ 4 4 4 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π 4π π 3π
⎪
⎨n = −1 ∴ x = −π + = − + =−
π 4 4 4 4
x = nπ + ∴
4 ⎪
⎪ π
⎪
⎪ n=0 ∴ x=
⎪
⎪ 4
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩n = 1 ∴ x=π+ =
π 4π
+
5π
=
5π
4 4 4 4
√
is shown in Fig. 5.9. Both sin(x) and cos(x) equal to ± 2/2 at these points.

5.70. After converting into factorized form of this equation, it follows that

sin x = sin 2x ∴ sin 2x − sin x = 0

    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
3x x
2 cos sin =0
2 2
∴
 
3x 3x π π
(1) cos =0 ∴ = (2n + 1) ∴ x = (2n + 1)
2 2
2
3
x  x
(2) sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x = 2kπ
2 2

where n, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . For example, within the interval n = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 the solution set
⎧
⎪
⎪ k = −1 ∴ x = −2π
⎨
x = 2kπ ∴ n=0 ∴ x=0
⎪
⎪
⎩
n=1 ∴ x = 2π
5.4 Equations 125

as well as,
⎧ π
⎪
⎪ n = −2 ∴ x = (−4 + 1) = −π
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π π
⎪
⎪n = −1 ∴ x = (−2 + 1) = −
⎪
⎪ 3 3
⎪
⎪
π ⎨ π π
x = (2n + 1) ∴ n=0 ∴ x = (0 + 1) =
3 ⎪
⎪ 3 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π
⎪n = 1
⎪ ∴ x = (2 + 1) = π
⎪
⎪ 3
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ π 5π
⎩n = 2 ∴ x = (4 + 1) =
3 3

The two solution sets where sin x = sin 2x are shown in Fig. 5.10 (left). In addition, equation

f (x) = sin x − sin 2x = 0

is shown explicitly in Fig. 5.10 (right) with the same solution set.

5.71. Using the same idea as in P. 5.68 to P. 5.70, factorized form of this equation is

2 sin2 x + sin x = 0 ∴ (2 sin x + 1) sin x = 0

∴ (2 sin x + 1) = 0 or sin x = 0

Therefore,

Equation 1: sin x = 0

sin x = 0 ∴ x = nπ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

√ f (x) sin 2x f (x)

3 sin x
2 1

0 0 x
x

√ −1
3
−
2
−2p −5p/3 −p −p/3 0 p/3 p 5p/3 2p −2p −5p/3 −p −p/3 0 p/3 p 5p/3 2p

Fig. 5.10 Example P.5.70

126 5 Trigonometry

Fig. 5.11 Example P.5.71

f (x)

0 x

−2p −p 0 p 2p
−13p/6 −5p/6 −p/6 7p/6 11p/6

Equation 2: (2 sin x + 1) = 0

1 π 
(2 sin x + 1) = 0 ∴ sin x + = 0 ∴ sin x + sin =0 ∴
2 6
   
x + π/6 x − π/6
2 sin cos =0
2 2

Again, there are two equations to solve.

1. Roots of sin function are found at multiples of π , i.e., 0, ±π, ±2π, . . .

 
x + π/6 x + π/6 π
sin =0 ∴ = kπ ∴ x=− + 2kπ where k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2 2 6

2. Roots of cos function are at odd multiples of π/2, i.e., ±(2m + 1)π/2
 
x − π/6 x − π/6 π π
cos =0 ∴ = (2m + 1) ∴ x = (2m + 1)π +
2 2
2
6

where m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . The complete solution set is summarized in graph of f (x) =
2 sin2 x + sin x (Fig. 5.11). One stream of the solutions (i.e., the intersect points) is generated for
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , second for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , and third for m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .

5.72. Periodicity of tan x = sin x/ cos x function is periodic by nπ ; thus, we can solve this equation
as follows:

cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3)

% &
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
(cont.)
5.4 Equations 127

Fig. 5.12 Example P.5.72

2 f (x)

0 x

−1 sin(x − p /3)
cos(x + p /6)
f (x)
−2
−2p −5p/3 −2p/3 0 p/3 4p/3 2p

π  π  π  π 
cos (x) cos − sin (x) sin = sin (x) cos − cos (x) sin
6 6 3 3
√ √
3 1 1 3
cos (x) − sin (x) = sin (x) − cos (x)
2A 2A 2A 2A
√ √
√ 3 3 /2 sin(π/3) sin(x)
2A 3 cos x = 2A sin x ∴ tan x = = = =
1 1 /2 cos(π/3) cos(x)

Both sin(x) and cos(x) cross the horizontal axis with the periodicity of π ; therefore

π
x= + nπ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
3

The solution set of cos (x + π/6) = sin (x − π/3) equation is illustrated in Fig. 5.12 to show the
intersecting points, as well as f (x) = cos (x + π/6) − sin (x − π/3).

5.73. With the help of algebra, identities, and unit circle, it follows that
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
tan α = 6 + 3 − 2 − 2 = 3 2 + 3 − 2 − ( 2)2
√
√ √  √ √  2 − 1 √  √ √ 
= 3 2+1 − 2 2+1 = √ 2+1 3− 2
2−1
 
(a − b)(a + b) = a − b 2 2

√ √
√ √ 3 2
3− 2 2 − ◦ ◦
= √ = 2√ 2 = sin 60 − sin 45
2−1 2 2 1 sin 45◦ − sin 30◦
−
2 2
    
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
 ◦  ◦    
105 15  (180 − 75)◦ 75◦
2A cos sin  cos cos 90 −◦

 ◦  ◦ =
2 2 2 2
=  ◦ =  ◦
75 15  75 75
2A cos sin  cos cos
2  2 2 2
(cont.)
128 5 Trigonometry

 
cos(90◦ − α) = sin α
 ◦
75
sin  ◦
2 75 75◦
=  ◦  = tan ∴ α= = 37.5◦
75 2 2
cos
2

which is in the I quadrant.

5.74. Factorized form is derived as

π  π 
cos − x = cos
3 6
π  π 
cos − x − cos =0
3 6
    
α+β α−β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin
2 2
⎛π π⎞ ⎛π π⎞
−x+ −x−
⎜ 6 ⎟ sin ⎜ 3 6⎟=0
−2 sin ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
   
π − 2x π − 6x
− 2 sin sin =0
4 12
 !"  ! "  ! "
A B C

Obviously, −2 = 0 leaving either B = 0 or C = 0 terms to be zero, where

if, sin θ = 0 ∴ θ = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Therefore, within the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π ,

n=0:

π − 2x π
B: = 0 ∴ x = ∈ [0, 2π ] 
4 2
π − 6x π
C: = 0 ∴ x = ∈ [0, 2π ] 
12 6

n=1:

π − 2x 3π
B: =π ∴ x=− <0
4 2
π − 6x 11π
C: =π ∴ x=− <0
12 6
5.4 Equations 129

n = −1 :

π − 2x 5π
B: = −π ∴ x = > 2π
4 2
π − 6x 13π
C: = −π ∴ x = > 2π
12 6

In conclusion, within the interval 0 < x ≤ 2π , there are only two solutions (see Fig. 5.13).
π π 
x= ,
6 2

5.75. Similarly to P. 5.74,

 π
sin(3x) = sin x −
2
 π
sin(3x) − sin x − =0
2
    
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
 π   
3x + x − 2 3x − x + π2
2 cos sin =0
2 2
   
8x − π 4x + π
2 cos sin =0
4 4
 !"  ! "  ! "
A B C

Obviously, 2 = 0 leaving either B = 0 or C = 0 terms to be zero. Term C is a sin θ function, and B

is in the form of cos θ, where

π 3π π
if, cos θ = 0 ∴ θ = ± , ± , . . . in general: θ = ± nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2 2 2
if, sin θ = 0 ∴ θ = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

Fig. 5.13 Example P.5.74

√ f (x)
3
2

0 x

cos(π/3 − x)
cos(π/6)
0 p/6 p/2 2p
130 5 Trigonometry

Therefore, within the interval −π < x ≤ π ,

n=0:

8x − π π 3π
B: = ∴ x= ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π π
C: = 0 ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 4

n=1:

8x − π π 7π
B: = +π ∴ x = ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 3π
C: =π ∴ x= ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 4

n = −1 :

8x − π π π
B: = − π ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 5π
C: = −π ∴ x = − < −π
4 4

n=2:

8x − π π 11π
B: = + 2π ∴ x = >π
4 2 8
4x + π 7π
C: = 2π ∴ x = >π
4 4

n = −2 :

8x − π π 5π
B: = − 2π ∴ x = − ∈ [−π, π ] 
4 2 8
4x + π 9π
C: = −2π ∴ x = − < −π
4 4

In conclusion, within the interval −π < x ≤ π , there are six solutions (see Fig. 5.14).
 
5π 2π π 3π 6π 7π
x = − ,− ,− , , ,
8 8 8 8 8 8
5.5 Inequalities 131

Fig. 5.14 Example P.5.75 f (x)

sin(3x)
1
sin(x − p /2)

0 x

−1
−p −5p/8 −p/4 0 3p/8 3p/4 p
−p/8 7p/8

5.5 Inequalities

5.76. A simple inequality may be solved by the use of unit circle as follows:

2 cos x + 1 < 0
1
cos x < −
2

By inspection of unit circle (see Fig. 5.1), boundaries of the solution set are defined by equality, i.e.,

4π 4π
x1 = ± 2nπ and x2 = − ± 2nπ
3 3

where, for a simple cos(x) function, periodicity is 2π . It is evident from the unit circle that cos x (i.e.,
the horizontal projection length) is less than “−1/2” within the interval (note, the negative side)

4π 4π
− <x <
3 3
∴ or, equivalently
π
x < −π ±
3

repeated every 2nπ where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , see Fig. 5.15.

5.77. Similarly to P. 5.76,

√
2 sin x − 2>0
√
2
sin x >
2

this inequality is satisfied for

132 5 Trigonometry

Fig. 5.15 Example P.5.76 f (x)

cos(x)
1
−1/2

0 x
1
−
2

−1
−p 0 p
−4p/3 −2p/3 2p/3 4p/3

Fig. 5.16 Example P.5.77 f (x) p

√1 II 2 I
2
3p/4 p/4
2 √
2
2
0
x p 0

sin(x)
√
−1 2/2
III 3p IV
−3p/2 0 p/2
−7p/4 −5p/4 p/4 3p/4 2

π 5π
+ 2nπ < x < + 2nπ where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
6 6

as illustrated in Fig. 5.16. The interval solution sets are marked by shaded areas that are periodic
in Fig. 5.16 (left). This periodicity may be equivalently illustrated by unit circle
√ in Fig. 5.16 (right)
where, due to periodicity, the solution sets are superimposed above sin x = 2/2 value (which is
vertical projection for sin x) and marked by shaded area.

5.78. More examples of the same idea as in P. 5.66 to P. 5.77.

- √
-
- 2
cos x − sin x < 1 -×
- 2
√ √ √
2 2 2
cos x − sin x <
2 2 2
√
π π 2
sin cos x − cos sin x <
4 4 2
 
sin α cos β − cos α sin β = sin(α − β)
π  √2
sin −x <
4 2
5.5 Inequalities 133

By inspection of unit circle, see Fig. 5.1, it is evident that

√
2 π 5π
sin x = ⇒x= or, x = −
2 4 4

Therefore,
π π
−x < ∴ x > 0 + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and
4 4
π 5π 3π
−x >− ∴ x< + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
4 4 2

The solution set is illustrated in Fig. 5.17 (left). Alternatively, the solution set may be shown in unit
circle, where the periodic nature of the solution set is more evident, as intervals of 0 < x < 3π/2 and
−2π < x − π/2 are overlapped and repeated with 2pi periodicity. Note that, due to strict inequality,
boundary points are not included in the solution set, i.e., x = 2nπ and x = 3π/2.

5.79. Note that sin(x) = sin(x + 2π ), i.e., it is periodic by T = 2π . However, multiplied argument
reduces proportionally period, that is to say sin(3x) is periodic with T = 2π/3. Given inequality may
be then resolved as follows:
√
3
sin 3x − ≥0
2
π 
sin 3x − sin ≥0
3
    
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
3x + 3x −
⎜ 3 ⎟ sin ⎜ 3⎟≥0
2 cos ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 2
   
9x + π 9x − π
2 cos sin ≥0
6 6

f (x) cos(x) − sin(x) p

2 − 32p
1 II I

π 0
x
0
−p 2p
−1
III IV
−2 −p/2 0 3p/2 2
3p
2
− p2

Fig. 5.17 Example P.5.78

134 5 Trigonometry

Therefore, as per unit circle, if cos x ≥ 0 ∴ x ≤ ±π/2 and if sin ≥ 0 ∴ 0 ≤ x ≤ π , then

 
9x + π π 9x + π π 4π 2π
cos ≥0 ∴ − ≤ ≤ ∴ − ≤x≤
6 2 6 2 9 9
and,
 
9x − π 9x − π π 7π
sin ≥0 ∴ 0≤ ≤π ∴ ≤x≤
6 6 9 9

The two intervals are overlapping if π/9 ≤ x ≤ 2π/9 (see the upper diagram in Fig. 5.18 (left)).
The second possibility is if cos x ≤ 0 ∴ π/2 ≤ x ≤ 3π/2 and if sin ≤ 0 ∴ −π ≤ x ≤ 0,
then
 
9x + π π 9x + π 3π 2π 8π
cos ≤0 ∴ ≤ ≤ ∴ ≤x≤
6 2 6 2 9 9
and,
 
9x − π 9x − π 5π π
sin ≤ 0 ∴ −π ≤ ≤0 ∴ − ≤x≤
6 6 9 9

Therefore, the two intervals are not overlapping, i.e., the solution set is empty (see the lower diagram
in Fig. 5.18 (left)). In summary, including the periodicity of T = 2nπ/3 the solution set is

π 6nπ 2π 6nπ
± ≤x≤ ±
9 9 9 9

where, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , see Fig. 5.18 (right).

5.80. Inequalities that include absolute functions are equivalent to two inequalities, thus

1 1 1
| sin x| ≥ ∴ − ≥ sin x ≥
2 2 2

√
3
f (x)
sin(x) − 2
0
px
0 x
− 49 12
99
7
9

−1
px
12 8
− 59 99 9
−4p/9 0 2p/9 8p/9
−5p/9 p/9 7p/9

Fig. 5.18 Example P.5.79

5.5 Inequalities 135

Fig. 5.19 Example P.5.80 f (x) p

| sin(x)|
1/2 II 2 I
1 5p p
6 1 6
2
1 p 0
2

− 12
0 x − 56p − p6
III 3p IV
5p/6 p/6 0 p/6 5p/6 2

By inspection of unit circle (see Fig. 5.1), the solution is simply

5π π
− + 2nπ ≤ x ≤ − + 2nπ
6 6

and,

π 5π
+ 2nπ ≤ x ≤ + 2nπ
6 6

where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (Fig. 5.19).

5.81. Absolute value functions are decomposed into two cases.

Case 1: sin x > 0 ∴ | sin x| = sin x, thus

  π
sin
 sin
x = x + 2 cos x ∴ 2 cos x = 0 ∴ x = + 2nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2

Case 2: sin x < 0 ∴ | sin x| = − sin x, thus

− sin x = sin x + 2 cos x ∴ 2 sin x + 2 cos x = 0 ∴ sin x + cos x = 0

Using same idea as in P. 5.78,

- √
-
- 2
sin x + cos x = 0 -×
- 2
√ √
2 2
sin x + cos x = 0
2 2
π π
cos sin x + sin cos x = 0
4 4
 
cos α sin β + sin α cos β = sin(α + β)
136 5 Trigonometry

Fig. 5.20 Example P.5.81 f (x)

√
2 1
2
0 x

| sin(x)|
sin(x) + 2 cos(x)
−p/4 0 p/2 7p/4 5p/2

 π π
∴ sin x + =0 ∴ x+ =0
4 4
π
∴ x = − + 2nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
4

The two streams of periodic solutions are illustrated in Fig. 5.20, where the periodic solution set
interval is
π π
− + 2nπ ≤ x ≤ + 2nπ
4 2
Complex Algebra
6

Basic forms and identities of complex numbers:

j 2 = −1
z = a + j b = Re (z) + j Im (z)
z∗ = a − j b
|z|2 = z z∗ = (a + j b)(a − j b) = a 2 + b2 = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2
z1 = a + j b and z2 = c + j d ∴ if z1 = z2 ⇒ a = c and b = d
arg(z) = ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (b, a)
z = |z|ej ϕ = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) Euler’s formula

Note the difference between arctan(x) and atan2 (y, x) functions. Geometrical interpretation of the
equivalence between Pythagorean triangles, complex numbers, and vector addition is illustrated in
Fig. 6.1. Note that points on unit circle in Fig. 5.1 may be interpreted as complex numbers through
Euler’s formula.

Problems

6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms

Calculate |z| and arg(z) in P. 6.1 to P. 6.5, and comment on periodic nature of complex numbers in
general:

6.1. z = j 6.2. z = j 2 6.3. z = j 3 6.4. z = j 4 6.5. z = j 5

Simplify expressions in P. 6.6 to P. 6.24:

6.6. j 2 + j 3 + j 4 6.7. j −5 + j −17 + j 36 6.8. (1 + i)4 + (1 − i)4

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 137
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_6
138 6 Complex Algebra

Fig. 6.1 Pythagora’s y y j Im(z)

theorem (unit circle), c2 = a2 + b2 c = a+b z = a + jb
vectors, complex numbers
z
b b b
c b |z|
a+ Im(z)(z) Re(z)

a x a x a x
Re(z)(z)

6.9. j 5 + j −4 + j 121 6.10. (3 + 4j )(3 − 4j ) 6.11. j 125 + (−j )60 + j 83

6.12. (2j )2 + (−2j )−4 6.13. (1 + j )50 6.14. (1 − j )100

 4 √ √  12
1 1+j 1 + j 3 1 − j 3 4
6.15. + √ 6.16. 6.17. √
j 2 2 2 j 3−1

√
(1 + j )1000 j 102 + j 101 (j 3 − 1)2
6.18. 6.19. 6.20.
(1 − j )500 j 100 − j 99 (2j )2

 1000  1000 −41 + 63j 6j + 1

1+j 1−j 6.22. −
6.21. √ + √ 50 1 − 7j
2 2

 √ 6 066  √ 6 066 √ 108  √ 216

1+j 3 1−j 3 3 j 12 1
6.23. + 6.24. + + +
2 2 2 2 4 2j

6.2 Polar Forms

Convert complex forms given in P. 6.25 to P. 6.29 into their respective equivalent polar forms:

6.25. z = i 6.26. z = 2 − i 6.27. (2 − j )6 6.28. z = j 2023

(1 + j )200 (6 + 2j ) − (1 − j )198 (3 − j )
6.29. z = .
(1 + j )196 (23 − 7j ) + (1 − j )194 (10 + 2j )

6.3 Complex Plane

Given complex numbers in P. 6.30 to P. 6.42, in each case, show them as vectors in the complex plane:
6.5 Rational Powers 139

6.30. z1 = 1 6.31. z2 = −1 6.32. z3 = j 6.33. z4 = −j

√ √ √ √
6.34. z5 = 3 1 2 2 6.36. z7 = 1 + j 3
+j 6.35. z6 = +j
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √ √
6.37. z8 = − 2
+j
2 6.38. z9 = − 3 + j 1 6.39. z10 =−
2
−j
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ √ √
2 2 6.41. z12 = 3 1 6.42. z13 = − 1 − j 3
6.40. z11 = −j −j
2 2 2 2 2 2

6.4 Euler Identity

Given complex numbers in P. 6.43 to P. 6.54, convert them into their equivalent form by Euler’s
equation. Also, write their complex conjugate z∗ pair and calculate product z z∗ . Compare P. 6.30
to P. 6.42:
π π π
6.43. z = ej 0 6.44. z = ej 6 6.45. z = ej 4 6.46. z = ej 3

π
6.47. z = ej 6.50. z = ej π
3π 5π
2 6.48. z = ej 4 6.49. z = ej 6

5π 3π 7π 11π
6.51. z = ej 4 6.52. z = ej 2 6.53. z = ej 4 6.54. z = ej 6

Given numbers in P. 6.55 to P. 6.62, calculate their respective |z| arg(z):

1 jπ 6.56. z = −2 e−j 1
5π
6.58.
√ j π 2
7π
6.55. z = e 3
6
6.57. z = − ej 4
2 2 z= 2e 4

 π 3 6.60. 6.61. 6.62.

6.59. z = 3 ej 3 5 4  3
z = −3 e−j 6
π
z = 4 e−j
5π 7π
6 z = 0.2 ej 4

6.5 Rational Powers

Given complex numbers in P. 6.63 to P. 6.69, calculate all their parameters:

6.63. z1 = j 6.64. z2 = −j 6.65. z3 = 3

j 6.66. z4 = 4
j

6.67. z5 = 5
j 6.68. z6 = 1/(2j ) 6.69. 6.70.
z7 = (1 − j )3 z8 = 3 1/(1 + j )2

6.71. Given z = (2j )n , sketch its trajectory as n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .

140 6 Complex Algebra

6.6 Complex Equations

Solve the following equations in C:

6.72. z2 = j 6.73. z2 = −j 6.74. (2 + 3j )x + (3 + 2j )y = 1

√
6.75. z2 = 5 + 12j 6.76. z4 + 8 + 8 3 j = 0 1
=
1
+
1
6.77.
x + jy 2+j −2 + 4j
6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 141

Answers

6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms

Note that powers of a complex number j are periodic and in the complex plane (unit circle) may be
interpreted as a rotational vector z.

6.1. Algebraic form z = j is therefore identical to

z = 0 + 1 × j ∴ Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = +1.

Geometrical interpretation of a complex number modulus |z| is as hypotenuse of a Pythagorean

triangle (see Fig. 6.1), where the length of the horizontal cathetus equals to the Re (z) and the vertical
cathetus equals to Im (z); therefore, by Pythagoras’ theorem,

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 02 + 12 = 1 (i.e., a point on the unit circle).

By knowing two catheti of a Pythagorean triangle, argument of arg(z) = ϕ is calculated as the ratio
of the vertical and horizontal catheti, i.e., from definition of tan ϕ as

b Im (z) 1
tan ϕ = = = = ∞.
def

a Re (z) 0

Note that calculation of ϕ may be ambiguous if the catheti length signs are ignored, and that is because
there are two possibilities for arg(z) as

1 Im (z) sin ϕ π
arg(z) = tan ϕ = = = = ±∞ ∴ cos ϕ = 0 ∴ ϕ = ±
0 Re (z) cos ϕ 2
or equivalently
π
tan ϕ = ±∞ ∴ ϕ = arctan(±∞) = ± .
2

For that reason, keeping the catheti length signs is mandatory, which is resolved by using modified
arctan(x) named atan2 (b, a) function. Note that atan2 (b, a) requires two arguments, both vertical b
and horizontal a catheti, where their respective signs are explicitly included. By doing so, arg(z) are
placed in the correct quadrant. That is to say,

Im (z) +1 π
tan ϕ = ∴ ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 ( +1, 0) = arctan ∴ ϕ=+
def def

Re (z) 0 2

which is to say that Im (z) is positive while Re (z) is zero, therefore positive argument. Complex
plane is illustrated by unit circle where position of an arbitrary complex number z is shown with its
argument ϕ (see Fig. 6.2). It is evident that z = j is found at ϕ = +π/2, z = −1 at ϕ = ±π , z = −j
at ϕ = −π/2, and z = 1 at ϕ = 0 rad. Note the difference between arg(z) = +π/2 and arg(z) = −π/2.
In addition, arguments may be measured in either positive or negative direction, whichever is more
convenient, for example, ϕ = −π/2 ≡ +3π/2.
142 6 Complex Algebra

Fig. 6.2 Example P.6.1 Im(z)

p
2 j
II I

j z
p 0◦
Re(z)
−1 1
- p2

III IV
3p −j
2

6.2. Algebraic form z = j 2 is identical to

z = j 2 = −1 = −1 + 0 × j ∴ Re (z) = −1 and Im (z) = 0

def

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = (−1)2 + 02 = 1 (i.e., a point on the unit circle)

Im (z)
tan ϕ = ∴ ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (0, −1) ∴ ϕ = ±π.
def def

Re (z)

Saying that Re (z) = −1 and Im (z) = 0 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of z = −1
are (−1, 0); therefore, ϕ = ±π (see Fig. 6.2).

6.3. Algebraic form z = j 3 is identical to

z = j 3 = j 2 j = (−1) j = 0 − 1 × j ∴ Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = −1

∴

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 02 + (−1)2 = 1 (i.e., a point on the unit circle)

Im (z) π
tan ϕ = ∴ ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 ( −1, 0) ∴ ϕ = − .
def def

Re (z) 2

Saying that Re (z) = 0 and Im (z) = −1 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of z = −j
are (0, −1); therefore, ϕ = −π/2 (see Fig. 6.2).

6.4. Algebraic form z = j 4 is identical to

z = j 4 = j 2 j 2 = (−1) (−1) = 1 + 0 × j ∴ Re (z) = +1 and Im (z) = 0

∴
6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 143

|z| = Re (z)2 + Im (z)2 = 12 + 02 = 1 (i.e., a point on the unit circle)

Im (z)
tan ϕ = ∴ ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (0, +1) ∴ ϕ = 0 ≡ ±2π.
def def

Re (z)

Saying that Re (z) = +1 and Im (z) = 0 is to say that in the complex plane coordinates of z = 1 are
(1, 0); therefore, ϕ = 0 ≡ ±2π (see Fig. 6.2).

6.5. Algebraic form z = j 4 is identical to

z = j 5 = j 4 j = (1) (j ) = 0 + 1 × j = j

which is identical to P. 6.1. In conclusion, powers of j are periodic (therefore, equivalence with
the trigonometric functions). After each full ±2π rotation, a complex number z return to the initial
position, as

j 0 = 1 ∴ ϕ = 0◦ (±360◦ )
def

j 1 = j ∴ ϕ = +90◦ (−270◦ )
j 2 = −1 ∴ ϕ = ±180◦
j 3 = −j ∴ ϕ = −90◦ (+270◦ )
j 4 = 1 ∴ ϕ = 0◦ (±360◦ )
j 5 = j ∴ ϕ = +90◦ (−270◦ )
..
..

This periodicity is conveniently exploited in practical problems involving powers of complex

numbers. Recall that real numbers are subset of complex numbers (their imaginary part equals to
zero), that is to say, their argument is ϕ = 0◦ for positive and ϕ = ±π for negative numbers.
 2
6.6. j 2 + j 3 + j 4 = j 2 + j j 2 + j 2 = −1 + j (−1) + (−1)2 = −1
− j + 1
= −j

6.7. Recall identities for powers, as well as periodicity of j n , so that

1 
j −5 + j −17 + j 36 = a −n =
m
n
, an m = an , a n+m = a n a m
a
1 1 1 1
= 5
+ 17 + j 36 = 1+4 + 1+4×4 + j 4×9
j j j j
1 1  4 9  4 
= 4
+  4+ j = j = 1, 1n = 1
jj j j4
1 1 2 j 2
= + 4
+ (1)9 = + 1 = + 1 = 1 − 2j.
j j (1) j j j
144 6 Complex Algebra

√
Note that Re (z) = 1; Im (z) = −2, which is in I V quadrant; |1 − 2j | = 5; and arg(z) =
atan2 (−2, 1) (≈ −63.43◦ ≈ −1.107rad).
   
6.8. (1 + j )4 + (1 − j )4 = (1 + j )2 2 + (1 − j )2 2 = (a ± b)2 = a 2 ± 2ab + b2
 
= (1
+ 2j − 1
)2 + (1
− 2j − 1
)2 = 4j 2 + 4j 2 = j 2 = −1
= −4 − 4 = −8.
Note that Re (z) = −8; Im (z) = 0, which is negative part of the horizontal axis; | − 8| = 8; and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, −8) = ±π .

1  30
1
6.9. j 5 + j −4 + j 121 = j 1+4 + + j 1+4×30 = j 
j4 +
+ j j4
 = j + 1 + j = 1 + 2j.
j 1+4 4
j
√
Note that Re (z) = 1; Im (z) = 2, which is in I quadrant; |1 + 2j | = 5; and arg(z) =
atan2 (2, 1) (≈63.43◦ ≈ 1.107rad).

6.10. (3 + 4j )(3 − 4j ) = 32 − (4j )2 = 9 + 16 = 25

Note that product of complex conjugate numbers is a real number and that Re (z) = 25; Im (z) = 0,
which is positive part of the horizontal axis; |25| = 25; and arg(z) = atan2 (0, 25) = 0◦ .

6.11. j 125 + (−j )60 + j 83 = j 1+4×31 +  

(−1) 60 4×15
j + j 3+4×20
 n 
= −1 = −1 if n is odd , and − 1n = +1 if n is even
 31  15  20
=j  j4 + j4 + j j2 j4

= jA + 1 − jA = 1.
Note that Re (z) = 1; Im (z) = 0, which is a positive part of the horizontal axis; |1| = 1; and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, 1) = 0◦ .

1 1 63
6.12. (2j )2 + (−2j )−4 = −4 + = −4 + =− .
(−1)4 (2)4 (j )4 16 16
Note that Re (z) = −63/16; Im (z) = 0, which is negative part of the horizontal axis; | − 63/16| = 63/16;
and arg(z) = atan2 (0, −63/16) = ±π .

6.13. (1 + j )50 = (1 + j )2×25 = (2j )25 = 225 × j ×   = 225 j

j 4×6

Note that Re (z) = 0; Im (z) = 225 , which is positive part of the vertical axis; |225 | = 225 ; and
 25
arg(z) = atan2 2 , 0 = +π/2.
 50  50
6.14. (1 − j )100 = (1 − j )2×50 = (1 − j )2 = 1
− 2j − 1
= (−2j )50
 12
= (−1)50 (2)50 (j )2+4×12 = 250 × j 2 × 
j4 = −250 .

Note that Re (z) = −250 ; Im (z) = 0, which is negative part of the horizontal axis; | − 250 | = 250 ;
and arg(z) = atan2 0, −250 = ±π .
6.1 Basic Complex Number Forms 145

   2
1 1+j 4 j 1 (1 + j )2 (2j )2 4
6.15. + √ = + 2
= −j + = −j − = −1 − j.
j 2 j j 2 4 4
√
Note that Re (z) = −1; Im (z) = −1, which is in I I I quadrant; | − 1 − j | = 2; and arg(z) =
atan2 (−1, −1) = −135◦ ≡ +5π/4.
√ √ √ 2
 
6.16. 1 + j 3 1 − j 3 = (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b2 = 1 − (j 3) = 1 + 3 = 1
2

2 2 4 4
Note that Re (z) = 1; Im (z) = 0, which is positive part of the horizontal axis; |1| = 1; and arg(z) =
atan2 (0, 1) = 0◦ .

6.17. Note that

 √ def √    2π
arg − 1 + j 3 = atan2 3, −1 = the special angle (see Fig. 5.5 (right)) =
3

which is in the I I quadrant. It is very convenient because if multiplied by “3” this angle equals to
2π ≡ 0◦ , which is a phase of a real number. What is more, in the context of complex numbers, powers
force complex numbers to rotate by multiplying its phase. Therefore,
 12
4 412 412 412
√ = √ = √ = √ √ 4
j 3−1 (−1 + j 3)12 (−1 + j 3)3×4 (−1 + j 3)2 (−1 + j 3)

412 412
= √ √ 4 =  √ √ 4
(−1 + j 3)2 (−1 + j 3) (−2 − 2j 3) (−1 + j 3)
 2 12
412   2
= √ √ 4 = 4 = 2 , 8 = 2 =  4
2 3

2j3 + 
2 − 2j3 + 6) 23

= 212 = 4 096.

Note that Re (z) = 4 096; Im (z) = 0, which is positive part of the horizontal axis; |4096| = 4096;
and arg(z) = atan2 (0, 4096) = 0◦ .

(1 + j )1000 (1 + j )2×500 (2j )500 (2j )500

6.18. = = =  (2j )250 = (2j ) = 2 j
250 250 2×125
(1 − j )500 (1 − j )2×250 (−2j )250  
(−1)250

= 2250 (−1)125 = −2250

Note that Re (z) = −2

250
; Im (z) = 0, which is negative part of the horizontal axis; | − 2250 | = 2250 ;
and arg(z) = atan2 0, −2250 = ±π .

6.19. As an illustration, here are two methods to simplify this complex number form:

Method 1:

j 102 + j 101 j 2 j 4×25 + j j 4×25 j2 + j  

= = = z z∗ = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a 2 + b2 = |z|2
j −j
100 99 j 4×25 −j j
3 4×24 1−j 3
146 6 Complex Algebra

−1 + j 1 − j  + j + j + ]1
−1
 Aj
 =2
= = = j.
1+j 1−j 1+1 2A

Method 2:
−j −1
 3
j +j
102 101 j
j 99  7 + j

72
−1 − j −1 − j 2Aj
=  = = = j.
j 100 − j 99 j 99 j − 1 −1 + j −1 − j 2A

Note that Re (z) = 0; Im (z) = 1, which is positive part of the vertical axis; |1| = 1; and arg(z) =
atan2 (+1, 0) = +π/2.
√ √ √ √
(j 3 − 1)2 1 − 2j 3 − 3 −2 − 2j 3 1 3
6.20. = = = +j
(2j )2 −4 −4 2 2
√ √
Note that Re (z) = 1/2; Im√(z) = 3/2, which is in I quadrant; |1/2 + j 3/2| = 1 which is on unit
circle; and arg(z) = atan2 3/2, 1/2 = π/3.

 1000  1000  2×500  2×500  500  500

1+j 1−j 1+j 1−j 2Aj 2Aj
6.21. √ + √ = √ + √ = + −
2 2 2 2 2A 2A
 4 125
=2 
j =2

Note that Re (z) = 2; Im (z) = 0, which is positive part of the horizontal axis; |2| = 2; and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, 2) = 0◦ .

−41 + 63j 6j + 1 41 63 6j + 1 1 + 7j 41 63 6j − 42 + 1 + 7j
6.22. − =− + j+ =− + j−
50 1 − 7j 50 50 1 − 7j 1 + 7j 50 50 1 + 49
 
−41 + 63j + 
41 − 13j 63 − 13
= = j =j
50 50
Note that Re (z) = 0; Im (z) = 1, which is positive part of the vertical axis; |1| = 1; and arg(z) =
atan2 (+1, 0) = +π/2.

6.23. With the same initial idea

 as in P.√6.17,take advantage of complex number rotation into real
number position. Note that arg 1/2 + j 3/2 = π/3; therefore, the third power is correct rotation
and that 6 066 = 3 × 2 022:
 √ 6 066  √ 6 066
1+j 3 1−j 3
+
2 2
 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
(1 + j 3)2 (1 + j 3) (1 − j 3)2 (1 − j 3)
= +
23 23
 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
(−2 + 2j 3)(1 + j 3) (−2 − 2j 3)(1 − j 3)
= +
8 8
6.2 Polar Forms 147

 √ √ 2 022  √ √ 2 022
−2A(1 − j 3)(1 + j 3) −2A(1 + j 3)(1 − j 3)
= +
8
4 8
4
 
(a − b)(a + b) = a 2 − b2
   
1 − (−3) 2 022 1 − (−3) 2 022
= − + − = (−1)2 022 + (−1)2 022 = 1 + 1 = 2.
4 4

Note that Re (z) = 2; Im (z) = 0, which is positive part of the horizontal axis; |2| = 2; and
arg(z) = atan2 (0, +2) = 0◦ .

6.24. With the same initial idea

√as in P. 6.17,
 take advantage of complex number rotation into real
number position. Note that arg 3/2 + j/2 = +π/6; therefore, the sixth power is correct rotation.
√ √
In addition, 1/(2j ) = −j/2, 12 = 2 3, 108 = 6 × 18, 216 = 6 × 36, and 6 = 3 × 2. So,
√ 108  √ 216
3 j 12 1
+ − +
2 2 4 2j
√ 6×18  √ 6×36
3 1 4×3 1 j
= +j − +
2 2 4 2j j
 √ 3 2×18  √ 3 2×36
3 1 2A 3 1
= +j − −j
2 2 4A 2 2
 √ 2×18  √ 2×36
( 3 + j )3 ( 3 − j )3
= −
23 23
 
(a + b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab2 + b3 , see Fig. 2.1
 √ √ 2×18  √ √ 2×36
3
 3 + 8 9Aj − 3 3 − jA 3 3
3 − 8 9Aj −  3 + jA
= −
23 23
 2×18    18  36
8j −8j 2×36 82 j 2 
(−1)

2 2 2
8 j
= − = − = (−1)18 − (−1)36
23 23 26 26
= 0.

Note that Re (z) = 0and Im (z) = 0, which is at the origin of the complex plane.

6.2 Polar Forms

6.25. There are multiple forms of complex numbers, all interchangeable.

148 6 Complex Algebra

Reminder: Polar form of complex numbers (see Figs. 5.1, 6.1, and 6.2):

z = a + j b = |z| ej ϕ
|z|2 = z z∗ = a 2 + b2 and, ϕ = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (b, a)

z = j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1

|z| = 02 + 12 = 1
π
arg(z) = atan2 (+1, 0) =
2
∴
z = 1 ej π/2 .

6.26. Algebraic form of z is converted into its equivalent polar form as

z = 2 − j ∴ Re (z) = 2, Im (z) = −1
√
|z| = (22 + (−1)2 ) = 5
 
 ◦ 1
arg(z) = atan2 (−1, 2) in I V quadrant, ≈ −26.56 = − arctan
2
∴
√ −j
z= 5e arctan(1/2)
.

6.27. Algebraic form of z is converted into its equivalent polar form as

z = (2 − j )6 = (2 − j )2×3 = (4 − 4j − 1)3 = (3 − 4j )2 (3 − 4j ) = (9 − 24j − 16)(3 − 4j )

= (−7 − 24j )(3 − 4j ) = −21 + 28j − 72j − 96 = −117 − 44j.

Therefore,

z = −117 − 44j ∴ Re (z) = −117, Im (z) = −44

|z| = (−117)2 + (−44)2 = 125

 
 ◦ 44
arg(z) = atan2 (−44, −117) in I I I quadrant, ≈ −159.39 = ±π + arctan
117
∴

±π +arctan(44/117)
z = 53 e j .
6.3 Complex Plane 149

 505
z = j 2020 = j 4×505 = j 4 = 1505 = 1
6.28.
therefore, |z| = 1, and z = 2π = 0

6.29. Algebraic form of z is converted into its equivalent polar form as

(1 + j )200 (6 + 2j ) − (1 − j )198 (3 − j ) (1 + j )2×100 2(3 + j ) − (1 − j )2×99 (3 − j )

z= =
(1 + j ) (23 − 7j ) + (1 − j ) (10 + 2j )
196 194 (1 + j )2×98 (23 − 7j ) + (1 − j )2×97 2(5 + j )
(2j )100 2(3 + j ) − (−2j )99 (3 − j ) 299 × 4(3 + j ) − 299 j (3 − j )
= =
(2j )98 (23 − 7j ) + (−2j )97 2(5 + j ) −298 (23 − 7j ) − 298 j (5 + j )
2Z
99
(12 + 4j − 3j − 1) 2
(11 + j ) 11 + j (11 + j )2
= = =
−2
98
(23 − 7j + 5j − 1) −2
(11 − j ) 11 + j −(11 − j )(11 + j )
121 + 22j − 1 120 + 22j 60 + 11j 60 11
= = =− =− −j .
−(121 + 1) −122 61 61 61

Therefore,

11 + j 60 11
z= =− −j
−(11 − j ) 61 61
∴
√
|11 + j | 122
|z| = =√ = 1, (i.e., on unit circle)
| − 1||11 − j | 122
 
 11
arg(z) = atan2 (−11/61, −60/61) in I I I quadrant, ≈ −169.61◦ = ±π + arctan
60
∴

j ±π +arctan(11/60)
z = 1e .

6.3 Complex Plane

Given algebraic form of a complex number, its module may be calculated simply by Pythagora’s
theorem and shown in unit circle (see Figs. 5.1 and 6.1), where horizontal axis is interpreted as Re (z)
and vertical axis as Im (z).

6.30. Given z = 1, then (see Fig. 6.3)

z1 = 1 ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 0 ∴ |z| = (0)2 + (1)2 = 1


arg(z) = atan2 (0, +1) in positive part of horizontal axes
 
0
= arctan = 0.
1
150 6 Complex Algebra

Fig. 6.3 Example P.6.30 Im(z)

z3 j
II z7 I
z8 z6
z9 z5
z2 z1
Re(z)
−1 1
z12
z10 z11
III z13 z 4 IV
−j

6.31. Given z2 = −1, then (see Fig. 6.3)

z2 = −1 ∴ Re (z) = −1, Im (z) = 0 ∴ |z| = (0)2 + (−1)2 = 1


arg(z) = atan2 (0, −1) in negative part of horizontal axes
 
0
= ±π + arctan = ±π.
1

6.32. Given z3 = j , then (see Fig. 6.3)

z3 = j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 1 ∴ |z| = (1)2 + (0)2 = 1


arg(z) = atan2 (1, 0) in positive part of vertical axes
 
1 π
= arctan = arctan (∞) = .
0 2

6.33. Given z4 = −j , then (see Fig. 6.3)

z4 = −j ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = −1 ∴ |z| = (1)2 + (0)2 = 1


arg(z) = atan2 (−1, 0) in negative part of vertical axes
 
−1 π
= arctan = − arctan (∞) = − .
0 2
√
6.34. Given z5 = 3/2 + j 1/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √  √
  
3 1 3 1 3 2 1 2
z5 = +j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √   
1 3  1/2 π
arg(z) = atan2 , in I quadrant = arctan √ C = .
2 2 3/2
C 6
√ √
6.35. Given z6 = 2/2 + j 2/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)
6.3 Complex Plane 151

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z6 = +j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √  √ 
2 2  Z2/2 π
arg(z) = atan2 , Z
in I quadrant = arctan √ 1 = .
2 2 Z 2/2 4
Z
√
6.36. Given z7 = 1/2 + j 3/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ 
 2  √ 2
1 3 1 3 1 3
z7 = + j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√  √ 
3 1  3/2
C = π.
arg(z) = atan2 , in I quadrant = arctan
2 2 1/2C 3
√ √
6.37. Given z8 = − 2/2 + j 2/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z8 = − +j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ 
2 2 
arg(z) = atan2 ,− in I I quadrant
2 2
 √ 
Z2/2 3π
= ±π + arctan H√ Z = ±π + arctan(−1) = .
− HH2/2 −1 4
√
6.38. Given z9 = − 3/2 + j 1/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ 
 √ 2  2
3 1 3 1 3 1
z9 = − +j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = ∴ |z| = − + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
1 3 
arg(z) = atan2 ,− in I I quadrant
2 2
 
1/2
C √ 5π
= ±π + arctan √ = ±π + arctan(−1/ 3) = .
− 3/2C 6
√ √
6.39. Given z10 = − 2/2 − j 2/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ √ √ 
 √ 2  √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
z10 =−− −j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = − + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ √ 
2 2 
arg(z) = atan2 − ,− in I I I quadrant
2 2
 √ 
− 2
/2 5π 3π
= ±π + arctan  √ 1 = ≡− .
−

2/2 4 4
152 6 Complex Algebra

√ √
6.40. Given z11 = 2/2 − j 2/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ √ √  √
   √ 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
z11 = −j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ √ 
2 2 
arg(z) = atan2 − , in I V quadrant
2 2
 √ 
− 2
/2 π
= arctan √  −1 = − .
2 4
/2
√
6.41. Given z12 = 2
3
− j 12 , then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √  √
   
3 1 3 1 3 2 1 2
z12 = −j ∴ Re (z) = , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
1 3 
arg(z) = atan2 − , in I V quadrant
2 2
 
−1/2C √ π
= arctan √ = arctan(−1/ 3) = − .
3/2
C 6
√
6.42. Given z13 = −1/2 − j 3/2, then (see Fig. 6.3)

√ √ 
   √ 2
1 3 1 3 1 2 3
z13 =− −j ∴ Re (z) = − , Im (z) = − ∴ |z| = − + − =1
2 2 2 2 2 2
 √ 
3 1 
arg(z) = atan2 − ,− in I I I quadrant
2 2
 √  √  4π
− 3/2C 2π
= ±π + arctan = ±π + arctan 3 = ≡− .
− /2C
1 3 3

6.4 Euler Identity

Reminder: Euler’s formula is yet another form of complex numbers, explicitly showing the
relationships of its real and imaginary parts with the basic trigonometric functions, as

z = a + j b = |z|ej ϕ = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) .

6.43. Recall that (see Fig. 6.1) the real part of a complex number equals to the length of horizontal
cathetus and its imaginary part equals to the length of the vertical cathetus.
6.4 Euler Identity 153

Complex numbers in this example given in exponential form thus, by exploiting Euler’s equation,
phase and module of a complex number are found by inspection:

z = |z|ej ϕ = ej 0 ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ = 0

z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 (cos 0 + j sin 0)
which is identical to
= 1 + j 0 = 1 (see A. 6.30)

Complex conjugate number is simply with changed sign of the imaginary part, i.e., if

z = a + j b, then z∗ = a − j b; then,
z z∗ = (a + j b)(a − j b) = a 2 − H H+H
j ab H − j b = a + b = |z| = c , Pythagora’s theorem.
j ab 2 2 2 2 2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

z = cos 0 + j sin 0 ∴ z∗ = cos 0 − j sin 0 = 1

or in polar form
z = ej 0 ∴ z∗ = e−j 0 = 1 in both cases;

in other words, complex conjugate of a real number is the same number (naturally because to say
“real number” is to say Im (z) = 0). Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 , which is verified as

z z∗ = ej 0 e−j 0 = e(j 0)+(−j 0) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

z z∗ = (cos 0 − j sin 0) (cos 0 − j sin 0) = 1 × 1 = 12 = |z|2 .

6.44. By inspection,

π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej 6∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
6
 π π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
6 6
which is identical to
√
3 1
= +j (see P. 6.34 ).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or in polar form
∴ z∗ = e−j 6 .
π π
z = ej 6

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

154 6 Complex Algebra

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j
π π π π
6 = e(j = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or
6 )+(−j 6 )

√  √ 
 π π  π π 3 1 3 1
∗
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 3 3 1 3 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
4 4 4 4 4 4

6.45. By inspection,

π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4
4
 π π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
4 4
which is identical to
√ √
2 2
= +j (see A. 6.35).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or in polar form
∴ z∗ = e−j 4 .
π π
z = ej 4

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j
π π π π
4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 )
= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

√ √  √ √ 
 π π  π π 2 2 2 2
∗
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
√ √
1 2 2 1 1 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
2 4 4 2 2 2

6.46. By inspection,

π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
3
3
 π π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
3 3
which is identical to
√
1 3
= +j (see A. 6.36).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

6.4 Euler Identity 155

π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
3 3 3 3
or in polar form
∴ z∗ = e−j 3 .
π π
z = ej 3

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 3 e−j
π π π π
3 = e(j= e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or
3 )+(−j 3 )

 √  √ 
 π π  π π 1 3 1 3
∗
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = +j −j
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
√ √
1 3 3 3 1 3
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
4 4 4 4 4 4

6.47. By inspection,

π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
2
2
 π π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
2 2
which is identical to
= 0 + j (see A. 6.32).

Therefore, in Euler’s form

π π π π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
2 2 2 2
or in polar form
∴ z∗ = e−j 2 .
π π
z = ej 2

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 2 e−j 2 = e(j 2 )+(−j 2 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

π π π π

 π π  π π
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = (0 + j 1) (0 − j 1)
2 2 2 2
= −j 2 12 = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .

6.48. By inspection,

3π 3π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4
4
 
3π 3π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
4 4
which is identical to
156 6 Complex Algebra

√ √
2 2
=− +j (see A. 6.37).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

3π 3π 3π 3π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
3π 3π
z = ej 4 4 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

3π 3π 3π 3π

    √ √  √ √ 
3π 3π 3π 3π 2 2 2 2
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − +j − −j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= + j − j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
2 S
2S S
2S 2 2 2

6.49. By inspection,

5π 5π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
6
6
 
5π 5π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
6 6
which is identical to
√
3 1
=− + j (see P. 6.38).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

5π 5π 5π 5π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
5π 5π
z = ej 6 6 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j 6 = e(j 6 )+(−j 6 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

5π 5π 5π 5π

    √  √ 
∗ 5π 5π 5π 5π 3 1 3 1
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − +j − −j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 @ 3 @ 3 1 3 1
= + j @ − j @ − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
4 4@ 4@ 4 4 4
6.4 Euler Identity 157

6.50. By inspection,

z = |z|ej ϕ = ej π ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ = π

z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 (cos π + j sin π )
which is identical to
= −1 + j 0 (see A. 6.32).

Therefore, in Euler’s form

z = cos π + j sin π ∴ z∗ = cos π − j sin π

or in polar form
z = ej π ∴ z∗ = e−j v .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej π e−j π = e(j π )+(−j π ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

z z∗ = (cos π + j sin π ) (cos π − j sin π ) = (−1 + j 0) (−1 − j 0) = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .

6.51. By inspection,

5π 5π 3π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4 ≡−
4 4
 
5π 5π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
4 4
which is identical to
√ √
2 2
=− −j (see A. 6.39).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

5π 5π 5π 5π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
5π 5π
z = ej 4 4 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

5π 5π 5π 5π

    √ √  √ √ 
5π 5π 5π 5π 2 2 2 2
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = − −j − +j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2
158 6 Complex Algebra

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= − j + j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
2 S
2S S
4S 2 2 2

6.52. By inspection,

3π 3π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
2 ≡−
2 2
 
3π 3π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
2 2
which is identical to
= 0 − j 1 (see A. 6.33).

Therefore, in Euler’s form

3π 3π 3π 3π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
2 2 2 2
or in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
3π 3π
z = ej 2 2 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 2 e−j 2 = e(j 2 )+(−j 2 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

3π 3π 3π 3π

  
3π 3π 3π 3π
z z∗ = cos + j sin cos − j sin = (0 − j 1) (0 + j 1)
2 2 2 2
= −j 2 1 = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .

6.53. By inspection,

7π 7π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
4 ≡−
4 4
 
7π 7π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
4 4

which is identical to
√ √
2 2
= −j (see A. 6.40).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

7π 7π 7π 7π
z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
4 4 4 4
or in polar form
6.4 Euler Identity 159

∴ z∗ = e−j
7π 7π
z = ej 4 4 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 4 e−j 4 = e(j 4 )+(−j 4 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

7π 7π 7π 7π

   √ √  √ √ 
∗ 7π 7π 7π 7π 2 2 2 2
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = −j +j
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

1 S1 S1 1 1 1
= + j − j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
2 S
2S S
2S 2 2 2

6.54. By inspection,

11π 11π π
z = |z|ej ϕ = ej ∴ |z| = 1, arg(z) = ϕ =
6 ≡−
6 6
 
11π 11π
z = |z| (cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = 1 cos + j sin
6 6
which is identical to
√
3 1
= −j (see A. 6.41).
2 2

Therefore, in Euler’s form

11π 11π 11π 11π

z = cos + j sin ∴ z∗ = cos − j sin
6 6 6 6
or in polar form

∴ z∗ = e−j
11π 11π
z = ej 6 6 .

Also, product of z z∗ = |z|2 is therefore

z z∗ = ej 6 e−j 6 = e(j 6 )+(−j 6 ) = e0 = 1 = |1|2 = |z|2 or

11π 11π 11π 11π

   √  √ 
∗ 11π 11π 11π 11π 3 1 3 1
z z = cos + j sin cos − j sin = −j +j
6 6 6 6 2 2 2 2
√ √
3 3 3 1 3 1
= −j +j − j 2 = + = 1 = 12 = |z|2 .
4 4 4 4 4 4

6.55. Given polar form, note that all numbers are positive and that absolute value of a positive
number is the same number; thus, by definition

1 jπ 1 π
z= e 3 ∴ |z| = and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2 2 3

6.56. Given polar form, negative number must be also counted as complex, i.e.,
160 6 Complex Algebra

z = −2 e−j = −1 × 2 × e−j = ej π × 2 × e−j

5π 5π 5π 5π π
6 6 6 = 2 ej ( π− 6 ) = 2 ej 6

π
|z| = 2 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
6

6.57. Given polar form, negative number must be also counted as complex, i.e.,

1 7π 1 7π 1 7π 1 j ( π + 7π ) 1 11π
z = − ej 4 = −1 × × ej 4 = ej π × × ej 4 = e 4 = ej 4
2 2 2 2 2
1 8π 1 3π
= ej ( 4 + 4 ) =
8π 3π
= 2π = 0 = ej 4
2 4 2
1 3π
|z| = and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2 4

6.58. Given polar form, by definition

√ j π √ 2  j π
= 2 ej 4 ×2 = 2 ej 2
2 2 π π
z= 2e 4 = 2 e 4
or
 π π
= 2 cos + j sin = 2 (0 + j 1) = 2j ;
2 2

therefore,
π
|z| = 2 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2

6.59. Given polar form,

 3
= 33 ej 3 ×3 = 27 ej π
π π
z = 3 ej 3 or = 27 (−1) = −27;

therefore,

|z| = | − 27| = 27 and arg(z) = ϕ = π.

6.60. Given polar form,

 5π
5 25π 2π ×24+π   π π
z = 4 ej 6 = 45 ej 6 = 45 ej 6 = 2π × 24 = 0 = 210 ej 6 = 1024 ej 6 ;

therefore,
π
|z| = 210 = 1024 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
6

6.61. Given polar form,

 4  1 4 7π 1 j 2π ×3+π   1 jπ
ej 4 ×4 =
7π
z = 0.2 ej 4 = e = 2π × 3 = 0 = e
5 625 625
6.5 Rational Powers 161

1 1
or = (−1) = − ;
625 625

therefore,
 
 1 

|z| = − = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = π.
625  625

6.62. Given polar form, negative number must be also counted as complex, i.e.,
 3
z = −3 e−j 6 = (−3)3 e−j 6 ×3 = −27 e−j 2 = −1 × 27 × e−j 2 = ej π × 27 × e−j 2
π π π π π

π π
= 27 ej ( π− 2 ) = 27 ej 2 or = 27j ;

therefore,
π
|z| = 27 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2

6.5 Rational Powers

6.63. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

 √ √
1  j π2
1
j π4 π π 2 2
z1 = j =j = e 2 2
=e or = cos + j sin = +j ;
4 4 2 2

therefore,
√ √
2 2 π
Re (z) = , Im (z) = , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2 2 4

6.64. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

 π 1
 π  π
−j = (−j ) 2 = e−j 2 2 = e−j 4 or = cos −
1 π
z2 = + j sin −
4 4
 
cos(−x) = cos x, sin(−x) = − sin x

√ √
π π 2 2
= cos − j sin = −j ;
4 4 2 2

therefore,
√ √
2 2 π
Re (z) = , Im (z) = − , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = − .
2 2 4

Note that −j is complex conjugate of j .

162 6 Complex Algebra

6.65. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

 √
 j π2
1
j π6 π π 3 1
z3 = 3
j= e 3
=e or = cos + j sin = +j ;
6 6 2 2

therefore,
√
3 1 π
Re (z) = , Im (z) = , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
2 2 6

6.66. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

 π 1 π
 π π
z4 = 4
j = ej 2 4
= ej 8 or = cos + j sin ;
8 8

therefore,
π π π
Re (z) = cos , Im (z) = sin , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
8 8 8

6.67. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

 π 1 π
 π π
z5 = 5
j = ej 2 5
= ej 10 or = cos + j sin
10 10

; therefore,
π π π
Re (z) = cos , Im (z) = sin , |z| = 1 and arg(z) = ϕ = .
10 10 10

6.68. Radicals are converted into fractional powers, so that

   12   12   12   12
1 j 1 1 j π2 1 j (π + π2 ) 1 j 3π
z6 = = − j = e × ×e
jπ
= ×e = ×e 2
2j j 2 2 2 2
  12 √    π 
1 −j π2 1 −j π × 1 1 −j π 2 π
= ×e =√ e 2 2 =√ e 4 = cos − + j sin −
2 2 2 2 4 4
 
cos(−x) = cos x, sin(−x) = − sin x

√   √ √ √ 
2 π π 2 2 2 1 1
= cos − j sin = −j = −j ;
2 4 4 2 2 2 2 2

therefore,
√
1 1 2 π
Re (z) = , Im (z) = − , |z| = and arg(z) = ϕ = − .
2 2 2 4

Note how the negative sign propagated and modified arg(z), as well as the equivalence between
3π/2 ≡ −π/2, which is negative argument.
6.5 Rational Powers 163

6.69. First,
√
1 − j ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = −1 ∴ |1 − j | = 12 + (−1)2 = 2
π
∴ arg(1 − j ) = atan2 (Im (z) , Re (z)) = atan2 (−1, 1) = −
4
;therefore, its polar form is
√
1 − j = 2 e−j 4
π

so that

√ 3 √  12
= ( 2)3 e−j 4 = 2 2 × 2 e−j 4 × 2
3π 3 1 3π 1
2 e−j 4
π
z7 = (1 − j )3 =
√
= 2 4 e−j 8 = 8 e−j 8 ; therefore,
3 3π 4 3π

  √  
  3π
 (1 − j )  = 8, arg (1 − j ) = −
4
3 3
8
  √     √  
3π 3π
(1 − j ) = 8 cos −j (1 − j ) = 8 sin −j
4 4
Re 3 , Im 3 .
8 8

6.70. First,

1 1 1 1 π 1 1 3π 1
= − j = ej π ej 2 = ej π + 2 = ej 2 = e−j 2
π π
=
(1 + j )2 1
+ 2j − 1
2 2 2 2 2

so that
  1
1 1 −j π 3 1 −j π × 1 1 −j π
z8 = 3
= e 2 =√ e 2 3 =√ e 6 = therefore
(1 + j )2 2 3
2 3
2
   
 
3 1  1 1 π
  = √ , arg 3
=−
 (1 + j ) 
2 3
2 (1 + j )2 6
  √
1 1  π 1 3
Re 3
=√ cos − = −√
(1 + j )2 3
2 6 3
2 2

 
1 1 1
Im 3
=− √ .
(1 + j )2 2 32

6.71. As powers on complex number increase, both its modulus and its argument increase as

n = 0 : (2j )0 = 1, ∴ Re (z) = 1, Im (z) = 0

n = 1 : (2j )1 = 2j, ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 2
n = 2 : (2j )2 = 4j 2 = −4, ∴ Re (z) = −4, Im (z) = 0
164 6 Complex Algebra

Fig. 6.4 Example P.6.71 Im(z)

32
z5
24

16

8
z Re(z)
z2 z0 z4
0
z3
−8
−8 0 8 16

n = 3 : (2j )3 = 8j 3 = −8j, ∴ Re (z) = −0, Im (z) = −8

n = 4 : (2j )4 = 16j 4 = 16, ∴ Re (z) = 16, Im (z) = 0
n = 5 : (2j )5 = 32j 5 = 32j, ∴ Re (z) = 0, Im (z) = 32
..
.,

thus, as n → ∞, creating progressively expanding spiralling trajectory where |z| → ∞ and arg(z) →
∞ × 2π (see Fig. 6.4).

6.6 Complex Equations

Due to symmetry, solutions of complex equations are symmetrically distributed in the complex plane.

6.72. Note that being the only two solutions of quadratic equation, z1 and z2 are located
diametrically opposite in the complex plane, i.e., in I and I I I quadrants (Fig. 6.5):
√ √
π π 2 2
z1 = cos + j sin = +j
1 4 4 2 2
z2 = j ∴ z2 = j = j 2 √ √
 π 1 π π 2 2
1 π z2 = − cos − j sin = − −j
|z| = j 2 = ej 2 2 = ej 4 4 4 2 2
∴

6.73. Note that being the only two solutions of quadratic equation, z1 and z2 are located
diametrically opposite in the complex plane, i.e., in I V and I I quadrants, Fig. 6.6:

z2 = −j ∴ z2 = −j

 1
|z| = (−j ) 2 = e−j = e−j 4
1 π π
2 2
6.6 Complex Equations 165

Fig. 6.5 Example P.6.72 90◦

II I
z1

180◦ p 0◦

z2

III 270◦
IV

Fig. 6.6 Example P.6.73 90◦

II I
z2

180◦ p 0◦

z1
III 270◦
IV

∴
√ √
π π 2 2
z1 = cos − j sin = −j
4 4 2 2
√ √
π π 2 2
z2 = − cos + j sin = − +j .
4 4 2 2

6.74. By separating real and complex parts of this complex equation, it follows that

(2 + 3j )x + (3 + 2j )y = 1
2x + 3j x + 3y + 2jy = 1
(2x + 3y) + (3x + 2y)j = 1 + 0j
∴
2x + 3y = 1
3x + 2y = 0.

This system of equation is solved, for example, by Cramer’s rule as

166 6 Complex Algebra

  ⎫
 2 3
 =   = 4 − 9 = −5 = 0⎪
⎪
⎪
32 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
  ⎪
⎬
 1 3 x 2 y 3
x  
= =2−0=2 ∴ x= =− and y = = .
02 ⎪
⎪  5  5
  ⎪
⎪
 2 1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y =   = 0 − 3 = −3 ⎭
30

6.75. Given

z2 = 5 + 12j

Method 1: First, convert z2 to polar form, and then calculate z, as

12
5 + 12j ∴ |5 + 12j | = 52 + 122 = 13, arg(5 + 12j ) = arctan (I quadrant)
5
5 + 12j = 13 ej arctan(12/5)
∴
√ arctan(12/5)
z2 = 13 ej arctan(12/5) ∴ z = ± 13 ej 2
∴
    
√ arctan(12/5) arctan(12/5)
z1 = 13 cos + j sin = 3 + 2j
2 2
    
√ arctan(12/5) arctan(12/5)
z2 = − 13 cos + j sin = −3 − 2j
2 2

where the last calculation may be done numerically or with trigonometric identities that are not
presented in this book.

Method 2: Being a complex number, algebraic form of z must be

z = a + bj, (a, b) ∈ R
therefore,
z2 = a 2 + 2abj − b2 = (a 2 − b2 ) + (2ab) j.

By the equivalence of real and complex parts, it follows that

6
z2 = 5 + 12j = (a 2 − b2 ) + (2ab) j ∴ 2ab = 12 ∴ ab = 6 ⇒ a =
b
 2
6
a 2 − b2 = 5 ∴ − b2 = 5.
b

The last equation is bi-quadratic, that is,

6.6 Complex Equations 167

36
− b2 = 5 ∴ 36 − b4 = 5b2
b2
b4 + 5b2 − 36 = 0
b4 + 9b2 − 4b2 − 36 = 0

b2 (b2 + 9) − 4(b2 + 9) = 0
(b2 − 4)(b2 + 9) = 0
(b − 2)(b + 2)(b2 + 9) = 0.

Note, due to b ∈ R, that only real roots are acceptable; therefore,

∈
6 6
b1,2 = ±2,  
b3,4 C ∴ a= = = ±3
b ±2

z1 = 3 + 2j z2 = −3 − 2j.

Therefore,
√
|z1,2 | = 32 + 22 =
13

arg(z1 ) = atan2 (2, 3) , in I quadrant, ≈ 33.69◦

arg(z2 ) = atan2 (−2, −3) , in I I I quadrant, ≈ π + 33.69◦ ≈ 213.69
∴
√   
z1 = 13 cos arctan(2/3) + j sin arctan(2/3)
√   
z2 = 13 − cos arctan(2/3) − j sin arctan(2/3) .

6.76. One possible way to solve this equation may be as follows:

√ √
z4 + 8 + 8 3 j = 0 ∴ z4 = −8 − 8 3 j = |z0 | ej ϕ0
√  √
where |z0 | = | − 8 − 8 3 j | and ϕ0 = arg −8 − 8 3 j ; thus,

√ √ √ √ √ √
−8 − 8 3 j ∴ |z0 | = (−8)2 + (−8 3)2 = 64 + 3 × 64 = 4 × 64 = 4 64 = 16
√
Im (z)  − 3 √
−8
tan ϕ0 = = = 3 or
Re (z)  −1
−8

 √  
ϕ = atan2 − 3, −1 in I I I quadrant

π 4π 2π
arg(z0 ) = π + = ≡−
3 3 3
4π
∴ z4 = 16 ej 3 .
168 6 Complex Algebra

Note that being f ourth-order polynomial, it is necessary to correctly

√ “unfold”
 the total of four
distinct solutions for z. One possible method may be as follows x = ±|x| :
2

4π
 4π
 12 2π
z4 = 16 ej 3 ∴ z1,2
2
= ± 16 ej 3 = ±4 ej 3

2π
z12 = 4 ej 3

= 4 e j (π + 3 ) = 4 e j
2π 2π 2π 5π
z22 = −4 ej 3 = ej π 4 ej 3 3

and, again,
 2π
 12 π
z1 = ± 4 e j 3 = ±2 ej 3

 5π
 12 5π
z2 = ± 4 e j 3 = ±2 ej 6 .

So,
π
z1 = 2 e j 3

π π 4π
z3 = −2 ej 3 = ej π 2 ej 3 = 2 ej 3

5π
z2 = 2 e j 6

5π 5π 11π
z4 = −2 ej 6 = ej π 2 ej 6 = 2 ej 6 .

Closer inspection of the four roots shows that their arguments are symmetrically distributed on the
circle perimeter, that is to say, step between any two roots must be π/2 (see Fig. 6.7). So, starting
with z1 , general form of the roots may be expressed as

π
π
j +k
zk = 2 e 3 2
 π π π π 
= 2 cos +k + j sin +k
3 2 3 2
where, k = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Fig. 6.7 Example P.6.76

II 2j z1 I
z2
5p
6 p
3 2

−2 4p
3 11 p
6
z4
−2 j
III z3 IV
6.6 Complex Equations 169

This kind of root distribution is general. For example, in the case of second-order equation, its two
roots are separated by 2π/2 = π angle. Or if third-order equation, its three roots are separated by
2π/3, etc.
In summary,
 π   π  √
k = 0 : z1 = 2 cos + j sin = 1 + j 3.
3 3
 π π π π  √
k = 1 : z2 = 2 cos + + j sin + = − 3 + j.
3 2 3 2
 π  π  √
k = 2 : z3 = 2 cos + π + j sin + π = −1 − j 3.
3 3
    
π 3π π 3π √
k = 3 : z4 = 2 cos + + j sin + = 3 − j.
3 2 3 2

Proof: Each of the four solutions z1,2,3,4 should be verified, for example,
√
z14 + 8 + 8 3 i = 0
⎛   ⎞4
5π
⎜
i √
⎝2 e 6 ⎟
⎠ + 8 + 8 3i = 0

 
10π
i √
16 e 3 + 8 + 8 3i = 0
 
6π 4π
i  0+ √
16 e 3 3 + 8 + 8 3i = 0
    
4π 4π √
16 cos + i sin + 8 + 8 3i = 0
3 3
 √ 
1 3 √
16 − − i + 8 + 8 3i = 0
2 2
√ √
8
−8
−  8
3 i + 8
+  3i = 0
0 = 0 .

6.77. This kind of equation may be solved, for example, by enforcing the same form on both sides
of the equation, as
170 6 Complex Algebra

1 1 1
= +
x + jy 2+j −2 + 4j
−2A + 4j + 2A + j 5j 5j 1 1
= = = = =
(2 + j )(−2 + 4j ) −4 + 8j − 2j − 4 −8 + 6j −8 6jA 6 8 j
+ −
5j 5jA 5 5j j
∴
1 1
= .
x+j y 6 8
+j
5 5

Therefore, by inspection of left and right equation sides,

6 8
x= and y = .
5 5
Bode Plot
7

Decibel unit is used as a relative measure G between two quantities A1 and A2 . There are two types
of quantities: a quantity proportional either to power or to voltage. The former has multiplying factor
”10”, while the latter has multiplying factor “20”, as

A2 A2
GdB = 10 log or, GdB = 20 log
def def
.
A1 A1

“dBm” unit is used as an absolute measure G of quantity A2 normalized to 10−3 (i.e., “milli” on the
engineering scale):

A2 A2
GdBm = 10 log or, GdBm = 20 log
def def
.
10−3 10−3

Decibel scale (power) notes the relationship between number of zeros in the ratio and the calculated
value.

Ratio Calculation [dB] Ratio Calculation [dB]

.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
1/1000 10 log(1/1000) = 10 × (−3) −30 1/8 10 log(1/8) = 10 × (−0.9) −9
1/100 10 log(1/100) = 10 × (−2) −20 1/4 10 log(1/4) = 10 × (−0.6) −6
1/10 10 log(1/10) = 10 × (−1) −10 1/2 10 log(1/2) = 10 × (−0.3) −3
1 10 log(1/1) = 10 × (0) 0 1 10 log(1/1) = 10 × (0) 0
10 10 log(10) = 10 × (1) 10 2 10 log(2) = 10 × (0.3) 3
100 10 log(100) = 10 × (2) 20 4 10 log(4) = 10 × (0.6) 6
1000 10 log(1000) = 10 × (3) 30 8 10 log(8) = 10 × (0.9) 9
.. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .

Note that each ten times increase translates to addition of 10 dB for quantities proportional to power
or to 20 dB for quantities proportional to voltage. In addition, each division by factor 10 translates
to addition of −10 dB for quantities proportional to power or to −20 dB for quantities proportional
to voltage—thus, the common expression “ −20 dB per decade”. Similarly, each 2 times increase

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 171
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_7
172 7 Bode Plot

translates to addition of 3 dB for quantities proportional to power or to 6 dB for quantities proportional

to voltage. In addition, each division by factor 2 translates to addition of −3 dB for quantities
proportional to power or to −6 dB for quantities proportional to voltage.
Basic building blocks of transfer functions: In engineering, instead of using letter i as the complex
number, letter j is used instead (the “i” is already used to indicate AC current). In this book, there
is no distinction between the two. General forms of four basic, first-order building blocks H (j x) of
complex transfer functions are

H1 (j x) = a0 (7.1)

x
H2 (j x) = j (7.2)
x0

x
H3 (j x) = 1 ± j (7.3)
x0

1
H4 (j x) = x (7.4)
1±j
x0

where a0 , x0 = const. ∈  and j 2 ≡ i 2 = −1. As a rule of a thumb, the phase Bode plot covers
a four-decade interval centered around x0 . For example, if x0 = 1 = 100 , then two decades above are
101 and 102 , and two decades below are 10−1 and 10−2 , which makes the interval from 0.01 to 100.

Problems

7.1 Basic Complex Functions

Study and sketch piecewise linear approximation Bode plots of complex functions in P.7.1 to P.7.12.
Assume that quantity x is proportional to voltage.

7.1. z(x) = −2 1 x
7.2. z(x) = 7.3. z(x) = j
10 2

x x x
7.4. z(x) = j 7.5. z(x) = 1 + j 7.6. z(x) = 1 + j
10 2 10

x x 1
7.7. z(x) = 1 − j 7.8. z(x) = 1 − j
2 10 7.9. z(x) = x
1+j
2

1 1 1
7.10. z(x) = x 7.11. z(x) = x 7.12. z(x) = x
1+j 1−j 1−j
10 2 10
7.2 Bode Plot Examples 173

7.2 Bode Plot Examples

Sketch Bode plot of functions in P.7.13 to P.7.16. Assume that quantity x is proportional to voltage.
 x  1 + jx
7.13. z(x) = (1 − j x) 1 + j 7.14. z(x) = 500
100 100 − j x

10 + j x 2 + jx
7.15. z(x) = 100 7.16. z(x) = 20 000
100 + j x 220 j x + 4 000 − x 2
174 7 Bode Plot

Answers

7.1 Basic Complex Functions

7.1. Given z(x) = −2, Bode plot of this function may be derived as follows:

(a) Module (gain) limits: The general form is (7.1), and a real constant is not a function of any
variable; thus,

|z(x)| = |−2| = 2
∴
lim |z(x)| = lim 2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = 6 dB
x→0 x→0

lim |z(x)| = lim 2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = 6 dB

x→2 x→2

lim |z(x)| = lim 2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = 6 dB

x→+∞ x→+∞

which is to say that module graph is a constant 6 dB line (see Fig. 7.1 (left, top)).
(b) Phase limits: The imaginary part (z) equal to zero, and the real part (z) is a negative number;
therefore, by definition (see Chap. 6),
 
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (0, −2) = 180◦ = ±π = const.
(z)

Therefore, its phase graph θ(z) is a constant line equal to π (see Fig. 7.1 (left, bottom)).
(c) Bode plot interpretation: A real constant (a.k.a. “gain”) is not a function of variable x. Negative
gain, however, indicates the phase inversion, thus θ(z) = π , as in the well-known inverting
amplifier.

7.2. Given z(x) = 1/10, Bode plot of this function may be derived as follows:

20
0
|z(x)| [dB]
|z(x)| [dB]

6
0
−20
−20
90
180
q (x) [◦ ]
q (x) [◦ ]

90 0

0 −90
0.2 2 20 1 10 100
x x

Fig. 7.1 Example P.7.1

7.1 Basic Complex Functions 175

(a) Module (gain) limits: The general form is (7.1), and a real constant is not a function of any
variable; thus,
 
1 1
|z(x)| =   = = 10−1
10 10
∴
1 1
lim |z(x)| = lim = ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 10−1 = −20 log 10 = −20 dB
x→0 x→0 10 10
1 1
lim |z(x)| = lim = ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 10−1 = −20 log 10 = −20 dB
x→2 x→2 10 10
1 1
lim |z(x)| = lim = ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 10−1 = −20 log 10 = −20 dB
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 10

which is to say that module graph is a constant −20 dB line (see Fig. 7.1 (right, top)).
(b) Phase limits: Imaginary part (z) equals zero, and real part (z) is a positive number; therefore,
by definition (see Chap. 6),
 
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (0, 1/10) = 0◦ = const..
(z)

Therefore, its phase graph θ(z) is a constant line equal to 0◦ (see Fig. 7.1 (right, bottom)).
(c) Bode plot interpretation: A real constant (a.k.a. “gain”) is not a function of variable x; fractional
gain, however, is equivalent to negative gain if measured in dB units. Positive gain means that
there is no phase inversion, thus θ(z) = 0◦ , as in the well-known non-inverting amplifier.

7.3. Given z(x) = j x/2, Bode plot of this function may be derived as follows:

(a) 0 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.2), x0 = 2.

(b) Module limits: Real part (z) equals zero; thus,
 x x
 
|z(x)| = j  =
2 2
∴
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→0 x→0 2
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→2 x→2 2
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2

(c) Module (gain) plot: In log-log scale, this function (in decibels) is linear. Thus, in order to
determine linear function, it is sufficient to calculate coordinates of two points. Convenient choice
is to calculate z(x) at x = 0.2 (ten times smaller) and x = 20 (ten times greater) than x0 = 2 as
   
0.2 1
z(x = 0.2) = 20 log = 20 log = −20 dB
2 10
176 7 Bode Plot

20 20
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]
+20 dB/dec +20 dB/dec
0 0

−20 −20
90 90
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]
0 0

−90 −90
0.2 2 20 1 10 100
x x

Fig. 7.2 Example P.7.3

 
20
z(x = 20) = 20 log = 20 log (10) = +20 dB
2

which is to say that gain increases 20 dB for each tenfold increase of x (Fig. 7.2 (left, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real part (z) equals zero, and the imaginary part (z) is positive number; thus, in
the first quadrant by definition (see Chap. 6)
   
(z) x/2 π
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (x/2, 0) = arctan = = const..
(z) 0 2

Therefore, its phase graph θ(z) is a constant line equal to π/2 (see Fig. 7.2 (left, bottom)).
(e) Bode plot interpretation: Gain of this function, as measured in dB, is directly proportional to the
variable x. For any tenfold increase of x, there is “20 dB/decade” gain. Phase, however, is constant
and fixed to π/2 (i.e., the phase of +j ).

7.4. Given z(x) = j x/10, Bode plot of this function may be derived as follows:

(a) 0 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.2), x0 = 10.

(b) Module (gain) limits: Real part (z) equals zero; thus,
 x
  x
|z(x)| = j  =
10 10
∴
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞
x→0 x→0 10

x
lim |z(x)| = lim = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→10 10x→10
x
lim |z(x)| = lim = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10
7.1 Basic Complex Functions 177

(c) Module (gain) plot: In log-log scale, this function (in decibels) is linear. Thus, in order to
determine linear function, it is sufficient to calculate coordinates of two points. Convenient choice
is to calculate z(x) at x = 1 (ten times smaller) and x = 100 (ten times greater) than x0 = 10 as,
 
1
z(x = 1) = 20 log = −20 dB
10
 
100
z(x = 100) = 20 log = 20 log (10) = +20 dB
10

which is to say that module increases 20 dB for each tenfold increase of x (Fig. 7.2 (right, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real part (z) equals zero, and imaginary part (z) is a positive number; by
definition (see Chap. 6),
   
(z) x/10 π
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 ( /10, 0) = arctan
x = = const.
(z) 0 2

Therefore, its phase graph θ(z) is a constant line equal to π/2 (see Fig. 7.2 (right, bottom)).

7.5. Given z(x) = 1 + j x/2 where both real and imaginary parts are positive, module and phase of
a complex function (see Chap. 6) that make Bode plot may be derived as follows:

(a) 3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.3), x0 = 2.

(b) Module limits: Both real and imaginary parts are present; thus,

 x   x 2

|z(x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + (7.5)
2 2
∴
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0
x→0 x→0 2
 x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3 dB
x→2 x→2 2
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2

(c) Module (gain) plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.5) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:
(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.
(b) x = 0.2 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0 or less

 2  2
0.2 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + = 20 log 1 +
2 10
 2
1 1
= 1 ⇒ 1+ ≈1
10 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB.
178 7 Bode Plot

(c) x x0 : That is to say, at ten times of x0 or more, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

 2  2  
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log |x| − 20 log x0
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 + j x/2 is

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = +3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x (slope)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 2 point (Fig. 7.3 (left, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Both real and imaginary parts are present; thus, in the first quadrant,
  x 
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (x/2, 1) = arctan (7.6)
(z) 2
∴
x 
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
x  
1 π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = = 45◦
= arctan
x→2 x→2 2 1 4
x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.6) is done by piecewise linear approximation
as follows:
(a) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 0.2 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0

θ(x = 0.2) = atan2 (0.2, 2) = arctan(0.1) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0◦ .

(c) x = 20 : i.e., at 10 times of x0

π
θ(x = 20) = atan2 (20, 2) = arctan(10) = 84.3◦ ≈ −90◦ = .
2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = arctan(x/2) is

0 < x ≤ 0.2 : θ(x) ≈ 0

7.1 Basic Complex Functions 179

20 20
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]
+3dB +20 dB/dec +3dB +20 dB/dec
0 0

90 90
45◦ 84.3◦ 45◦ 84.3◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]
5.7◦ 5.7◦
0 0

0.02 0.2 2 20 200 0.1 1 10 100 1000

x x

Fig. 7.3 Example P.7.5

x = 0.2 : θ(x) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0

π
x = 2 : θ(x) = 45◦ = (this is the exact value)
4
x = 20 : θ(x) = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x > 20 : θ(x) ≈ 90◦

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points (Fig. 7.3 (left,
bottom)). Note that θ = 45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.6. Given z(x) = 1 + j x/10, module and phase of a complex function (see Chap. 6) that make Bode
plot may be derived as follows:

(a) 3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.3), x0 = 10.

(b) Module limits: Both real and imaginary parts are present; thus,

 x   x 2

|z(x)| = 1 + j  = 20 log 1 + (7.7)
10 10
∴
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0 10

 x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3 dB
x→10 x→10 10
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10
180 7 Bode Plot

(c) Module plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.7) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.
(b) x = 1 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0 or less

 2  2
1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + = 1 ⇒ 1+ ≈1
10 10 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB.

(c) x x0 : At ten times of x0 or more, that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

 2  2  
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log |x| − 20 log x0
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 + j x/10 is

0 ≥ x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = +3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x (slope)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 10 point (Fig. 7.3 (right, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Both real and imaginary parts are positive; thus,
  x
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (x/10, 1) = arctan (7.8)
(z) 10
∴
x
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
x  
1 π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan = = 45◦
x→10 x→10 10 1 4
x π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 10

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.8) is done by piecewise linear approximation
as follows:
(a) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 1 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0
7.1 Basic Complex Functions 181

 
1
θ(x = 1) = arctan = 5.7◦ ≈ 0◦ .
10

(c) x = 100 : i.e., at 10 times of x0

 
100 π
θ(x = 100) = arctan = arctan(10) = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ = .
10 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = arctan(x/10) is

0 < x ≤ 1 : θ(x) ≈ 0
x = 1 : θ(x) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0
π
x = 10 : θ(x) = 45◦ = (this is the exact value)
4
x = 100 : θ(x) = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦
x > 100 : θ(x) ≈ 90◦

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions,
the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points
(Fig. 7.3 (right, bottom)). Note that θ = 45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.7. Given z(x) = 1 − j x/2, module and phase of a complex function (see Chap. 6) that make Bode
plot may be derived as follows:

(a) 3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.3), x0 = 2.

(b) Module limits: Real part is positive and imaginary part is negative; thus,

 x   x 2

|z(x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + (7.9)
2 2
∴
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0dB
x→0 x→0 2
 x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3 dB
x→2 x→2 2
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2

(c) Module (gain) plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.9) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:
(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.
(b) x = 0.2 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0

 2  2
0.2 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + = 20 log 1 +
2 10
182 7 Bode Plot

 2
1 1
= 1 ⇒ 1+ ≈1
10 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0 dB.

(c) x 2 : At ten times of x0 or more, that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

 2  2  
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log |x| − 20 log x0
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 :
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 − j x/2 is

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = +3dB (this is the exact value)
x> 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x (slope)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 2 point (Fig. 7.4 (left, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real part is positive and imaginary part is negative; thus, in third quadrant
  x 
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (−x/2, 1) = − arctan (7.10)
(z) 2
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
  x   
1 π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan = − = −45◦
x→2 x→2 2 1 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.10) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 0.2 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0
  
0.2
θ(x = 0.2) = − arctan = − arctan(0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0.
2

(c) x = 20 : i.e., at 10 times of x0

7.1 Basic Complex Functions 183

 
20 π
θ(x = 20) = − arctan = − arctan(10) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦ = − .
2 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = − arctan(x/2) is

0 < x ≤ 0.2 : θ(x) ≈ 0◦

x = 0.2 : θ(x) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
π
x = 2 : θ(x) = −45◦ = − (this is the exact value)
4
x = 20 : θ(x) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦
x > 20 : θ(x) ≈ −90◦

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points (Fig. 7.4 (left,
bottom)). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.8. Given z(x) = 1 − j x/10, module and phase of a complex function (see Chap. 6) that make Bode
plot may be derived as follows:

(a) 3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.3), x0 = 10.

(b) Module limits: Both real and imaginary parts are present; thus,

 x   x 2

|z(x)| = 1 − j  = 20 log 1 + (7.11)
10 10
∴
 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0
x→0 x→0 10

 x 2 √ √
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 2 = +3
x→10 x→10 10

20 20
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]

+3dB +20 dB/dec +3dB +20 dB/dec

0 0

0 0
−5.7◦ −45◦ −5.7◦ −45◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]

−84.3◦ −84.3◦
−90 −90

0.02 0.2 2 20 200 0.1 1 10 100 1000

x x

Fig. 7.4 Example P.7.7

184 7 Bode Plot

 x 2
lim |z(x)| = lim 1+ = +∞ ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log(+∞) = +∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10

(c) Module plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.11) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0.
(b) x = 1 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0

 2  2
1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + = 1 ⇒ 1+ ≈1
10 10 10
≈ 20 log 1 = 0.

(c) x 10 : At ten times of x0 or more, that is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

 2  2  
x x x
|z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 + ≈ 20 log ≈ 20 log  
x0 x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log |x| − 20 log x0
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of z(x) = 1 − j x/10 is

0 < x ≤ 1 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
1 ≥ x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = +3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ x

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 2 point (Fig. 7.4 (right, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real part is positive and imaginary part is negative; thus, in the fourth quadrant,
  x
(z)
θ(z) = arctan = atan2 (−x/10, 1) = − arctan (7.12)
(z) 10
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan (1) = − = −45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 10
7.1 Basic Complex Functions 185

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.12) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x → 0 : θ(x) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 1 : i.e., at 1/10 of x0
 
1
θ(x = 1) = arctan − = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦ .
10

(c) x = 100 : i.e., at 10 times of x0

 
100 π
θ(x = 100) = − arctan = − arctan(10) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦ = − .
10 2

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of θ(x) = − arctan(x/10) is

0 < x ≤ 1 : θ(x) ≈ 0◦
x = 1 : θ(x) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦
π
x = 10 : θ(x) = −45◦ = − (this is the exact value)
4
x = 100 : θ(x) = −84.3◦ ≈ −90◦
x > 100 : θ(x) ≈ −90◦

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions,
the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points
(Fig. 7.4 (right, bottom)). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.9. Given z(x) = 1/(1 + j x/2), module and phase of a complex function that make Bode plot may
be derived as follows:

(a) −3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.4), x0 = 2.

(b) Module limits: This function is inverse complex; thus,
 
 
 1 
  1
|z(x)| =  =  x 2 (7.13)
1 + j x 
  1+
2 2
∴
1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0
x→0 x→0
1+
2
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = √2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log √2 = −3
x→2 x→2
1+
2
186 7 Bode Plot

1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
2

(c) Module plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.13) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:

(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0.
(b) x  x0 : That is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  x 2 ≈ 20 log √1 + 0 = = x −1 , log a b = b log a
x
1+
2
≈ −20 log 1 = 0.

(c) x x0 : That is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1 1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  
x x x
1+
x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x0 −20 log |x|.
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function −x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/2)| is

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = −3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 2 point (Fig. 7.5 (left, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real and imaginary parts of an inverse complex function may be explicitly separated
as

1 1 − j x/2 1 x/2
z(x) = = − j ∴
1 + j x/2 1 − j x/2 1 + (x/2)2 1 + (x/2)2
1 −x/2
(z) = and (z) = .
1 + (x/2) 2
1 + (x/2)2

Therefore, phase θ(z) limits are

7.1 Basic Complex Functions 187

   x 
(z) −x/2
θ(z) = arctan = arctan = − arctan (7.14)
(z) 1 2
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan 1 = − = −45◦
x→2 x→2 2 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.14) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x  x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan (0) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = − arctan (0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0.
(c) x = x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 1 = −45◦ .
(d) x = 10x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 10 = −84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ .
(e) x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan ∞ = −90◦
which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points (Fig. 7.5 (left,
bottom)). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.10. Given z(x) = 1/(1 + j x/10), module and phase of a complex function that make Bode plot
may be derived as follows:

(a) −3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.4), x0 = 10.

(b) Module limits: This function is inverse complex; thus,
 
 
 
 1  1
|z(x)| =  x =  x 2 (7.15)
1 + j 
  1+
10 10
∴

0 0
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]

−3dB −20 dB/dec −3dB −20 dB/dec

−20 −20

0 0
−5.7◦ −45◦ −5.7◦ −45◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]

−84.3◦ −84.3◦
−90 −90

0.02 0.2 2 20 200 0.1 1 10 100 1000

x x

Fig. 7.5 Example P.7.9

188 7 Bode Plot

1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
10
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = √2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log √2 = −3 dB
x→10 x→10
1+
10
1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
10

(c) Module (gain) plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.15) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:

(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.

(b) x  x0 : That is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  x 2 ≈ 20 log √1 + 0 = = x −1 , log a b = b log a
x
1+
10
≈ −20 log 1 = 0 dB.

(c) x x0 : That is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1 1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  
x x x
1+
x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x0 −20 log |x|.
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function −x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/10)| is

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = −3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 10 point (Fig. 7.5 (right, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real and imaginary parts of an inverse complex function may be explicitly separated
as
7.1 Basic Complex Functions 189

1 1 − j x/10 1 x/10
z(x) = = − j ∴
1 + j x/10 1 − j x/10 1 + (x/10)2 1 + (x/10)2
1 −x/10
(z) = and (z) = .
1 + (x/10)2 1 + (x/10)2

Therefore, as the real part of this inverse complex function is positive and its imaginary part is
negative, phase θ(z) limits in the fourth quadrant are
    x
(z) −x/10 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2   ,   = − arctan (7.16)
(z) 1+
 (
x/10)2
1+
 (
x/10)2 10
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan 1 = − = −45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim − arctan = − arctan(∞) = − = −90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.16) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x  x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan (0) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = − arctan (0.1) = −5.7◦ ≈ 0◦ .
(c) x = x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 1 = −45◦ .
(d) x = 10x0 : θ(z) = − arctan 10 = −84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ .
(e) x x0 : θ(z) ≈ − arctan ∞ = −90◦
which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions,
the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points
(Fig. 7.5 (right, bottom)). Note that θ = −45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.11. Given z(x) = 1/(1 − j x/2), module and phase of a complex function that make Bode plot may
be derived as follows:

(a) −3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.4), x0 = 2.

(b) Module limits: This function is inverse complex; thus,
 
 
 1 
  1
|z(x)| =  =  x 2 (7.17)
1 − j x 
  1+
2 2
∴
1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
2
190 7 Bode Plot

√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim   =√ = ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log √ = −3 dB
x→2 x→2 x 2 2 2 2
1+
2
1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
2

(c) Module plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.17) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:

(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.

(b) x  x0 : That is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  x 2 ≈ 20 log √1 + 0 = = x −1 , log a b = b log a
x
1+
2
≈ −20 log 1 = 0 dB.

(c) x x0 : That is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1 1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  
x x x
1+
x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x0 −20 log |x|.
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function −x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .
Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/2)| is

0 < x ≤ 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 2 : |z(x)|dB = −3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 2 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 2 point (Fig. 7.6 (left, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real and imaginary parts of an inverse complex function may be explicitly separated
as

1 1 + j x/2 1 x/2
z(x) = = +j ∴
1 − j /2 1 + j /2
x x 1 + (x/2)2
1 + (x/2)2
1 x/2
(z) = and (z) = .
1+ (x/2)2 1 + (x/2)2
7.1 Basic Complex Functions 191

Therefore, as both real and imaginary parts of this inverse complex function are positive, phase
θ(z) limits in the first quadrant are
    x 
(z) x/2 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2  ,  = arctan (7.18)
(z) 1+
 (x/2) 2
1+
 (
x/2) 2
2
∴
x 
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 2
x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan 1 = = 45◦
x→2 x→2 2 4
x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 2 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.18) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x  x0 : . θ(z) ≈ arctan (0) = 0◦
(b) x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = arctan (0.1) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0◦ .
(c) x = x0 : θ(z) = arctan 1 = 45◦ .
(d) x = 10x0 : θ(z) = arctan 10 = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ .
(e) x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan ∞ = 90◦
which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points (Fig. 7.6 (left,
bottom)). Note that θ = 45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.12. Given z(x) = 1/(1 − j x/10), module and phase of a complex function that make Bode plot
may be derived as follows:

(a) −3 dB point: By comparison with the general form (7.4), x0 = 10.

(b) Module limits: This function is inverse complex; thus,
 
 
 
 1  1
|z(x)| =  =  x 2 (7.19)
1 − j x 
  1+
10 10
∴

0 0
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]

−3dB −20 dB/dec −3dB −20 dB/dec

−20 −20

90 90
84.3◦ 84.3◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]

45◦ 45◦
5.7◦ 5.7◦
0 0

0.02 0.2 2 20 200 0.1 1 10 100 1000

x x

Fig. 7.6 Example P.7.11

192 7 Bode Plot

1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 1 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 1 = 0 dB
x→0 x→0
1+
10
√
1 1 2 1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = √2 = 2 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log √2 = −3
x→10 x→10
1+
10
1
lim |z(x)| = lim  x 2 = 0 ⇒ |z(x)|dB = 20 log 0 = −∞.
x→+∞ x→+∞
1+
10

(c) Module plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.19) is done by piecewise linear
approximation as follows:

(a) x → 0 : |z(x)|dB = 0 dB.

(b) x  x0 : That is to say, x/x0 → 0 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ 1

1 1 1
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  x 2 ≈ 20 log √1 + 0 = = x −1 , log a b = b log a
x
1+
10
≈ −20 log 1 = 0 dB.

(c) x x0 : That is to say, x/x0 1 ⇒ 1 + (x/x0 )2 ≈ (x/x0 )2

x 
1 1  0
|z(x)|dB = 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  2 ≈ 20 log  
x x x
1+
x0 x0
a 
= log = log a − log b = 20 log x0 −20 log |x|.
b   
const.

In conclusion, for x x0 , module |z(x)|dB function asymptotically follows function −x (on

log scale) that crosses horizontal axis at x = x0 .

Therefore, piecewise linear approximation of |z(x)| = |1/(1 + j x/10)| is

0 < x ≤ 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ 0 dB
x = 10 : |z(x)|dB = −3dB (this is the exact value)
x > 10 : |z(x)|dB ≈ −x (on log scale)

which is to say as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions, the
largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 3 dB at x = 10 point (Fig. 7.6 (right, top)).
(d) Phase limits: Real and imaginary parts of an inverse complex function may be explicitly separated
as
7.2 Bode Plot Examples 193

1 1 + j x/10 1 x/10
z(x) = = + j ∴
1 − j x/10 1 + j x/10 1 + (x/10)2 1 + (x/10)2
1 x/10
(z) = and (z) = .
1 + (x/10)2 1 + (x/10)2

Therefore, as both real and imaginary parts of this inverse complex function are positive, phase
θ(z) limits in the first quadrant are
    x 
(z) x/10 1
θ(z) = arctan = atan2  ,   = arctan (7.20)
(z) 1+
 (x/10)2
1+
 (
x/10)2 10
∴
  x 
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(0) = 0◦
x→0 x→0 10
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan 1 = = 45◦
x→10 x→10 10 4
  x  π
lim θ(x) = lim arctan = arctan(∞) = = 90◦ .
x→+∞ x→+∞ 10 2

(e) Phase plot—Hand analysis of nonlinear function (7.20) is done by piecewise linear approxima-
tion as follows:
(a) x  x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan (0) = 0◦ .
(b) x = 0.1x0 : θ(z) = arctan (0.1) = 5.7◦ ≈ 0.
(c) x = x0 : θ(z) = arctan 1 = 45◦ .
(d) x = 10x0 : θ(z) = arctan 10 = 84.3◦ ≈ 90◦ .
(e) x x0 : θ(z) ≈ arctan ∞ = 90◦
which is to say, as the function limits are the same for both exact and approximated functions,
the largest error of piecewise linear approximation is 5.7◦ at x = x0 /10 and 10 x0 points
(Fig. 7.6 (right, bottom)). Note that θ = 45◦ is found at x = x0 .

7.2 Bode Plot Examples

7.13. This function is already factorized:

 x 
z(x) = (1 − j x) 1 + j . (7.21)
100

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (7.21) is then

 x x   x  x 
20 log z(x) = 20 log 1−j 1+j = +20 log 1 + j +20 log 1 + j
1 100   1   100 
2 x0 =1 3 x0 =100
(7.22)

so that its first zero is at x0 = 1 and its second zero at x0 = 100. Note that separation between the
two zeros is two decades.
194 7 Bode Plot

120 120
40 dB/dec
|z(x)| [dB] 80

|z(x)| [dB]
80
2
40
3
40 +20 dB/dec
0 0

90 0
−5.7◦ −5.7◦

q (x) [◦ ]
q (x) [◦ ]

3
0
−45◦ −45◦
2
−90 −90
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 0.01 0. 1 1 10 100 1k 10k
x x

Fig. 7.7 Example P.7.13

(b) Evidently, both summation terms in (7.22) are in the basic form (7.3) (see P.7.1 to P.7.12). A
simple addition of linear segments in Fig. 7.7 (left, top) results in complete piecewise linear
approximation in Fig. 7.7 (right, top). Note how, at x = 100, two +20 dB/decade terms are
amounted to +40 dB/decade thereafter.
(c) Similarly, phase functions of each individual segment in (7.22) are

x x
θ(z) = − arctan + arctan
   1  100
2 x0 =1 3 x0 =100

as shown in Fig. 7.7 (left, bottom). A simple segment-by-segment sum produces complete
piecewise linear approximation in Fig. 7.7 (right, bottom). Due to the two-decade separation,
negative phase shift of the first term can almost complete to −90◦ , and then the positive phase
shift of the second term starts and finishes two decades after at 0◦ .

7.14. This function may be factorized to explicitly show its poles and zeros as follows:
 x x
1 + jx 1 + j 1+j
z(x) = 500 =5
500  1  =5 1 (7.23)
100 − j x  x x .

100 1 − j 1 − j
100 100

Evidently, gain factor equals a0 = 5, zero is at x0 = 1, and pole is at x0 = 100. Note the two-decade
separation between zero and pole.

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (7.23) is then

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 1 ⎥
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣5 x ⎦
1−j
100
 x  x 
= +20 log 5 +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 − j . (7.24)
     1   100 
1 a0 =5 2 x0 =1 3 x0 =100
7.2 Bode Plot Examples 195

60 60
40 40 −3dB
|z(x)| [dB]

|z(x)| [dB]
20
1
20 +3dB +20 dB/dec
0 3 0
2

180 180
174.3◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]
90 90
2 3 90◦
1 5.7◦
0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k
x x

Fig. 7.8 Example P.7.14

(b) Evidently, each summation term in (7.24) is one of the basic forms in (7.1) to (7.4), and their
individual piecewise linear approximations are calculated in P.7.1 to P.7.12. A simple addition
of linear segments in Fig. 7.8 (left, top) results in complete piecewise linear approximation in
Fig. 7.8 (right, top).
(c) Similarly, the sum of phase functions of each individual segment in (7.24) is

x x
θ(z) = arctan 0 + arctan − arctan
       1  100
1 a0 =5 2 x0 =1 3 x0 =100

shown in Fig. 7.8 (left, bottom). A simple segment-by-segment sum produces complete piecewise
linear approximation in Fig. 7.8 (right, bottom). Note how each of two terms added phase shift of
+90◦ : the numerator has positive imaginary term (thus +90◦ ), while negative inverse term also
adds +90◦ totalling the phase shift to +180◦ over four decades.

7.15. This function may be factorized to explicitly show its poles and zeros as follows:
 x  x
10 + j x 10 1 + j 1+j
z(x) = 100 =
100  10  = 10 10 (7.25)
100 + j x  1+j x
100 1+j
x
100 100

where gain is a0 = 10, zero is at x0 = 10, and pole at x0 = 100. Note the less than two-decade (i.e.,
only one decade) separation between pole and zero positions.

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (7.25) is then

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 10 ⎥
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣10 x ⎦
1+j
100
 x  x 
= +20 log 10 +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j . (7.26)
     10    100 
1 a0 =10 2 x0 =10 3 x0 =100
196 7 Bode Plot

40 2
40
|z(x)| [dB] +3dB +37dB

|z(x)| [dB]
1
20 20
0 0
+20 dB/dec
3

90 2 45
1
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]
0
3
5.7◦ 5.7◦
−90 0
0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k
x x

Fig. 7.9 Example P.7.15

(b) Evidently, summation terms in (7.26) are in basic forms in (7.1) and (7.3) (see P.7.1 to P.7.12).
A simple addition of linear segments in Fig. 7.9 (left, top) results in complete piecewise linear
approximation in Fig. 7.9 (right, top). Note that for arguments inferior to zero at x0 = 10, the
total gain is a0 , until pole at x0 = 100 cancels the +20 dB/decade gain to settle the total gain at
+40 dB.
(c) Similarly, the sum of phase functions of each individual segment in (7.26) is

x x
θ(z) = arctan 0 + arctan − arctan
     10   100
1 a0 =10 2 x0 =10 3 x0 =100

shown in Fig. 7.9 (left, bottom). A simple segment-by-segment sum produces complete piecewise
linear approximation in Fig. 7.9 (right, bottom). Note that due to less than two-decade (i.e., only
one decade) separation, positive phase shift of zero at x0 = 10 is taken over by negative phase
shift of pole at x0 = 100. Consequently, there is a significant difference between the piecewise
linear approximation (solid line) and the exact function (thin line).

7.16. This second-order function may be transformed into “standard form” that explicitly shows its
poles and zeros as follows:

2 + jx   2 + jx
H (j ω) = 2 000 = (j x)2 = −x 2 = 2 000 2 2
220j x + 4 000 − x 2 j x + 220j x + 4 000
2 + jx 2 + jx
= 2 000 = 2 000
j 2 x 2 + 20j x + 200j x + 4 000 j x (20 + j x) + 200 (20 + j x)
 x
2 + jx

2 1 + j
  2
= 2 000
(20 + j x)(200 + j x)
=2 000 x   x 
 1+j

20 200 1 + j

20 200
x
1+j
= 2
x x  (7.27)
1+j 1+j
20 200
7.2 Bode Plot Examples 197

20 20 +17dB
1

|z(x)| [dB]
|z(x)| [dB]
+3dB
0 0 +20 dB/dec
3
2 −20 −20 dB/dec
−20

90
90
1
45◦ 45◦
5.7◦
q (x) [◦ ]

q (x) [◦ ]
0 0
3 −45◦
2 −84.3◦
−90 −90
0.02 0.2 2 20 200 2k 20k 0.02 0.2 2 20 200 2k 20k
x x

Fig. 7.10 Example P.7.16

where a single zero is at x0 = 2, first pole at x0 = 20, and the second pole at x0 = 200. Note only
one-decade separation between zero-pole-pole locations.

(a) Logarithmic form of factorized (7.27) is then

⎡ x ⎤
1+j
⎢ 2 ⎥
20 log z(x) = 20 log ⎣  x x ⎦
1+j 1+j
20 200
 x   x  x 
= +20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j −20 log 1 + j . (7.28)
  2   20    200 
1 x0 =2 2 x0 =20 3 x0 =200

(b) Evidently, summation terms in (7.28) are in the basic forms (7.3) (see P.7.1 to P.7.12). A
simple addition of linear segments in Fig. 7.10 (left, top) results in complete piecewise linear
approximation in Fig. 7.10 (right, top).
(c) Similarly, the sum of phase functions of each individual segment in (7.28) is

x x x
θ(z) = + arctan − arctan − arctan
  2   20   200
1 x0 =2 2 x0 =20 3 x0 =200

shown in Fig. 7.10 (left, bottom). A simple segment-by-segment sum produces complete piece-
wise linear approximation in Fig. 7.10 (right, bottom).
Linear Algebra
8

Problems

Exercises in this chapter are grouped into nine sections. Vector definitions and operations are followed
by examples of linear transformations, determinants, and Cramer’s rule. Then, modern interpretation
of vectors and space is given in the form of matrix transformations, eigenvalues, and eigenvectors.
Finally, linear algebra exercises are summarized by using one of the many methods to calculate the
inverse matrix and powers of diagonalizable matrices.

8.1 Vector Definitions

Problems in P.8.1 to P.8.5 are a short review of vector definitions.

8.1. By a simple sketch, illustrate the geometrical interpretation of 3D, 2D, 1D, and 0D spaces,
where “xD” refers to the number of dimensions.

8.2. What are the “preferred” forms of vector representations in physics, mathematics, and informat-
ics?

8.3. Given three basis vectors (i.e., orthogonal) i, j, k,

 sketch these three vectors in a single graph.
Comment on the space defined by these three basis vectors.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ix 1 jx 0 kx 0
i = ⎣ iy ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ j = ⎣ jy ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ k = ⎣ ky ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
iz 0 jz 0 kz 1

8.4. Given four points in 2D space: A = (−2, 2), B = (1, 4), C = (5, 6), and D = (3, 1),
−→ −→
(a) Sketch a graph showing AB and CD vectors.
−→ −→
(b) Write the matrix form of AB and CD vectors.

8.5. Sketch a graph that shows the following vectors:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 199
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4_8
200 Linear Algebra

     
3  −4 −3
a = b= c =
3 3 −4

8.2 Vector Operations

Some of the basic vector calculations are in P.8.6 to P.8.8.

 that is to say, |p|

8.6. Calculate the magnitude of p,  if

(a) p = (0, 1) (b) p = (3, 4) (c) p = (−3, 1) (d) p = (2, 3, 6)

8.7. Given vector

   
x 3
x = x =
xy 2

 c, if
sketch the diagram of a , b,

2 3
(a) a = 2 x (b) b = x (c) c = − x
3 4

8.8. Sketch a graph to illustrate the additions in 1D and 2D spaces. As an example, show the
following vector additions:
   
 1 3
(a) 2 + 3 = 5 and 2 − 3 = −1 (b) c = a + b if a = and b =
2 −1

Given data in P.8.9 to P.8.13, while using the matrix form of vectors, calculate the final vector
coordinates.
−→ −→
8.9. Given coordinates of points A and B in 2D space, calculate the coordinates of AB and BA, then
−→ −→
calculate |AB| and |BA|, and note that O = (0, 0).

(a) A(4, 1), B(1, −3) (c) A(−1, −3), B(4, 2)

(b) A(2, 3), B(−1, 4) (d) A(1, −2), B(3, 2)
−→ −→
8.10. Given coordinates of points A and B in 3D space, calculate the coordinates of AB and BA,
−→ −→
then calculate |AB| and |BA|, and note that O = (0, 0, 0).

(a) A(4, 1, 6), B(2, 4, −2) −→ −→

(b) OA = (2, 3, 4), OB = (3, 0, −1)

8.11. Given a = (2, −3), b = (3, −1), calculate c = a + b,

 d = a − b.


8.12. Given A(2, 3, 1), B(3, −1, 0), C = (−1, −2, 1), D = (−3, 3, −2), calculate:
8.3 Linear Transformations 201

−→ −→ −→ −→
 = AB + CD
(a) m (b) n = AB − CD

8.13. Given a = (−1, 2), b = (3, 2), c = (−2, −3), calculate:


(a) p = a + b,  = 2
(b) m 
a − b, a − b − c,
(c) n = 3 (d) r = 2b − 1/2 c
√
8.14. Vectors a and b create angle θ = π/6. Given that |
a| =  = 1, calculate angle α
3 and |b|
between vectors p = a + b et q = a − b.


8.3 Linear Transformations

Two or more vectors are said to be linearly independent if none of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.

Reminder: Linear combination of two vectors is written as

    
x1 y ax1 + by1
z = a x + by = a +b 1 =
x2 y2 ax2 + by2

where (a, b) are coefficients, (x1 , x2 ) are coordinates of x, and (y1 , y2 ) are coordinates of y.

8.15. Explain briefly the similarities and differences between a function f (x) and a linear
transformation L(
v ) operations. What is the relationship between linear transformations and space?

8.16. Given, as an example, vector v = −2i + j, with a simple diagram:

(a) Show that the numerical form of v = −2i + j stays the same after an arbitrary linear
transformation L(v ).
(b) Calculate the matrix form of L(
v ) used in your example.

8.17. Show the geometrical interpretation of linear transformation L(

x ) given that
   
31 −1
L= and x =
12 2

8.18. With a simple 2D graph, illustrate each of the linear space transformations performed as:

(a) Rotation 90◦ counterclockwise

(b) Shear 45◦ clockwise
(c) First rotation 90◦ counterclockwise and then shear 45◦ clockwise

8.19. Given vectors a = (2, 1) and b = (1, 0), write m 

 = (9, 1) as a linear combination of a and b.
202 Linear Algebra

8.20. Given vectors u = (3, −1), v = (1, −2), and w

 = (−1, 7), write m
 = u + v + w
 as a linear
combination of u and v.

8.4 Determinants

Given two or more vectors in a matrix form, its determinant may be interpreted as a multiplication
factor that measures the signed (i.e., positive or negative) size of the 2D surface (or multidimensional
volume) enclosed by these vectors. Specifically, positive/negative sign of the determinant indicates
the order in which the vectors are taken. As an analogy, “positive” and “negative” 2D surfaces may be
associated with the two sides of a sheet of paper. That is to say, the two surfaces have same absolute
value, but opposite orientations.

Reminder: From the vector graph, it can be easily shown that the second-order determinant of
matrix A made of two vectors x and y is calculated as the difference between products along
its two diagonals, positive along blue and negative along red direction, as

x1 y1
det(A) = ' A = |A| = = (x1 × y2 ) − (x2 × y1 )
x2 y2

where det(A), or  A, or |A| reads as the “determinant of matrix A” (not “the absolute value of
A” or “delta A”). The determinant’s value may be positive, negative, or zero.

In general, higher-order determinants may be calculated by two principal methods: by calculating

cross-products or by the method of cofactor expansions.

Reminder: Method 1: by calculating cross-products. Following the same idea as for the
second-order determinants, n-th-order determinants may be calculated by writing the extended
determinant form, that is to say, to repeat the first (n − 1) columns on the right side of its n × n
determinant. By doing so, it is possible to complete positive (blue) and negative (red) diagonals
and then to calculate all cross-products as (e.g., as in 3 × 3 determinant)

x1 y1 z1 x1 y1
= +(x1 × y2 × z3 )+(y1 × z2 × x3 )+(z1 × x2 × y3 )
'3 = x2 y2 z2 x2 y2
x3 y3 z3 x3 y3 −(x3 × y2 × z1 )−(y3 × z2 × x1 )−(z3 × x2 × y1 )

Reminder: Method 2: by cofactor expansions along the i-th row of the n-th-order determinant
A. Given matrix A as
⎡ ⎤
a11 a12 · · · a1n
⎢ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎥ k
⎢ ⎥
A=⎢ . ⎥ ∴ |A| = (−1)i+j aij |Ai,j |
⎣ .. ⎦
i=1
an1 an2 · · · ann
(continued)
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 203

(continued)
where the (i, j ) minor that is usually denoted as Ai,j is the (n−1)×(n−1) matrix obtained from
A by deleting the i-th row and the j -th column while keeping their common term aij . Note that,
by systematically reducing higher-order determinants until there is only a linear combination of
second-order determinants, it is possible to calculate the total determinant. In addition, any row
or column may be chosen for the expansion.

Calculate the determinants given in P.8.21 to P.8.34.

30 1 2 42 2 −1
8.21. 8.22. 8.23. 8.24.
02 1 −1 21 1 0

√ √
√ 3 −3 √2
1 i sin α cos α
8.25. 8.26. 8.27.
3 2 2 −i 1 − cos α sin α

2 34 121 122
8.28. 5 −2 1 8.29. 102 8.30. 202
1 23 120 221

321 2 3 1 50 4 1 3 5
8.31. 456 8.32. 3 −1 2 8.33. 8 0 −7 8.34. 7 9 11
897 1 1 −3 32 1 13 15 17

What is the geometrical interpretation of matrices given P.8.35 to P.8.37?

     
30 1 2 42
8.35. 8.36. 8.37.
02 1 −1 21

8.5 Cramer’s Rule

Solve the second-order systems of linear equations in P.8.38 to P.8.41.

8.38. 4x1 − 3x2 = 0 8.39. x + 2y = −5 8.40. x + 2y = −8 8.41. a+b =7

2x1 + 3x2 = 18 3x − y = 13 2x − y = −1 2a + 2b = 14

Solve the third-order systems of linear equations in P.8.42 to P.8.47.

8.42. 5x − 5y − 15z = 40 8.43. 2x − 3y − z = 5 8.44. x + y + z = 3

4x − 2y − 6z = 19 x + y + 2z = 7 x−y+z=5
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 2x − y − z = 1 −x + y − z = 10
204 Linear Algebra

8.45. x + y + z = 36 8.46. x + y = 7 8.47. 5x − 13y + 13z = 8

2x − z = −17 y+z=8 x − 3y + z = 4
6x − 5z = 7 −x + 2z = 7 −x + 2y − 5z = 3

Problems of curve fitting are translated into the problem of solving system of equations, P.8.48 to
P.8.49.

8.48. By using the curve fitting method, derive a linear function f (x) = ax + b that best fits given
coordinates of two points A = (−2, 20)and B = (1, 5) in 2D space. Can you fit quadratic function
g(x) = ax 2 + bx + c for the same two data points? Any other nonlinear function?

8.49. By using the curve fitting method, derive a quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c that
best fits given coordinates of three data points A = (−2, 20), B = (1, 5), and C = (3, 25) in 2D
space. Can you fit a fourth-order polynomial function for the same three data points? Any other
nonlinear function?

 and c, show that they are linearly independent and then write c as a
In P.8.50 to P.8.51, given a , b,
linear combination of a and b. 

8.50. a = (3, −2), b = (−2, 1), c = (7, −4) 8.51. a = (1, 2), b = (3, 4), c = (0, −2)

In P.8.52 to P.8.53, calculate parameter λ so that given vectors are linearly independent:

8.52. a = (3, λ), b = (2, 6) 8.53. a = (6, 8, 4), b = (3, 4, 2), c =

(λ, 0, 1)

8.6 Vector Space

In P.8.54 to P.8.59, calculate the matrix–vector products, and show its geometric interpretation.
     √    √ 
1 1 3 1 1 1+ 3 1 1 1− 3
8.54. 8.55. 8.56.
2 −1 0 2 −1 2 2 −1 2

        
2 −1 −5 2 −3 3 11 3
8.57. 8.58. 8.59.
3 2 3 1 2 −2 22 1

In P.8.60 to P.8.65, calculate the matrix–matrix products, and show its geometric interpretation.
        
1 1 2 −1 2 −1 2 −3 2 −3 1 1
8.60. 8.61. 8.62.
2 −1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 2 −1

        
2 −1 1 1 2 −3 2 −1 1 1 2 −3
8.63. 8.64. 8.65.
3 2 2 −1 1 2 3 2 2 −1 1 2
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 205

In P.8.66 to P.8.69, calculate the products of non-square matrices.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1
 1 
8.66. 123 ⎣ 2⎦ 8.67. 2 ⎦ 1 2 3
⎣
3 3

⎤⎡ ⎡ ⎤
 
1 2 1 2  
3 01 ⎣ 3 05
8.68. 5 −1 ⎦ 8.69. ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4
0 1 0 −6

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

The geometrical interoperation of a matrix is that it describes the transformation of the space itself
and by consequence all objects within. In some cases, however, there are vectors that do not change
their direction before and after the transformation. If existing, these vectors are very useful in many
engineering applications.

Reminder: Eigenvectors may be described as vectors that do not change their direction after
some space transformation. By definition, if the following equation is satisfied:

A v = λ v

then λ ∈ C is a constant referred to as eigenvalue, and v is its associated eigenvector of matrix

A.

Furthermore, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors definition equation may be rewritten as

A v = λ v ⇒ A v − λ v = 0 ⇒ (A − λ I ) v = 0

where I is the identity matrix (i.e., a square matrix of the same size as A with ones on the main
diagonal and zeros elsewhere). In order to satisfy this equation, as v = 0, it must be that the
determinant of (A − λ I ) equals zero; thus,

det (A − λ I ) = 0

is the formal definition of the characteristic polynomial of matrix A.

In P.8.70 to P.8.71, derive v and its associated eigenvalue λ if existing.


      
3 −3 3 3 −3 2
8.70. A = , v = 8.71. A = v =
2 −4 1 2 −4 1

Given matrices in P.8.72 to P.8.76, calculate their respective eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors v, if
existing.
206 Linear Algebra

       
6 −1 −6 3 10 −5 2 −5
8.72. 8.73. 8.74. 8.75.
2 3 45 5 2 4 6
 
cos π/6 − sin π/6
8.76.
sin π/6 cos π/6

In P.8.77 to P.8.78, prove that v is an eigenvector of its associated matrix A, and then determine its
eigenvalue λ.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2 −2 −9 −1 4
8.77. A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ 1 ⎦ 8.78. A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1 −4 −3 4 7

Given matrix in P.8.79 to P.8.82, calculate eigenvalue(s) λ and eigenvector(s), if existing.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 200 4 6 10
8.79. ⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ 8.80. ⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ 8.81. ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦
042 043 −2 −6 −8

⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2
8.82. ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦
−1 1 1

Calculate eigenvalues λ and eigenvectors v for matrices in P.8.83 to P.8.88. Note that eigenvalues of
these matrices have “algebraic multiplicity” (geometric multiplicity is left for another time).
     
10 20 23
8.83. 8.84. 8.85.
21 02 02

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 102 1 −2 −1
8.86. ⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ 8.87. ⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ 8.88. ⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦
423 002 −2 −4 3

8.8 Matrix Inversion

Similar to “regular numbers” where a number multiplied by its inverse is equal to one, matrices may
have their inverse, so that their product is equal to “unitary matrix”.

Reminder: Inverse A−1 of a matrix A exists if its determinant does not equal to zero, i.e.,

A A−1 = A−1 A = I, if A = 0

where I is the unitary matrix. Note that the multiplication of matrix and inverse is commutative.
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 207

Given matrices in P.8.89 to P.8.91, calculate their respective inverse matrices.

    ⎡ ⎤
12 4 −2 123
8.89. 8.90.
34 2 3 8.91. ⎣ 4 5 4 ⎦
321

8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices

Examples in P.8.92 to P.8.97 are not to be solved by “brute force” matrix multiplication; instead, the
goal is to master one of the general procedures for calculating matrix powers.

 2  5  5
20 20 20
8.92. 8.93. 8.94.
02 05 −1 3

⎡ ⎤3 ⎡ ⎤4 ⎡ ⎤10
202 200 100
8.95. ⎣ −1 2 1 ⎦ 8.96. ⎣ 0 2 1 ⎦ 8.97. ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦
014 012 010
208 Linear Algebra

Answers

8.1 Vector Definitions

8.1. The geometrical interpretation of space is based on the definition of a point, which is visualized
as a sphere whose radius equals zero, Fig. 8.1. Thus, assuming nothing else exists, a point would
represent “0-order space” annotated as R 0 .

(a) Line: Multiple points aligned next to each other form line. Therefore, it takes infinitely points to
create a line of any finite length L. If nothing else exists, a line represents one-dimensional space,
annotated as R 1 . The position of any point relative to the one that is chosen to be the origin (thus
numbered as “0”) is associated with a unique number showing the distance from the origin, which
is in either positive (“+”) or negative (“−”) direction.
(b) Surface: It takes infinitely lines in parallel to create a finite two-dimensional surface, annotated
as R 2 . Analogy to R 2 space would be a sheet of paper whose thickness equals zero. In this case,
the position of any point making the surface relative to the origin is described by two numbers,
which are referred to as “coordinates” and written as a two-number pair (x, y), one for “negative–
positive” and one for “south–north” distance.
(c) Volume: A stack of surfaces creates a volume, annotated as R 3 space. Visual analogy would be a
book where the position of any point is described by three numbers, (x, y, z), one for “negative–
positive”, one for “south–north”, and one for “up–down” distance.

Although human visualization of space is limited to three dimensions, note that in mathematics,
however, there is no limit on the order of space. Each dimension is described by one variable
x, y, z, . . . (thus one equation). In linear algebra, a n-dimensional matrix may be seen as a compact
form of writing a system of n equations, thus describing n-dimensional space. Note that each lower-
order space can be seen as one of the possible projections (“shadows”) of the higher-order space. For
example, if looked from “straight ahead”, a line looks like a point. Looked from “a side”, a surface
looks like a line. Looked from one direction, a cube (3D) appears as a square (2D), or a sphere (3D)
casts a shadow like a circle (2D), etc.

8.2. A vector signifies a variable that has two properties: magnitude and direction. That is to say, a
simple number is not a vector because it has only magnitude (“length”) but not direction.
In physics, “vector” takes geometrical interpretation in graphical form of a “directed arrow” that
indicates both magnitude (i.e., the arrow length) and direction (i.e., from its tail to the head).
In mathematics, a vector variable is annotated in algebraic form as

Fig. 8.1 Example P.8.1 R0 space R1 space

point line
d=0

d=0 L
R2 space R3 space
surface
L L D

W W
8.1 Vector Definitions 209

1D : a = ax i

2D : a = ax i + ay j

3D : a = ax i + ay j + az k
etc.

where (ax , ay , az ) are vector magnitudes as measured along the three directions (i, j, k),
 respectively
(also referred to as the “unity vectors”).
In informatics, the preferred way of representing a vector is in one-column matrix form, as, for
example,
⎡ ⎤
3.14
a = ⎣ −5 ⎦
2

where the column list may be interpreted as a list of orthonormal (i.e., orthogonal and normalized)
coordinates in each direction relative to the origin (0, 0, 0), in this case 3D space.

8.3. As defined, the three unity vectors are used to define 3D space and are written in a form of 3 × 3
matrix as
⎡ ⎤
100
(i, j, k)
 = ⎣0 1 0⎦
001

where the first column is for i, the second column is for j, and the third column is for k unity vector,
Fig. 8.2. The rows are then coordinates in each of the three normal directions, here (x, y, z). This
resulting matrix where all elements along the main diagonal equal one and all other matrix elements
equal zero is known as “unity matrix” with properties similar to the number one.

8.4. By convention, vectors are oriented in direction from the first to the second coordinate.

(a) Given four points in 2D space, A = (−2, 2), B = (1, 4), C = (5, 6), and D = (3, 1), vectors
−→ −→
AB and CD are as shown in Fig. 8.3 (left).
(b) By writing the matrix form, it is assumed that all vectors originate at (0, 0) point, i.e., that stating
only the end coordinates is sufficient. Geometrically, that means vectors are translated so that

Fig. 8.2 Example P.8.3

Basis vectors z
⎡ ⎤ 2
1
i = ⎣0⎦
0
⎡ ⎤ 1
0
j = ⎣1⎦
k
0 0 j y
⎡ ⎤
0 1 1 2
k = ⎣0⎦
1
2 i
x
210 Linear Algebra

y C(5, 6) y Q (xQ , yQ ) y C(5, 6)

 
6 6

B(1, 4) Q 3 B(1, 4)
2 + 4
2
4

A(−2, 2) R A(−2, 2)) 2 -5

2 (xR , yR ) 3
1 D(3, 1) R 1 D(3, 1) -2

0
x
0
x 0
x
-2 0 1 3 5 the origin 0 3 -2 0 1 3 5

Fig. 8.3 Example P.8.4

Fig. 8.4 Example P.8.5    

−4 y 3
3 3
b a
3 3
x
-4 3

  c
−3 -4
−4 -3

 see Fig. 8.3 (center).

their origin is at (0, 0) point, for example, as the final position of RQ;
 
−→ 3
RQ =
2

−→ −→
Similarly, after being translated to the origin (see Fig. 8.3 (right)), vectors AB and CD are
written as
   
−→ 3 −→ −2
AB = and CD =
2 −5

−→ −→
where “ 3” is the horizontal projection of AB, “ 2” is the vertical projection of AB, and they
are both positive as oriented relative to the vector origin at (−2, 2). And, “ −2” is the horizontal
−→ −→
projection of CD, “ −5” is the vertical projection of AB, and they are both negative as oriented
relative to the vector origin at (5, 6). By definition, translated vectors are still identical: they have
the same magnitude and direction.

8.5. Given
     
3  −4 −3
a = , b= , c =
3 3 −4

By convention, the vector matrix form lists coordinates (x, y) in the vertical order and relative to
the origin (0, 0); therefore, the three vectors are as in Fig. 8.4.
8.2 Vector Operations 211

8.2 Vector Operations

8.6. By Pythagoras’ theorem, given px , py , and pz vector projections, it follows that

  √
(a) p = (0, 1) ∴ |p|
 = 02 + 12 = 1 (c) p = (−3, 1) ∴ |p| = 32 + 12 = 10
 
(b) p = (3, 4) ∴ |p|
 = 32 + 42 = 5 (d) p = (2, 3, 6) ∴ |p|
 = 22 + 32 + 62 = 7

8.7. Multiplying the vector by a constant does not change the vector’s direction, only its magnitude;
see Fig. 8.5. The constant multiplies all vector components, in 2D case both xx and xy .
       
xx 3 2×3 6
(a) a = 2 x = 2 =2 = =
x 2 2×2 4
y       
2 2 x 2 3 2/3 × 3 2
(b) b = x = x
= = = 4
3 3 xy 3 2  2/3 × 2 /3
  
3 3 xx 3 3 −3/4 × 3 −9/4
(c) c = − x = − =− = =
4 4 xy 4 2 −3/4 × 2 −3/2

8.8. Geometrically, vector addition is done by a simple chaining of the vectors. The vector
representing the total sum starts at the tail of the first and ends at the head of the last vector in
this chain.

(a) Note that all vectors in 1D space are collinear (i.e., parallel, because there is only one direction
possible); therefore, their direction is already known. As a consequence, their magnitudes are
sufficient. In the more general sense, real and complex numbers are also seen as vectors relative
in the origin. As illustrated in Fig. 8.6 (left), the sum of two numbers equals to the simple sum of
their respective magnitudes.

2 + 3 = 5 and 2 + (−3) = −1

(b) In 2D space, not all vectors are collinear, which is to say that in general, the sum of two vectors
is not equal to the simple sum of their magnitudes. Instead, the rules of triangles must be applied;
see Fig. 8.6 (right). Note that in the matrix notification, it is the modules of vector projections that
add in the same manner as “regular” numbers. For example, given that

Fig. 8.5 Example P.8.7

y y    
3 6
2· =
  2 4
x 3 a
2
x  
x 3
y    
y 2
2 3 2
· =
3 2 4/3
c x
   
b x 3 3
− · =
−2.25
4 2 −1.50
212 Linear Algebra

y
0
x
+ =

+ (- ) = -1 x
0
x
-

Fig. 8.6 Example P.8.8

       
a 1  bx 3
a = x = and b = =
ay 2 by −1

it follows that
             
ax bx 1 3 1+3 4 c
c = a + b = + = + = = = x
ay by 2 −1 2−1 1 cy

−→ −→ −→
8.9. Given AB and BA = −AB, their geometrical and matrix representations in 2D are as
follows.
−→
(a) Coordinates of AB are calculated as the end point minus the starting point, i.e.,

      
−→ 1 4 (1 − 4) −3
AB = − = =
−3 1 (−3 − 1) −4
       
−→ 4 1 (4 − 1) 3
BA = − = =
1 −3 (1 − (−3)) 4

−→ −→
By inspection of graph in Fig. 8.7, both |AB| and |BA| are hypotenuses of the same right-angled
triangle, thus calculated by Pythagoras’ theorem as
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 32 + 42 = 5

(b) Similarly,
       
−→ −1 2 (−1 − 2) −3
AB = − = =
4 3 (4 − 3) 1
       
−→ 2 −1 (2 − (−1)) 3
BA = − = =
3 4 (3 − 4) −1

Thus,
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 32 + 12 = 2
8.2 Vector Operations 213

Fig. 8.7 Example P.8.9 R2 space

y A: (4,1)
1

j
0
0
i 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
4

-2
B: (1,-3)
3)
-3

(c) Likewise,
       
−→ 4 −1 (4 − (−1)) 5
AB = − = =
2 −3 (2 − (−3)) 5
       
−→ −1 4 (−1 − 4) −5
BA = − = =
−3 2 (−3 − 2) −5

Thus,
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 52 + 52 = 5 2

(d) And,
       
−→ 3 1 (3 − 1) 2
AB = − = =
2 −2 (2 − (−2) 4
       
−→ 1 3 (1 − 3) −2
BA = − = =
−2 2 (−2 − 2) −4

so that
−→ −→  
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 = 22 + 22 = 2

−→ −→ −→
8.10. Given AB and BA = −AB, their geometrical and matrix representations in 3D are as
follows.
−→
(a) Coordinates of AB are calculated as the end point minus the starting point,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 4 (2 − 4) −2
−→ ⎣
AB = 4 ⎦ − ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (4 − 1) ⎦ = ⎣ 3 ⎦
−2 6 (−2 − 6) −8
214 Linear Algebra

Fig. 8.8 Example P.8.10

R3 space
z
k −j
x i
3 -2
y

-8

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 2 (4 − 2) 2
−→ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
BA = 1 − 4⎦ = ⎣ (1 − 4) ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
6 −2 (6 − (−2)) 8

−→ −→
By inspection of graph in Fig. 8.8, both |AB| and |BA| are hypotenuses of the same right-angled
triangle that is placed in the diagonal of a cuboid; thus, by Pythagoras’ theorem,
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 + |zB − zA |2 = 22 + 32 + 82 = 77

(b) Relative to the point of origin,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 2 (3 − 2) 1
−→ ⎣
AB = 0 ⎦ − ⎣ 3 ⎦ = ⎣ (0 − 3) ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−1 4 (−1 − 4) −5
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 3 (2 − 3) −1
−→ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
BA = 3 − 0⎦ = ⎣ (3 − 0) ⎦ = ⎣ 3 ⎦
4 −1 (4 − (−1)) 5

−→ −→
By inspection of graph in Fig. 8.8, AB coincides with the diagonal of a cuboid, thus |AB| and
−→
|BA| as
−→ −→   √
|AB| = |BA| = |xB − xA |2 + |yB − yA |2 + |zB − zA |2 = 12 + 32 + 52 = 35

8.11. Given that a = (2, −3) and b = (3, −1) are already placed at the origin,
     
2 3 5
c = a + b = + =
−3 −1 −4
8.2 Vector Operations 215

     
2 3 −1
c = a − b = − =
−3 −1 −2

8.12. Given A(2, 3, 1), B(3, −1, 0), C = (−1, −2, 1), andD = (−3, 3, −2), first, all vectors are
translated to the origin as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3 2 (3 − 2) 1
−→ ⎣
AB = −1 ⎦ − ⎣ 3 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1 − 3) ⎦ = ⎣ −4 ⎦
0 1 (0 − 1) −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 −1 (−3 − (−1)) −2
−→ ⎣
CD = 3 ⎦ − ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ (3 − (−2)) ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦
−2 1 (−2 − 1) −3

Then,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1
−→ −→ ⎣
(a) m = AB + CD = −4 ⎦ + ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
−1 −3 −4
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 3
−→ −→ ⎣
(b) n = AB − CD = −4 ⎦ − ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ −9 ⎦
−1 −3 2

8.13. Similar to A.8.12,

     
 −1 3 2
(a) p = a + b = + =
2 2 4
       
 −1 3 (2 × (−1) − 3) −5
(b) m = 2 a−b =2 − = =
2 2 (2 × 2 − 2) 2
         
 −1 3 −2 (3 × (−1) − 3 − (−2)) −4
(c) n = 3a − b − c = 3 − − = =
2 2 −3 (3 × 2 − 2 − (−3)) 7
       
1 3 1 −2 (2 × 3 − 1/2 × (−2)) 7
(d) r = 2b − c = 2 − = = 11
2 2 2 −3 (2 × 2 − 1/2 × (−3)) /2

8.14. By inspection of sketch in Fig. 8.9 (left),

y y = - y
3 3 a=2
2 2
|a|= 3
q p |q| = 1
|p| = 7
ay
6
|b|=1 x x
0 0 0
0 1 x 0 1 5 0 1 5
ax 2 2 2 2

Fig. 8.9 Example P.8.14

216 Linear Algebra

a = ax + ay

b = bx + by

where the horizontal and vertical projections are calculated as

√
π √ 3 3
|ax | = |
a | cos = 3 =
6 2 2
√
π √ 1 3
a | sin = 3 =
|ay | = |
6 2 2
|bx | = 1

|by | = 0

Method 1: matrix forms of the two vectors are therefore

   
3/2 1
a = √3 b =
/2 0

Then,
     
1
3/2 5/2
p = a + b = √ = √3 +
0
3/2 /2
     
3/2 1 1/2
q = a − b = √3 − = √3
/2 0 /2

which leads to p and q as in Fig. 8.9 (center). By inspection of two right-angled triangles where p
and q form their respective hypotenuses, angle θ between p and q is then

θ =α−β
√
3/2 √ √ π
tan α = = 3 ∴ α = arctan 3 = = 60◦
1/2 3
√ √ √
3/2 3 3
tan β = = ∴ α = arctan = 19.1◦
5/2 5 5
∴
θ = 40.89◦

Method 2: alternatively,
  
5/2 √ √
p = √
3/2
∴ |p|
 = (5/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 = 7
  
1/2 √
q = √
3/2
∴ |
q| = (1/2)2 + ( 3/2)2 = 1
8.3 Linear Transformations 217

Then by the law of cosines for triangle formed by p and q (see Fig. 8.9 (right)), it follows that the
third side of that triangle is a = 2. Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem,
√ √ √
a 2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos θ ∴ 22 = ( 7)2 + 12 − 2 7 cos θ ∴ 2 7θ = 4
2 2
∴ cos θ = √ ∴ θ = arctan √ = 40.89◦
7 7

8.3 Linear Transformations

8.15. In its basic form, a function is equivalent to a machine that for any given number input x
performs an operation f (x) and produces the corresponding output y. Similarly, for any given vector
input v, linear operation L( v ) performs an operation and produces the corresponding vector output
 as illustrated in Fig. 8.10 (left).
w,
Another way to visualize linear transformation is to visualize the input vector being displaced in
space until it overlaps with the output vector; see Fig. 8.10 (center). By doing so, however, linear
operation L( v ) displaces all vectors in R 2 vector space, that is to say, it displaces all the points on the
surface.
For example (see Fig. 8.10 (right)), while linear transformation L( v ) displaces basis vector
i = (1, 0) into its transformed version L(i) = (1, 3), at the same time, basis vector j = (0, 1) is
transformed into L(j) = (2, −1). Since all points on the surface are also simultaneously displaced,
it may be imagined that the surface is “elastic” and that L( v ) “stretched” the whole surface. By that
reasoning, now L(i) and L(j) represent basis vectors in the transformed space.
In summary, for a transformation to be linear, it must obey the following rules:

(a) After the transformation, all grid lines must stay straight.
(b) All the grid lines must stay parallel and equidistant because the distance between them must
always be one basis vector.
(c) The origin point must not move.

 
 form of an arbitrary vector x = f (i, j ) does not
As the consequence of the linearity, the numerical
x ) = f L(i ), L(j ) .
change in the transformed space, i.e., L(

8.16. By means of L( x ) transformation, R2 space as defined by (i, j) (Fig. 8.11 (left)) may be
transformed, for example, into R2 space as in Fig. 8.11 (right). The question is then: what is the form
of linear transformation matrix L that causes that transformation?

R2 space
y  
  3
−2 2 L(v)
2 R2 space L(v)
1
function linear transformation
1
vector input
w
vector output
x v w
       
−3/2 −3 3
v
1 2 −2 0
... − 3 2 5 x . . . 9 4 25
··
−3 2 1
L(v)
···
−6 −4 2
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 x j L(i )
L(j )
(0, 0)) (0, 0)
input
nput output vector input vector output i

Fig. 8.10 Example P.8.15

218 Linear Algebra

Observe the relationship between the original and transformed greed lines. In order to better
visualize it, the original grid is kept in the background of the transformed space. By definition, each
square of the original grid represents unit size as defined by basis vectors (i, j ). Next, by following
the basis vectors (i, j ), it can be deduced how the original R 2 space is rotated, flipped, and stretched
so that basis vectors (i, j ) are transformed into their new forms L(i ), L(j ).
By inspection of the transformed space grid, the expression for transformed L( v ) may be compared
with the original vector v. In order to be truly linear transformation, the numerical forms of these two
equations must stay the same, i.e.,

if in the original space, v = −2i + j

v ) = −2L(i ) + L(j )
then in the transformed space, L(

At the same time, coordinates of basis vectors L(i ) and L(j ) in the transformed 2D space, if
expressed in the units of transformed space, are
   
1 0
L(i ) = and L(j ) =
0 1

that is to say, by definition, they are orthonormal. However, if measured in the units of original
non-transformed space where i = (1, 0) and j = (0, 1), i.e., by using the background grid in
Fig. 8.11 (right) to read the coordinates of L(i ), L(j ), and L(
v ), it follows that

L(i ) = (1, 3), L(j ) = (2, −1), v ) = (0, −7)

and L(

Therefore, the transformation matrix L in this particular example is

     
1 2 1 2
L(i ) = L(j ) = ∴ L=
3 −1 3 −1

and it can be verified the numerical form of v did not change, because
         
1 2 −2 2 0
v ) = −2L(i ) + L(j ) = −2
L( + = + = 
3 −1 −6 −1 −7

Thus, in compact matrix form, transformation of an arbitrary x is

Fig. 8.11 Example P.8.16 R2 space

v = −2i + j L(v) L(i )
L(j )
(0,

L(v)
−2L(i )
j
v
 
(0, 0) i −2
L(j ) 1
8.3 Linear Transformations 219

    
x  1 2 xx
x = x ∴ L(  
x ) = L x = L(i ) L(j ) x =
xy 3 −1 xy

In this interpretation, space transformations may be formalized with the help of the matrix–vector
product.

8.17. Given data, and following the discussion in A.8.16, it follows that
     
3 1 −1
L(i ) = L(j ) = and x = = (−1) i + 2j
1 2 2

The linear transformation form is unchanged as

   
31 −1
x ) = L x =
L( = (−1)L(i ) + 2L(j )
12 2

or, if measured in the units of original space:

       
3 1 (−1) × 3 + 2 × 1 −1
= (−1) +2 = =
1 2 (−1) × 1 + 2 × 2 3

The relation between the original and transformed space is illustrated in Fig. 8.12.

8.18. Movement of basis vectors (i, j) is followed on graphs (see A.8.16) as:

(a) Rotation 90◦ counterclockwise: see Fig. 8.13 (left). Transformed basis vector coordinates as
measured in non-transformed units are
     
 0  −1 0 −1
L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L=
1 0 1 0

which is a transformation matrix that performs 90◦ rotation counterclockwise of all points in R2
space, therefore including basis vectors i and j.
(b) Shear 45◦ clockwise: this operation of shear bends the space so that horizontal vectors are
unchanged, while vertical vectors lean “−45◦ ” (see Fig. 8.13 (center)); thus,
     
 1  1 11
L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L=
0 1 01

Fig. 8.12 Example P.8.17    

3 1 −1
1 2 2 L(x) 
1  
2L(j) 2 3
1
(0, 0)
−1L(i)
220 Linear Algebra

90o rotation shear 90o rotation then shear

     
0 1   1
  0  
0 j   1     1    
1 −1
1
−1 0 1 1 −1
1 90◦   0
1 0 L(i ) 1 j 0 L(j ) 0 0 L1 (i ) L(i )
0
i L(j ) i L(i ) L1 (j ) L(j )

Fig. 8.13 Example P.8.18

which is a transformation matrix that performs shear of all points in R 2 space.

(c) First rotation 90◦ counterclockwise and then shear 45◦ clockwise: linear transformations may be
performed one after another, where the order of transformations is not interchangeable. The first
step is rotation L1 and then sheer L2 ; see Fig. 8.13 (right). The final position is then

       
0 −1 11 11 0 −1 1 −1
L1 = ; L2 = ∴ L = L2 L1 = =
1 0 01 01 1 0 1 0

which is a matrix that performs this rotation plus shear of all points in R2 space. Multiple
transformations are formalized as being equivalent to the product of subsequent transformation
matrices where transformation that is done first is written on the right side. Note that in this
interpretation, L is a matrix that does both transformations simultaneously.

8.19. Given vectors a = (2, 1), b = (1, 0), and m

 = (9, 1), this type of problems may be solved by
either geometric or numerical methods.

Method 1: create a triangle defined by a and m

 vectors; see Fig. 8.14. By inspection of vector addition
graph, it is evident that

 = a + 7b
m

Method 2: the general form of linear combination is

a + k b
 = n
m

where n and k are coefficients to be calculated; therefore,

     
9 2 1
=n +k
1 1 0

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

9 = 2n + 1 k (8.1)

1 = 1n + 0k (8.2)

This system of linear equations may be solved by the elimination of variables method as
8.3 Linear Transformations 221

Fig. 8.14 Example P.8.19 R2 espace

y a: (2,1) 7xb
1

m: (9,1)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
b: (1,0)

from (8.2) : n = 1 ∴ from (8.1) : 9 = 2 + k ⇒ k = 7


 = a + 7b.
In conclusion, m

8.20. Given vectors u = (3, −1), v = (1, −2), and w

 = (−1, 7), then, similar to A.8.19,
       
3 1 −1 3
 = u + v + w
m = + + =
−1 −2 7 4

 = n
m u + k v
∴
     
3 3 1
=n +k
4 −1 −2

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

3 = 3n + 1k (8.3)

4 = −1n − 2k (8.4)

This system of linear equations may be solved by using multiple methods. For example,

Method 1: the elimination method

from (8.3): k = 3 − 3n ∴ from (8.4): 4 = −n − 2(3 − 3n) ⇒ n = 2

from (8.4): 4 = −2 − 2k ⇒ k = −3

 = 2
Therefore, m u − 3
v.

Method 2: Cramer’s rule (see Sect. 8.5) gives

222 Linear Algebra

⎫
3 1
 = = −5 = 0⎪
⎪
⎪
−1 −2 ⎪
⎪ n −10
⎪
⎪ n= = =2
⎪
⎬  −5
3 1
n = = −10 ∴
4 −2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
k 15
⎪
⎪ k= = = −3
33 ⎪
⎪  −5
k = = 15 ⎭
−1 4

 = 2
Therefore, m u − 3
v.

8.4 Determinants

8.21. Given the second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

 
 3 0 
|A| = = (3 × 2) − (0 × 0) = 6 = 0
0 2

The geometrical interpretation is that this transformation A increases the surface of 2D space six
times.

8.22. Given the second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

1 2
|A| = = (1 × (−1)) − (1 × 2) = −3 = 0
1 −1

The geometrical interpretation is that this transformation A increases the surface of 2D space three
times and at the same time it is flipped over.

8.23. Given the second-order matrix A, its determinant is calculated as

4 2
|A| = = (4 × 1) − (2 × 2) = 0
2 1

Geometrically, this linear transformation A forces 2D space (i.e., a surface) to collapse onto 1D space
(i.e., a line), i.e., one of the two coordinates is “flattened”.

2 −1
8.24. = 2 × 0 − 1 × (−1) = 1
1 0
√ √
3 −3 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
8.25. √ √2 = 3 × 2 2 − 3 × (−3 2) = 2 6 + 3 6 = 5 6
3 2 2
8.4 Determinants 223

1 i
8.26. = 1 − (−i) × i = 1 − 1 = 0
−i 1

sin α cos α
8.27. = sin α sin α − (− cos α) cos α = sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
− cos α sin α

8.28. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated by

Method 1: cross-products as

 
 2 3 4  2 3
  = +(2 × (−2) × 3)+(3 × 1 × 1)+(4 × 5 × 2)
Δ3 =  5 −2
− 1  5 −2
 −
 1 2 3  1 2 −(1 × (−2) × 4)−(2 × 1 × 2)−(3 × 5 × 3)
= −12 + 3 + 40 +8 − 4 − 45 = −10

Method 2: expansion along the first row as

2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
Δ3 = 5 −2 1 + 5 −2
2 1 + 5 −2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
−2 1 5 1 5 −2
= (−1)1+1 2 + (−1)1+2 3 + (−1)1+3 4
2 3 1 3 1 2
= 2 × (−2 × 3 − 2 × 1) − 3 × (5 × 3 − 1 × 1) + 4 × (5 × 2 − 1 × (−2)) = −10

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is increased
ten times and at the same time the space is “inverted inside-out” (as indicated by the negative sign of
its determinant).

8.29. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-products as

1 2 1 1 2
Δ3 = 1 0 2 1 0 = +(1 × 0 × 0)+(2 × 2 × 1)+(1 × 1 × 2)
1 2 0 1 2 −(1 × 0 × 1)−(2 × 2 × 1)−(0 × 1 × 2)
= 6 −4 = 2

Method 2: expansion, for example, along the first column is

224 Linear Algebra

     
 1 2 1   1 2 1   1 2 1 

Δ3 =  1 0 2  +  1 0 2  +  1 0 2 
 1 2 0   1 2 0  1 2 0
     
 0 2  
2+1  2 1   2 1 
= (−1) 1+1
1  + (−1) 1  + (−1)3+1 1 
2 0  2 0   0 2 
= −4 + 2 + 4 = 2

8.30. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-products as

 
 1 2 2  1 2
  = +(1 × 0 × 1)+(2 × 2 × 2)+(2 × 2 × 2)
Δ3 =  2 0 2  2
 0
 2 2 1  2 2 −(2 × 0 × 2)−(2 × 2 × 1)−(1 × 2 × 2)
= 16 −8 = 8

Method 2: expansion, for example, along the second row is

     
 1 2 2   1 2 2   1 2 2 

Δ3 =  2 0 2  +  2 0 2  +  2 0 2 
 2 2 1   2 2 1  2 2 1
     
 2 2  2+2  ·
 ·   1 2 
= (−1) 2+1
2  + (−1) 0  + (−1)2+3 2 
2 1  · ·   2 2 
= 4+0+4 = 8

8.31. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-product

 
 3 2 1  3 2
 
Δ 3 =  4 5 6  4
 5 = +(3 × 5 × 7)+(2 × 6 × 8)+(1 × 4 × 9)
 8 9 7  8 9 −(8 × 5 × 1)−(9 × 6 × 3)−(7 × 4 × 2)
= (105 + 96 + 36) − (40 + 162 + 56)
= −21

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

8.4 Determinants 225

     
 3 2 1   3 2 1   3 2 1 

Δ 3 =  4 5 6  +  4 5 6  +  4 5 6 
 8 9 7  8 9 7  8 9 7
     
 5 6  1+2  4
 6   4 5 
= (−1)1+1 3   + (−1) 2  8 + (−1)1+3 1 
9 7 7   8 9 
= 3 × (5 × 7 − 9 × 6) − 2 × (4 × 7 − 8 × 6) + 1 × (4 × 9 − 8 × 5)
= −57 + 40 − 4 = −21

The volume of this 3D space is increased 21 times and “inverted inside-out”.

8.32. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-product

 
 2 3 1  2 3
 
Δ3 =  3 −1
− 2  3 −1
 = +(2 × (−1) × (−3))+(3 × 2 × 1)+(1 × 3 × 1)
 1 1 −3
−3  1 1
−(1 × (−1) × 1)−(1 × 2 × 2)−((−3) × 3 × 3)
= (6 + 6 + 3) − (−1 + 4 − 27)
= 39

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

     
 2 3 1   2 3 1   2 3 1 

Δ 3 =  3 −1 2  +  3 −1 2  +  3 −1 2 
 1 1 −3   1 −   1 1 −33 
1 −3
     

1+1  −1 2   2   3 −1 
= (−1) 2  + (−1)1+2 3  3 1+3 
1 −3   1 −3  + (−1) 1  1 1 
= 2 × (−1) × (−3) − 1 × 2 − 3 × 3 × (−3) − 1 × 2 + 1 × 3 × 1 − 1 × (−1)
= 2 + 33 + 4 = 39

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is increased
39 times.

8.33. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-product

 
 5 0 4  5 0

Δ3 =  8 −7  8
0 −7 0 = +(5 × 0 × 1)+(0 × (−7) × 3)+(4 × 8 × 2)
 3 2 1  3 2 −(3 × 0 × 4)−(2 × (−7) × 5)−(1 × 8 × 0)
= (0 + 0 + 64) − (0 − 70 − 0)
= 134
226 Linear Algebra

Method 2: any column or row could be chosen for cofactor expansion. It is beneficial, however, to
choose one that contains zeros, so that the amount of work is reduced. In this example, the second
column has two zeros, so the expansion is minimized as

     
 5 0 4   5 0 4   5 0 4 

Δ3 =  8 0 −7  +  8 0 −77  +  8 0 −7 
 3 2 1  3 2 1  3 2 1
     
 8 −7     5 4 
= (−1)1+2 0   + (−1)2+2 0  5 4  + (−1)3+2 2 
3 1   3 1   8 −7 
= −0 + 0 − 2 × 5 × (−7) − 8 × 4
= 134

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that its volume is increased
134 times.

8.34. Given the third-order matrix A, its determinant may be calculated as

Method 1: cross-product

 
 1 3 5  1 3
 
Δ3 =  7 1  7 9
9 11 = +(1 × 9 × 17)+(3 × 11 × 13)+(5 × 7 × 15)
17  133 15
 13 15 17
−(13 × 9 × 5)−(15 × 11 × 1)−(17 × 7 × 3)
= (153 + 429 + 525) − (585 + 165 + 357)
= 1 107 − 1 107 = 0

Method 2: the cofactor expansion

     
 1 3 5   1 3 5   1 3 5 

Δ3 =  7 9 11  +  7 9 11  +  7 9 111 
 133 15 17   13 155 17   13 15 177 
     
 9 11   7 11   7 9 
= (−1)1+1 1   + (−1)1+2 3  + (−1)1+3 5 
15 17   13 17   13 15 
= 1 × (9 × 17 − 15 × 11) − 3 × (7 × 17 − 13 × 11) + 5 × (7 × 15 − 13 × 9)
= 1 (− 12) −3 (−24) + 5 (−12) = 0

The geometrical interpretation is that this matrix transforms 3D space so that at least one or more
dimensions are lost (as indicated by zero determinant). That is to say, 3D space collapsed into 2D,
1D, or even point space.

8.35. Transformation of basis vectors (i, j) shows how the whole space is transformed. Given
transformation
8.4 Determinants 227

Fig. 8.15 Example P.8.35

L(x)
 
L(j )
  +6
0 3 0
1   0 2
1 1
(0, 0)) 0 (0, 0)) L(i )

L(x)
    L(i )
0 1 2
1   1 −1
1 (0, 0
0))
1
(0, 0) 0 L(j )

L(x)
L(i )
   
0 4 2 L(j )
1   2 1
1 1 (0, 0) 0
(0, 0) 0

 
30
L=
02

note that this transformation simply multiplies the space by factor three in i direction (first column
vector) and by factor two in j direction (second column vector) (see Fig. 8.15 (top)), because
     
30  3  0
L= ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) =
02 0 2

It should be observed that:

(1) Relative position between basis vectors did not change, i.e., j is still on the left relative to i. In
other words, this transformation did not “flip” the space like a page in a book.
(2) The unit square area is increased by 3 × 2 = 6 positive factor. This (positive, zero, or negative)
area multiplication factor is a geometrical interpretation of the determinant.

Therefore, this matrix’s determinant is

30
|L| = =3×2−0×0=6
02

8.36. Given transformation

 
1 2
L=
1 −1

performs multiple operations simultaneously. By following basis vectors, it could be deduced that 2D
surface is rotated and flipped over; see Fig. 8.15 (center).
228 Linear Algebra

     
1 2  1 2
L= ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) =
1 −1 1 −1

and its determinant is

 
1 2
|L| = = 1 × (−1) − 1 × 2 = −3
1 −1

The geometrical interpretation is that the unity area is increased by a factor of “−3”, that is to say, 2D
surface is also “flipped over”, which is understood by the negative determinant.

8.37. Given transformation

     
42  4  2
L(x) = ∴ L(i ) = and L(j ) = ∴ L(i ) = 2 L(j )
21 2 1

and its determinant is

 
42
|L| = =4×1−2×2=0
21

Note that L(i ) and L(j ) are collinear because one is a simple multiple of the other, which is easily
shown by factoring “2” as
   
4 2
L(i ) = =2 = 2 L(j )
2 1

After the transformation L, 2D surface collapsed into 1D line; see Fig. 8.15 (bottom). In the paper
page analogy, imagine that 2D surface is sidewise rotated so that only its side is visible, i.e., line. This
reduction of space is a geometrical interpretation of the case when the determinant equals zero. An
alternative interpretation is that at least one of the equations within the system of equations in L is
not independent.

8.5 Cramer’s Rule

Reminder: The extended matrix that corresponds to the given system of equations is trans-
formed into an extended unit matrix, so that the solution vector [a, b, c] is found by inspection,
for example, as
⎡ ⎤
100a 1 x+ 0 y+ 0 z = a x=a
⎣ 0 1 0 b ⎦ ∴ 0 x+ 1 y+ 0 z = b ∴ y = b
001 c 0 x+ 0 y+ 1 z = c z=c

(continued)
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 229

(continued)
Systematically, one by one, each constant on the diagonal is transformed into “1” and all others
into “0”. Note the order of transformations for each constant on the diagonal, the lower triangle
below the diagonal, and the upper triangle above the diagonal.

8.38. Given system of linear equations

4x1 − 3x2 = 0
2x1 + 3x2 = 18

there are multiple methods to calculate its set of solutions. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages depending on the system’s size and its coefficients. For the moment, note the column
vector on the right side of equations that is colored.

Method 1: Cramer’s rule is a formula to solve a system of linear equations with as many equations
as unknowns. Therefore, for the second-order system of equations, there are three determinants to
calculate: one “principal” () and one “sub-determinant” for each of the two variables (x1 and x2 )
created by replacing its respective column with the column vector on the right side of the equations
(colored).
 
4 −3 0 4 −3
A= ∴ = = 4 × 3 − 2 × (−3) = 18 = 0
2 3 18 2 3

(non-zero determinant implies the existence of a unique set of solutions)

0 −3
x1 = = 0 × 3 − 18 × (−3) = 3 × 18
18 3
4 0
x2 = = 4 × 18 − 2 × (0) = 4 × 18
2 18

Then, by Cramer’s rule,

x1 3 ×
18 x1 4 ×
18
x1 = = = 3; x2 = = =4
 

18  

18

Method 2: the extended matrix rows’ transformations (i.e., the right-side column vector is included).
Note that rows are numbered as “ (1)” and “ (2)”, while the associated arithmetic operations are
simply “ +, −, ÷, ×”. For example, “ ← (1) ÷ 4” reads as “divide each coefficient in the first row on
the left by four, including the colored vector column”, or “ ← (2) − 2 × (1)” reads as “multiply each
coefficient of the first row on the left by negative two and add to the second row on the left”. The
objective is to transform the systems’ matrix into the unit matrix (i.e., where all diagonal coefficients
equal one and all other coefficients equal zero). It is done by systematically converting each coefficient
term, starting with the (a1,1 ) coefficient, then the lower triangle coefficients, and finally the upper
triangle coefficients.
230 Linear Algebra

   
4 −3 0 ← (1) ÷ 4 1 −3/4 0
A= =
2 3 18 2 3 18 ← (2) − 2 × (1)
   
1 −3/4 0 1 −3/ 4 0 ← (1) + 3/4 × (2)
= =
0 9/ 2 18 ← (2) ÷ 9/2 0 14
 
1 03
=
0 14

The last extended matrix form is an efficient way to write the following trivial system of equations:

1 × x1 − 0 × x2 = 3 ⇒ x1 = 3
0 × x1 + 1 × x2 = 4 ⇒ x2 = 4

Method 3: the variable substitution; it is an efficient hand method for small-size systems

4x1 − 3x2 = 0 (8.5)

2x1 + 3x2 = 18 (8.6)
3
from (8.5) x1 = x2 (8.7)
4
3 2 × 2
18
then by substitution of x1 in (8.6): 2A x2 + 3x2 = 18 ∴ x2 = =4
4A 2 9

3
and, by substitution of x2 in (8.7): x1 = 4A = 3
4A

8.39. Given second-order system,

x + 2y = −5
3x − y = 13

Method 1: Cramer’s rule; the system of equations is written as a vector–matrix product, i.e.,
⎫
1 2 ⎪
= ⎪
⎪= −7
3 −1⎪
⎪ x −21
⎪
⎪ x= = =3
     ⎪
⎬  −7
1 2 x −5 −5 2
= ∴ x = = −21
3 −1 y 13 13 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y 28
⎪
⎪ y= = = −4
1 −5 ⎪
⎪  −7
y = = 28 ⎭
3 13

Method 2: or, for example, by the variable elimination,

x + 2y = −5
3x − y = 13 ×2
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 231

x + 2y = −5 (8.8)
6x − 2y = 26 (8.9)
∴ ((8.8) + (8.9))

x + 2y = −5
7x = 21 ∴ x=3 ∴ (back to (8.8))

3 + 2y = −5 ∴ y = −4

8.40. Given second-order system,

x + 2y = −8
2x − y = −1

Method 1: Cramer’s rule; the system of equations is written as a vector–matrix product, i.e.,
⎫
⎪ 1 2
= ⎪
⎪ = −5
⎪
⎪ 2 −1
x 10
⎪
⎪ x= = = −2
     ⎪
⎬  −5
1 2 x −8 −8 2
= ∴ x = = 10
2 −1 y −1 −1 −1 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
y 15
⎪
⎪ y= = = −3
1 −8 ⎪  −5
y = = 15 ⎪
⎭
2 −1

Method 2: or, for example, by the elimination method,

x + 2y = −8
2x − y = −1 ×2

x + 2y = −8
4x − 2y = −2 ∴

5x = −10 ∴ x = −2
−2 + 2y = −8 ∴ y = −3

Method 3: or, by the extended matrix transformations,

   
1 2 −8 ← (1)  1 2 −8
A= =
2 −1 −1 ← (2) − 2 × (1) 0 −5 15 ← (2) ÷ (−5)
232 Linear Algebra

   
1 2 −8 ← (1) − 2 × (2) 1 0 −2
= =
0 1 −3 0 1 −3

The last extended matrix form is an efficient way to write the following trivial system of equations:

1 × x − 0 × y = −2 ⇒ x = −2
0 × x + 1 × y = −3 ⇒ y = −3

8.41. Given second-order system,

a+b =7
2a + 2b = 14

Method 1: Cramer’s rule; the system of equations is written as a vector–matrix product, i.e.,
    
11 x 7 11
= ∴ = =0
22 y 14 22

Therefore, the conclusion is that this system of equations does not have a unique set of solutions. It
should be noted that the two equations are not independent; the second equation is simply two times
the first equation, by consequence not independent.

8.42. Given third-order system,

(x) (y) (z)

5x − 5y − 15z = 40 (1)
4x − 2y − 6z = 19 (2)
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 (3)

Method 1: the extended matrix transformations,

⎡ ⎤
5x − 5y − 15z = 40 5 −5 −15 40
4x − 2y − 6z = 19 ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦
3x − 6y − 17z = 41 3 −6 −17 41

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
5 −5 −15 40 ← (1) ÷ [5] 1 −1 −3 8
⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 −6 19 ⎦ ← (2) − 4 × (1) ⇒
3 −6 −17 41 3 −6 −17 41 ← (3) − 3 × (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −3 8 1 −1 −3 8
⎣ 0 2 6 −13 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ⇒
0 −3 −8 17 0 −3 −8 17 ← (3) + 3 × (2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −3 8 ← (1) + (2) 1 0 0 3/2
⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3 −13/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3 × (3) ⇒
0 0 1 −5/2 0 0 1 −5/2
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 233

⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 3/2 1x + 0y + 0z = 3/2  
⎣0 1 0 3 5
1⎦ ∴ 0x + 1y + 0z = 1 ∴ {x, y, z} = , 1, −
2 2
0 0 1 − /2
5 0x + 0y + 1z = −5/2

Method 2: or, by Cramer’s rule,

 
 5 −5
− −15
−15
15  5 −5 =+ 5 × (−2) × (−17) − 3 × (−2) × (−15)
 
Δ =  4 −2
− −66  4 −2

 3 −6 −17  3 −6 + (−5) × −(6) × 3 − (−6) × (−6) × 5
−1
−
+ (−15) × 4 × (−6) − (−17) × 4 × (−5)

= (620) − (610) = 10 = 0

 
 40 −5
− −−15
15
15  40 −5 =+ 40 × (−2) × (−17) − 41 × (−2) × (−15)
 
Δx =  19 −
−2 −66  19
 19 −2
 41 −6 −17  41 + (−5) × (−6) × 41 − (−6) × (−6) × 40
−
−1 1 −6
+ (−15) × 19 × (−6) − (−17) × 19 × (−5)

= (4 300) − (4 285) = 15

 
 5 40 −15  5
4 −15 40 =+ 5 × 19 × (−17) − 3 × 19 × (−15)

Δ y =  4 1 −66  4
19 19
 3 + 40 × (−6) × 3 − 41 × (−6) × 5
41 −1  3
4 −17
− 41
+ (−15) × 4 × 41 − (−17) × 4 × 40)

= (−4 795) − (−4 805) = 10

 
 5 −5
− 40
4  5 −5 =+ 5 × (−2) × 41 − 3 × (−2) × 40
 
Δ z =  4 −2
− 19
1  4 −2

 3 −6  3 −6 + (−5) × 19 × 3 − (−6) × 19 × 5
41
4
+ 40 × 4 × (−6) − 41 × 4 × (−5))

= (−1 655) − (−1 630) = −25

Therefore,

x 15 3 y 10 z −25 5
x= = = ; y= = = 1; z= = =−
 10 2  10  10 2
234 Linear Algebra

Method 3: the cofactor expansion to calculate the determinants and then apply Cramer’s rule. Note
that numbers in the third column are rather large, so

     
 5 −55 −15
15   5 −155
−5 −   5 −5 − −155 
    
Δ =  4 −2 −66  + 4
  −22 −6  +  4 −2 −66 
  
 3 −6 −17
− 7   3 −177
−6 −   3 −66 −1717 
     
 4 −2   5 −5   5 −5 
= (−1)1+3 (−15)  + (−1)2+3
(−6)  
 3 −6  + (−1)
3+3
(−17) 
3 −6   4 −2 
= −15 × (−18) + 6 × (−15) − 17 × 10 = 10

     
 40 −55 −15
15   40 − 5   40
−5 −15 −5 −15
− 5 
   
Δx =  19 −2 −66  +  19
  −22 −6  +  19 −2 −66 

 41 − 7
−6 −17   41 − 7   41
−6 −17 −66 −17
17 
     
 19 −2   40 −5   40 −5 
= (−1) 1+3
(−15)  + (−1)2+3
(−6)  + (−1)3+3 (−17) 
41 −6  41 −6   19 −2 
= −15 × (−32) + 6 × (−35) − 17 × 15 = 15

     
 5 15   5
40 −15 40 −155   5 40 −155 

Δ y =  4 19 −66  +  4 19 −6  +  4 19 −66 
 3 41 −177   3 41 −177   3 41 −1717 
     
 4 19   40   5 40 
= (−1)1+3 (−15)   + (−1)2+3 (−6)  5 + (−1)3+3 (−17)  
3 41   3 41   4 19 
= −15 × 107 + 6 × 85 − 17 × (−65) = 10

     
 5 −5540   5 −5 400   5 −5 400 
    
Δz =  4 −2 199  +  4 −22 19
  19  +  4 −2 199 
 3 −6 41   3 −6 41   3 4 
−66 41
     
 4 −2   5 −5   5 −5 
= (−1)1+3 40  + (−1)2+3
19  + (−1)3+3 41 
3 −6  3 −6   4 −2 
= 40 × (−18) − 19 × (−15) + 41 × (10) = −25

Again,

x 15 3 y 10 z −25 5
x= = = ; y= = = 1; z= = =−
 10 2  10  10 2

Often, it is a simply a matter of preference which method is used.

8.5 Cramer’s Rule 235

8.43. Given third-order system of equations,

2x − 3y − z = 5
x + y + 2z = 7
2x − y − z = 1

Method 1: for example, by Cramer’s rule,

  =+ 2 × 1 × (−1) + −3 × 2 × 2 + (−1) × 1 × (−1)

 2 −3 −1  2 −3
− −1

Δ =  1 1 2  1 1 − 2 × 1 × (−1) − (−1) × 2 × 2 − (−1) × 1 × (−3)
 2 −1 −1
−1  2 −1 =(−13) − (−3) = −10 = 0

  =+ 5 × 1 × (−1) + (−3) × 2 × 1 + (−1) × 7 × (−1)

 5 −3
− − 1
−1  5 −3
 
Δ x =  7 1 2  7
 1 − 1 × 1 × (−1) − (−1) × 2 × 5 − (−1) × 7 × (−3)
 1 −1 −
−1
1  1 −1
=(−4) − (10) = −14

  =+ 2 × 7 × (−1) + 5 × 2 × 2 + (−1) × 1 × 1
 2 5 −1
−1  2 5
 
Δ y =  1 7 2  1
 7 − 2 × 7 × (−1) − 1 × 2 × 2 − (−1) × 1 × 5
 2 1 −1
−  2 1 =(5) − (−15) = 20

2 −3
− 5 2 −3 =+ 2 × 1 × 1 + (−3) × 7 × 2 + 5 × 1 × (−1)
Δz = 1 1 7 1 1 − 2 × 1 × 5 − (−1) × 7 × 2 − 1 × 1 × (−3)
2 −1 1 2 −1 =(−45) − (−7) = −38

Then,

x 7
−14
 7 y  −2

20 z  19
−38 19
x= =  = ; y= =  = −2; z= =  =
 −10
 5 5  −10  −10
 5 5

8.44. Given third-order system of equations,

x+y+z=3
x−y+z=5
236 Linear Algebra

−x + y − z = 10

Method 1: by Cramer’s rule,

1 1 1 1 1
= 1 −1 1 1 −1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 − 1 + 1 = 0
−1 1 −1 −1 1

which is to say that this system does not have a unique set of solutions. It should be noted that the
second and third equations’ coefficients are not independent; there is a negative one factor between
the two.

Method 2: it may be more obvious that the second and third equations are contradictory if the system
is solved by substitution as

x+y+z=3 ⇒x =3−y−z
x−y+z=5
−x + y − z = 10

(3 − y − z) − y + z = 5 ⇒ −2y + 3 = 5 ∴ y = −1

−(3 − y − z) + y − z = 10 ⇒ 2y − 3 = 10

2(−1) − 3 = 10 ⇒ −5 = 10

which, obviously, is false. Therefore, there is no unique set of solutions to this system.

8.45. Given third-order system of equations, note the positions of “0” coefficients that keep places
of the “missing” variables

x + y + z = 36
2x + 0y − z = −17
6x + 0y − 5z = 7

Method 1: for example, by the matrix transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 ← (1)  1 1 1 36
⎣ 2 0 −1 −17 ⎦ ← (2) − 2 × (1) ⇒ ⎣ 0 −2 −3 −89 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ (−2)
6 0 −5 7 6 0 −5 7 ← (3) − 6 × (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 1 1 1 36
⎣ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦ ⇒ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦
⎣
0 −6 −11 −209 ← (3) + 6 × (2) 0 0 −2 58 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 237

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 36 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 −1/ 2 −17/2 ← (1) + 1/2(3)
⎣ 0 1 3/2 89/2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 3/ 2 89/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3/2(3)
0 0 1 −29 0 0 1 −29
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 −23
⎣ 0 1 0 88 ⎦ ∴ {x, y, z} = {−23, 88, −29}
0 0 1 −29

8.46. Given third-order system of equations,

x+y =7
y+z=8
−x + 2z = 7

Method 1: for example, by the matrix transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 7 ← (1)  110 7
⎣ 0 1 1 8 ⎦ ← (2)  ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1 8⎦
−1 0 2 7 ← (3) + (1) 0 1 2 14 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 7 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 −1 −1 ← (1) + (3)
⎣0 1 1 8⎦ ⇒ ⎣0 1 1 8⎦
0 0 16 0 0 1 6
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 05 10 05
⎣ 0 1 1 8 ⎦ ← (2) − (3) ⇒ ⎣0 1 0 2⎦
00 16 00 16
∴ {x, y, z} = {5, 2, 6}

Method 2: by Cramer’s rule,

110 11
= 011 0 1 = 2 + (−1) + 0 − 0 − 0 − 0 = 1 = 0
−1 0 2 −1 0
710 71
x = 8 1 1 8 1 = 14 + 7 + 0 − 0 − 0 − 16 = 5
702 70
170 17
y = 081 0 8 = 16 + (−7) + 0 − 0 − 7 − 0 = 2
−1 7 2 −1 7
117 11
z = 018 0 1 = 7 + (−8) + 0 − (−7) − 0 − 0 = 6
−1 0 7 −1 0
238 Linear Algebra

x 5 y 2 z 6
∴ x= = =5 y= = =2 z= = =6
 1  1  1
⎡ ⎤
5
that is to say, v = ⎣ 2 ⎦ or (x, y, z) = (5, 2, 6)
6

8.47. Given third-order system of equations,

5x − 13y + 13z = 8
x − 3y + z = 4
−x + 2y − 5z = 3

Method 1: by Cramer’s rule,

5 −13 13
= 1 −3 1
−1 2 −5
−3 1 1 1 1 −3
= (−1)1+1 5 + (−1)1+2 (−13) + (−1)1+3 13
2 −5 −1 −5 −1 2
= 5 × 13 + 13 × (−4) + 13 × (−1) = 0

which is to say that this system does not have a unique set of solutions.

8.48. Two points A, B must be found on the linear equation f (x) simultaneously; there is one
equation corresponding to each point (x, y); therefore,

∴ ax + b = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2) + b = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1) + b = 5

Therefore, the matrix form of the problem is

a b f (x)
−2a +b = 20
a +b = 5

Method 1: for example, by substitution,

−2a + b = 20
a+b =5 ⇒a =5−b
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 239

−2(5 − b) + b = 20 ⇒ 3b − 10 = 20 ∴ b = 10 ∴ a = −5
∴ {a, b} = {−5, 10}

which is to say that f (x) = −5x + 10.

Verification:

f (−2) = −5(−2) + 10 = 20 
f (1) = −5(1) + 10 = 5 

Note that, given two points, there is only one unique linear function that crosses both points. However,
there are infinitely many higher-order nonlinear functions that cross these two points. It may be
shown, for example, by deriving quadratic fitting function as

∴ ax 2 + bx + c = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 5

Therefore, the matrix form of the problem is

a b c f (x)
4a −2b +c = 20
a +b +c = 5

that is to say, there are there unknown variables and only two equations; consequently, the system
does not have a unique set of solutions. That being the case, one variable is always dependent on the
other two, as

4a − 2b + c = 20
a+b+c =5 ⇒a =5−b−c

c
4(5 − b − c) − 2b + c = 20 ⇒ b = −
2
 c c
a =5− − −c ∴ a =5−
2 2
 c c 
∴ {a, b, c} = 5 − , − , c
2 2

which is to say, by consequence of c being a parameter, that there are infinitely many quadratic
functions of the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c that cross the two given points. A couple of examples
(see Fig. 8.16) are as follows:
240 Linear Algebra

Fig. 8.16 Example P.8.48

f (x)
20 f (x
)=
−5
x +
10

5
x
0

−2 0 1

11 2 1
c = −1 : f1 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = x + x−1
2 2
c = 0 : f2 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = 5x 2
c = 4 : f3 (x) = ax 2 + bx + c = 3x 2 − 2x + 4
etc.

In conclusion, there are infinitely many curves that cross given two points, but linear function is the
only unique fitting “curve”.

8.49. All three points A, B, C must be found on the quadratic equation f (x) simultaneously; there
is one equation for each point (x, y); therefore,

∴ ax 2 + bx + c = f (x)
(x, y) = (−2, 20) ∴ a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = 20

(x, y) = (1, 5) ∴ a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 5

(x, y) = (3, 25) ∴ a(3)2 + b(3) + c = 25

Therefore, the matrix form of the problem is

a b c
4a −2b +c = 20
a +b +c = 5
9a +3b +c = 25

that is to say,

A v = b

where
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 241

Fig. 8.17 Example P.8.49

f (x)
25

20

5
x
0

−2 0 1 3

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 −2 1 a 20
A = ⎣ 1 1 1 ⎦ v = ⎣ b ⎦ and b = ⎣ 5 ⎦
9 31 c 25

Method 1: for example, by matrix transformations. Note that the order of equations (i.e., rows) may
be changed (e.g., (1) ↔ (2)) because the order of equations in the original system is arbitrary,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 −2 1 20 (1) ↔ (2) 1 11 5
⎣ 1 1 1 5⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 4 −2 1 20 ⎦ ← (2) − 4 × (1)
9 3 1 25 9 3 1 25
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
⎣ 0 −6 −3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ (−6) ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦
9 3 1 25 9 3 1 25 ← (3) − 9 × (1)

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0⎦
0 −6 −8 −20 ← (3) + 6 × (2) 0 0 −5 −20 ← (3) ÷ (−5)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 5 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 1/2 5
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 1/2(3)
00 14 0 0 14
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0 1/2 5 ← (1) − 1/2(3) 10 0 3
⎣ 0 1 0 −2 ⎦ ⇒ ⎣ 0 1 0 −2 ⎦ ∴ {a, b, c} = {3, −2, 4}
00 1 4 00 1 4

which is to say that f (x) = 3x 2 − 2x + 4; see Fig. 8.17. Following the discussion in A.8.48,
there are infinitely many higher-order parametric curves that cross these three points; however, being
parametrized does not represent a unique set of solutions.

8.50. To say that two or more vectors are linearly independent is to say that they are not parallel, or
to say that their first derivatives are not the same (see chapters on calculus) , or to say that the system’s
242 Linear Algebra

determinant is  = 0. Given
     
3 −2 7
a = b = c =
−2 1 4

(a) The linear combination is

a + nb
c = k
∴
     
7 3 −2
=k +n
−4 −2 1

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

7 = 3k − 2n
−4 = −2k + n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

3 −2    
= = 3 × 1 − −2 × (−2) = −1 = 0
−2 1

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. More precisely, Cramer’s
rule gives ⎫
7 −2 k −1
k = = −1⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎬
k= = =1
−4 1  −1
∴
3 7 ⎪
⎪
n = =2 ⎪
⎭
n 2
−2 −4 n= = = −2
 −1

which is to say, c = a − 2b.
(b) Given
     
1  3 0
a = b= c =
2 4 −2

The linear combination is

     
0 1 3
a + nb ∴
c = k =k +n
−2 2 4

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

0 = k + 3n
−2 = 2k + 4n
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 243

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

13
= = −2 = 0
24

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. Cramer’s rule gives
⎫
03 ⎪ k 6
k = =6 ⎪
⎪ k= = = −3
−2 4 ⎬  −2
∴
1 0 ⎪
⎪ −2
= −2⎪
⎭ n
n = n= = =1
2 −2  −2

which is to say, c = −3 

a + b.

8.51. To say that two or more vectors are linearly independent is to say that they are not parallel, or
to say that their first derivatives are not the same, or to say that the system’s determinant is  = 0.
Given
     
3 −2 7
a = b = c =
−2 1 4

(a) The linear combination is

a + nb
c = k
∴
     
7 3 −2
=k +n
−4 −2 1

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

7 = 3k − 2n
−4 = −2k + n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

3 −2    
= = 3 × 1 − −2 × (−2) = −1 = 0
−2 1

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. More precisely, Cramer’s
rule gives ⎫
7 −2 k −1
k = = −1⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎬
k= = =1
−4 1  −1
∴
3 7 ⎪
⎪
n = =2 ⎭ ⎪ n 2
−2 −4 n= = = −2
 −1
244 Linear Algebra


which is to say, c = a − 2b.
(b) Given
     
1 3 0
a = b = c =
2 4 −2

The linear combination is

     
0 1 3
a + nb ∴
c = k =k +n
−2 2 4

which is the matrix form of the following system of equations:

0 = k + 3n
−2 = 2k + 4n

Therefore, the determinant is calculated as

13
= = −2 = 0
24

which is to say that equations (i.e., vectors) are indeed independent. Cramer’s rule gives
⎫
k 6
=6 ⎪
03 ⎪
k = ⎪ k= = = −3
−2 4 ⎬  −2
∴
1 0 ⎪
⎪ −2
= −2⎪
⎭ n
n = n= = =1
2 −2  −2

which is to say, c = −3 

a + b.

8.52. Parallel vectors are said to be “collinear” (i.e., angle between them is either zero or π ), as
oppose to “orthogonal” (i.e., angle between them is ±π/2) or any other arbitrary angle between them.
Recalling that the slope of a linear function is calculated as its first derivative, then another method to
establish spatial relationship (i.e., parallel, orthogonal, etc.) between two vectors is to calculate and
compare their respective first derivatives; see chapters on calculus.

Reminder: One or more vectors are linearly independent if they are not collinear. One possible
way to formalize that statement is to write

if x = k y ⇒ (
x , y) are collinear

where k is the multiplying constant. Alternatively, the determinant of matrix that includes
collinear vectors equals zero.
8.5 Cramer’s Rule 245

Given
   
3  2
a = b=
λ 6

Method 1: saying that vectors a and b are collinear is to say that, for example,
   
3 2
a = k b ∴ =k
λ 6

where k is the multiplying parameter not equal to zero. Then, this system of equations is

3 = 2k 3
∴ k = 3/2 and if, λ = 6k ∴ λ = 6A 3 =9
λ = 6k 2A

resulting in
       
3  2 3 3 2
a = , b= ∴ =
9 6 9 2 6

i.e., if λ = 9, they are dependent.

Method 2: given
   
2 3
b = k
a ∴ =k
6 λ

determinant is then calculated as

32
 = a b = = 3 × 6 − 2λ = 18 − 2λ = 0 ∴ λ = 9
λ6

In conclusion, for any λ = 9 these two vectors are independent (i.e. not parallel). Otherwise for
λ = 9 they are dependent (i.e. parallel), which is the consequence of a simple 3/2 multiplication factor
between the two vectors.

8.53. Method 1: given vectors

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
6 3 λ
a = ⎣ 8 ⎦ b = ⎣ 4 ⎦ c = ⎣ 0 ⎦
4 2 1

it is evident that a may be factored as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
6 3
a = 8 = 2 4 ⎦ ≡ 2 b
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
4 2
246 Linear Algebra

which is to say that (  are collinear (i.e., dependent) regardless of λ.

a , b)

Method 2: the determinant of matrix of these three vectors is

=+6×4×1+3×0×4+λ×8×2

63λ 6 3 −4×4×λ−2×0×6−1×8×3
= 840 8 4 +H
=
24 H−H
16λ H−
16λ = 0
24
421 4 2

that is to say, the determinant equals zero regardless of λ; consequently, these three vectors are
independent for any value of λ.

8.6 Vector Space

The modern interpretation of matrices is illustrated by multidimensional space, where column vectors
are assembled together into a matrix, which then depicts various transformations of the given space.
In order to visualize these transformations, it is sufficient to follow the base vector transformations.
Note that base vectors define the “unit volume of their respective space”. That is to say, in the case of
1D space, it is “unit” line length; in the case of 2D space, it is “unit” square surface; and in the case
of 3D or higher-order space, it is “unit volume”. It is assumed that the space is perfectly “stretchable”
in any direction and to any distance and direction. A banal example of a 2D space (epitomized as a
plain sheet of paper) transformation may be a simple rotation by 90◦ clockwise relative to one of its
corner points; see Sect. 8.3.

8.54. Given matrix–vector product

  
1 1 3
2 −1 0

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

        
1 1 3 1 1 3
L v = = 3 +0 =
2 −1 0 2 −1 6

The geometric interpretation of this operation may be illustrated by vector v = 3i + 0j that is
transformed to L( v ) = 3 L(i) + 0 L(j) ≡ 3i + 6j by means of space transformation L; see Fig. 8.18.
Note that coordinates of transformed L( i ) and L( j ) are set by the columns of L transformation
matrix.
Therefore, the result of matrix–vector product L( v ) = (3, 6) is shown in the units of the original
(i.e., non-transformed basis vectors i and j), as illustrated in Fig. 8.18.

8.55. Given matrix–vector product

8.6 Vector Space 247

Fig. 8.18 Example P.8.54 R2 space L( i ) L( j ) L( v ) = 3L( i )

 
1 1
v = 3i + 0j 2 −1  
3
0

L
6
j v
  (0, 0) 3
(0, 0) i 3
0

  √ 
1 1 1+ 3
2 −1 2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

  √       √ 
1 1 1+ 3 √ 1 1 3 + √3
L v = = (1 + 3) +2 =
2 −1 2 2 −1 2 3

Note however that

  √ ! √ !
√ √ 3 √ 3 3 √ 3
3
3+ 3= 3 √ +1 = 3 √ √ +1 = 3 +1
3 3 3 3

√  √ 
= 3 1+ 3

that is to say,
  √  √ √   √ 
1 1 1+ 3 3 (1 + √3) √ 1+ 3 √
L v = = = 3 = 3 v
2 −1 2 2 3 2

In other words, after the space transformation

√ L, this particular vector v stayed collinear; it was
simply multiplied by a constant “ 3”; see Fig. 8.19. Compare with the vector v in P.8.54 subjected
to the same space transformation L.

Reminder: If matrix L does not affect the direction of a certain vector v, as

L v = λ v

then it is said that this particular vector v is an eigenvector of its associated transformation
matrix L and constant λ is referred to as an eigenvalue of this matrix L. Existence of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors for a given matrix is a very important property. Not all matrices
have eigenvalues and subsequently do not have eigenvectors.
248 Linear Algebra

Fig. 8.19 Example P.8.55 √

R2 space L( v ) = (1 + 3) L( i ) + 2L( j )
L( i ) L( j )
 
1 1
2 −1

√
v = (1 + 3) i + 2j
L
v √
2 3 L( v )

j
(0, 0) i 1+
√
3
√
3(1 +
√
3)

Fig. 8.20 Example P.8.56 √

R2 space L( v ) = (1 − 3) L( i ) + 2L( j )
L( i ) L( j )
 
1 1
2 −1
L( i )
√
v = (1 − 3) i + 2j
L
(0, 0) L( j )
v

8.56. Given matrix–vector product

  √ 
1 1 1− 3
2 −1 2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

  √       √ 
1 1 1− 3 √ 1 1 3 − √3
L v = = (1 − 3) +2 =
2 −1 2 2 −1 −2 3

Note however that

  √ ! √ !
√ √ 3 √ 3 3 √ 3
3
3 − 3 = − 3 −√ + 1 = − 3 −√ √ + 1 = − 3 − +1
3 3 3 3

√  √ 
=− 3 1− 3

that is to say,
  √   √ √   √ 
1 1 1− 3 − 3 (1 − √3) √ 1− 3 √
L v = = =− 3 = − 3 v
2 −1 2 −2 3 2

In other words, after the space transformation

√ L, this particular vector v stayed collinear; it was
simply multiplied by a constant
√ “− 3”; see Fig. 8.20 (compare with P.8.54). In conclusion, this
particular constant λ = − 3 happens to be an eigenvalue, and therefore, this particular vector v is
its associated eigenvector of the given transformation matrix L.
8.6 Vector Space 249

R2 space L( v ) = −5L( i ) + 3L( j ) R2 space L( v ) = 3L( i ) − 2L( j )

L( i ) L( j ) 
L( i ) L( j )

2 −1 2 −3
3 2 L( v ) 1 2
(0, 0)

v = −5i + 3 j L v = 3i − 2 j L
−1
v j (0, 0)
 
j
−9 i
−5
(0, 0)
3
L( v )
v
(0, 0) i

−13 12

Fig. 8.21 Example P.8.57, P.8.58

8.57. Given matrix–vector product

  
2 −1 −5
3 2 3

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

        
2 −1 −5 2 −1 −13
L v = = −5 +3 =
3 2 3 3 2 −9

That is, vector v = −5i + 3j is transformed to L(v ) = −5 L(i) + 3 L(j) ≡ −13i − 9j by means of
space transformation L; see Fig. 8.21. Note that coordinates of transformed L( i ) and L( j ) are set
by the columns of L transformation matrix.
Therefore, the result of matrix–vector product L( v ) = (−13, −9) is shown in the units of the
original (i.e., non-transformed basis vectors i and j), as illustrated in Fig. 8.21 (left).

8.58. Given matrix–vector product

  
2 −3 3
1 2 −2

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

        
2 −3 3 2 −3 12
L v = =3 + (−2) =
1 2 −2 1 2 −1

That is, vector v = 3i − 2j is transformed to L(

v ) = 3 L(i) − 2 L(j) ≡ 12i − j by means of space
transformation L; see Fig. 8.21 (right). Note that coordinates of transformed L( i ) and L( j ) are set
by the columns of L transformation matrix.
Therefore, the result of matrix–vector product L( v ) = (12, −1) is shown in the units of the
original (i.e., non-transformed basis vectors i and j), as illustrated in Fig. 8.21 (right).

8.59. Given matrix–vector product

250 Linear Algebra

R2 space L( i ) L( j ) L( v ) = 4 L( i ) = 4 L( j )
 
1 1  
1
2 2 4
2
v = 3i + j
5 1
(0, 0)
L
v −4
j
  (0, 0)
(0, 0) i 3
1
1

Fig. 8.22 Example P.8.59, P.8.60

  
11 3
22 1

it may be calculated as a linear combination.

          
11 3 1 1 4 1
L v = =3 +1 = =4 = 4 L( i ) = 4 L( j )
22 1 2 2 8 2

It is to be noted that the two rows of transformation matrix are not independent, that is to say, one can
be derived as the multiple of the other.
Consequently, L( i ) and L( j ) are collinear, and furthermore, the transformed vector L(v) is
aligned with both of them at the same time. Another hint is that determinant |L| = 0. The geometrical
interpretation of this case is that the original 2D space collapsed into 1D space; see Fig. 8.22 (left).
This is the general consequence of transformations whose determinant equals zero.

8.60. Given matrix–matrix product

  
1 1 2 −1
2 −1 3 2

geometrically, it may be interpreted as “linear transformation of linear transformation”, i.e., two

transformations happening at the same time. That is to say, in practical sense, matrix–matrix product
may be decomposed into two matrix–vector products. Then, the two resulting vectors are simply
combined in the final matrix as
    
1 1 2 −1 i j
= x x
2 −1 3 2 iy jy

That is to say,
          
i : 1 1 2 1 1 (2 + 3) 5
= 2 +3 = =
2 −1 3 2 −1 (4 − 3) 1
          
1 1 −1 1 1 (−1 + 2) 1
j : = ( −1) +2 = =
2 −1 2 2 −1 (−2 − 2) −4
8.6 Vector Space 251

so that the final result is

    
1 1 2 −1 5 1
=
2 −1 3 2 1 −4

The overall transformation is illustrated in Fig. 8.22 (right) where narrow line arrows represent the
first transformations of i and j at ( 1, 2) and ( 1, −1) (i.e., left-side matrix), as measured by the units
of the original space. Then, wide line arrows represent the final destination of i and j after the second
transformations (i.e., right-side matrix).

8.61. Given matrix–matrix product

  
2 −1 2 −3
3 2 1 2

then, it follows
    
2 −1 2 −3 i j
= x x
3 2 1 2 iy jy

where
          
i : 2 −1 2 2 −1 (4 − 1) 3
=2 + = =
3 2 1 3 2 (6 + 2) 8
          
2 −1 −3 2 −1 (−6 − 2) −8
j : = (−3) +2 = =
3 2 2 3 2 (−9 + 4) −5

Therefore,
    
2 −1 2 −3 3 −8
=
3 2 1 2 8 −5

8.62. Given matrix–matrix product

  
2 −3 1 1
1 2 2 −1

it follows that
    
2 −3 1 1 i j
= x x
1 2 2 −1 iy jy

where
          
i : 2 −3 1 2 −3 (2 − 6) −4
= +2 = =
1 2 2 1 2 (1 + 4) 5
252 Linear Algebra

          
2 −3 1 2 −3 (2 + 3) 5
j : = + (−1) = =
1 2 −1 1 2 (1 − 2) −1

Therefore,
    
2 −3 1 1 −4 5
=
1 2 2 −1 5 −1

8.63. Given matrix–matrix product

  
2 −1 1 1
3 2 2 −1

it follows that
    
2 −1 1 1 ix jx
=
3 2 2 −1 iy jy

where
          
i : 2 −1 1 2 −1 (2 − 2) 0
= +2 = =
3 2 2 3 2 (3 + 4) 7
          
2 −1 1 2 −1 (2 + 1) 3
j : = + (−1) = =
3 2 −1 3 2 (3 − 2) 1

Therefore,
    
2 −1 1 1 0 3
=
3 2 2 −1 7 1

By comparison with P.8.60, note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation.

8.64. Given matrix–matrix product

  
2 −3 2 −1
1 2 3 2

it follows that
    
2 −3 2 −1 ix jx
=
1 2 3 2 iy jy

where
          
i : 2 −3 2 2 −3 (4 − 9) −5
=2 +3 = =
1 2 3 1 2 (2 + 6) 8
          
2 −3 −1 2 −3 (−2 − 6) −8
j : = (−1) +2 = =
1 2 2 1 2 (−1 + 4) 3
8.6 Vector Space 253

Therefore,
    
2 −3 2 −1 −5 −8
=
1 2 3 2 8 3

By comparison with P.8.61, note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation.

8.65. Given matrix–matrix product

  
1 1 2 −3
2 −1 1 2

it follows that
    
1 1 2 −3 i j
= x x
2 −1 1 2 iy jy

where
          
i : 1 1 2 1 1 (2 + 1) 3
=2 + = =
2 −1 1 2 −1 (4 − 1) 3
          
1 1 −3 1 1 (−3 + 2) −1
j : = (−3) +2 = =
2 −1 2 2 −1 (−6 − 2) −8

Therefore,
    
1 1 2 −3 3 −1
=
2 −1 1 2 3 −8

By comparison with P.8.65, note that matrix–matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation.

8.66. Two non-square matrices are multiplied as same as two square matrices while keeping in mind
that

Reminder: product C of two non-square matrices A, B is possible if the number of columns

n in the left-side matrix is equal to the number or rows k in the matrix on the right side. The
resulting matrix has the number of rows m of the left-side matrix and the number of columns l
of the right-side matrix, as

Am,n Bn,l = Cm,l

which is not necessarily a square matrix.

Given matrix–product of two vectors

254 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤
 1
1 2 3 ⎣2⎦
3

note that the left-side matrix is in “1, 3” format and the right-side matrix is in “3, 1” format; thus, the
resulting product must be a matrix sized as “1, 1”, because the number of rows on the left is “1” and
the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “1”. Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
 1  
1 2 3 ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 1 · 1 + 2 · 2 + 3 · 3 = 14
3

8.67. Given matrix–product of two vectors

⎡ ⎤
1 
⎣2⎦ 1 2 3
3

note that the left-side matrix is in “3, 1” format and the right-side matrix is in “1, 3” format; thus, the
resulting product must be a matrix sized as “3, 3”, because the number of rows on the left is “3” and
the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “3”. Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1·1 1·2 1·3 123
1 2 3 ⎣2⎦ = ⎣2·1 2·2 2·3⎦ = ⎣2 4 6⎦
3 3·1 3·2 3·3 369

8.68. Given matrix–product of two vectors

⎡ ⎤
 1 2
3 01 ⎣
5 −1 ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1

note that the left-side matrix is in “2, 3” format and the right-side matrix is in “3, 2” format; thus, the
resulting product must be a matrix sized as “2, 2”, because the number of rows on the left is “2” and
the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “2”. Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
  1 2  
3 01 ⎣ ⎦ ix jx
5 −1 =
−2 −1 4 iy jy
0 1

where
⎡ ⎤
  1        
i : 3 0 1 ⎣5⎦ = 3 0 1 3
+5 +0 =
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4 −7
0
⎡ ⎤
  2        
 3 0 1 ⎣ ⎦ 3 0 1 7
j: −1 = 2 + (−1) + =
−2 −1 4 −2 −1 4 1
1
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 255

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
  1 2  
3 01 ⎣ ⎦ 3 7
5 −1 =
−2 −1 4 −7 1
0 1

8.69. Given matrix–product of two vectors

⎡ ⎤
1 2  
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 01
−2 −1 4
0 1

note that the left-side matrix is in “3, 2” format and the right-side matrix is in “2, 3” format; thus, the
resulting product must be a matrix sized as “3, 3”, because the number of rows on the left is “3” and
the number of columns on the right-side vector is also “3”. Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   ix jx kx
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 0 1
= ⎣ iy jy ky ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1 iz jz kz

where
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 −1
i : ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3
= 3 ⎣ 5 ⎦ + (−2) ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 17 ⎦
−2
0 1 0 1 −2
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 −2
0
j : ⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ = 0 ⎣ 5 ⎦ + (−1) ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1⎦
−1
0 1 0 1 −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   1 2 9
 ⎣ 1
k: 5 −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦ + 4 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
4
0 1 0 1 4

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2   −1 −2 9
⎣ 5 −1 ⎦ 3 01
= ⎣ 17 1 1 ⎦
−2 −1 4
0 1 −2 −1 4

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

8.70. Simple calculation of a matrix–vector product is

        
3 −3 3 (3 × 3 − 1 × 3) 6 3
A v = = = = 2 = λ v
2 −4 1 (2 × 3 − 4 × 1) 2 1

Therefore, v is an eigenvector of matrix A, and its associated eigenvalue is λ = 2.

256 Linear Algebra

8.71. Simple calculation of a matrix–vector product is

        
3 −3 2 (2 × 3 − 1 × 3) 3 2
A v = = = = λ
2 −4 1 (2 × 2 − 4 × 1) 0 1

Therefore, v is not an eigenvector of matrix A because there is no eigenvalue λ for which the definition
equation is possible.

8.72. Given
 
6 −1
2 3

one possible procedure to calculate its eigenvalues and eigenvectors (if existing) may be:

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
       
6 −1 10 6 −1 λ0
det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
2 3 01 2 3 0λ
6 − λ −1
= = (6 − λ)(3 − λ) − 2(−1) = λ2 − 9λ + 20
2 3−λ
= λ2 − 5λ − 4λ + 20 = λ(λ − 5) − 4(λ − 5) = (λ − 5)(λ − 4) = 0
∴ λ1 = 4, λ2 = 5

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 4, and λ2 = 5.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 4:
        
6 −1 10 x 6 − 4 −1 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −4 =
2 3 01 y 2 3−4 y
    
2 −1 x 0
= =
2 −1 y 0

Therefore, the objective is to calculate ( x, y) coordinates of v1 . Evidently, rows of this simple 2D
matrix are not independent, which implies that this system of equations must have a parametrized
set of solutions. It may be resolved in the extended matrix form as
   
2 −1 0 ← (1) ÷ 2 1 −1/2 0
=
2 −1 0 2 −1 0 ← (2) − 2(1)
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 257

 
1 −1/2 0 ← (1)
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 !!!

That is to say, as the consequence of two equations being dependent, the second equation collapses
into its trivial case. Thus, because it is multiplied by zero, coordinate y may take an arbitrary
value (except the infinity), and the second equation is still correct. That being the case, it may be
parametrized as y = t , where t is an arbitrary parameter. By substitution of y in ← (1), it follows
that

1 1 1
1x − y = 0 ∴ 1x − t = 0 ⇒ x = t
2 2 2

which is to say, the first equation is correct for any value of y as long as y is two times the value
of x. It means that the parametrized form of v1 is
       
x t/2 1/2 1
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
Case λ2 = 5: repeated procedure results in

       
6 −1 10 x 6 − 5 −1 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = −5 =
2 3 01 y 2 3−5 y
    
1 −1 x 0
= =
2 −2 y 0

Therefore,
   
1 −1 0 1 −1 0
=
2 −2 0 ← (2) − 2(1) 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1x − 1y = 0 ∴ x − 1t = 0 ⇒ x = t

which is to say that y must be equal to x and therefore the parametrized form of v2 is
     
t 1 1
v2 = =t =
t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
3. Verification:
        
6 −1 1 (1 · 6 + 2 · (−1)) 4 1
A v1 = = = =4 = λ1 v1
2 3 2 (1 · 2 + 2 · 3) 8 2
258 Linear Algebra

        
6 −1 1 (1 · 6 + 1 · (−1)) 5 1
A v2 = = = =5 = λ2 v2
2 3 1 (1 · 2 + 1 · 3) 5 1

8.73. Given
 
−6 3
45

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴

       
−6 3 10 −6 3 λ0
det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
45 01 45 0λ
−6 − λ 3
= = (−6 − λ)(5 − λ) − 4 · 3 = λ2 + λ − 42
4 5−λ
= λ2 − 6λ + 7λ − 42 = λ(λ − 6) + 7(λ − 6) = (λ − 6)(λ + 7) = 0
∴ λ1 = 6, λ2 = −7

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 6, and λ2 = −7.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 6:
        
−6 3 10 x −6 − 6 3 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −6 =
45 01 y 4 5−6 y
    
−12 3 x 0
= =
4 −1 y 0

Therefore, the objective is to calculate ( x, y) coordinates of v1 . Evidently, rows of this simple 2D
matrix are not independent, which implies that this system of equations must have a parametrized
set of solutions. It may be resolved in the extended matrix form as
   
−12 3 0 ← (1) ÷ [−12] 1 −1/4 0
=
4 −1 0 4 −1 0 ← (2) − 4(1)
 
1 −1/4 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 !!!

That is to say, as the consequence of two equations being dependent, the second equation collapses
into its trivial case. Thus (see A.8.72), y = t , where t is an arbitrary parameter. By substitution of
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 259

y in the first row, it follows that

1 1 1
1x − y = 0 ∴ 1x − t = 0 ⇒ x = t
4 4 4

which is to say that the first equation is correct for any value of y as long as it is four times the
value of x. It means that the parametrized form of v1 is
       
x t/4 1/4 1
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 4

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
Case λ2 = −7: repeated procedure results in
        
−6 3 10 x −6 + 7 3 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = − (−7) =
45 01 y 4 5+7 y
    
1 3 x 0
= =
4 12 y 0

Therefore,
   
1 30 1 30
=
4 12 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1 x + 3 y = 0 ∴ x + 3 t = 0 ⇒ x = −3t

which is to say, in plain words, that x must be equal to “−3y”. Therefore, v2 is
     
−3t −3 −3
v2 = =t =
t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
3. Verification:
        
−6 31 (1 · (−6) + 4 · 3) 6 1
A v1 = = = =6 = λ1 v1
45 4 (1 · 4 + 5 · 4) 24 4
        
−6 3 −3 ((−3) · (−6) + 1 · 3) 21 −3
A v2 = = = = −7 = λ2 v2
45 1 ((−3) · 4 + 1 · 5) −7 1

8.74. Given
260 Linear Algebra

 
10 −5
5 2

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
       
10 −5 10 10 −5 λ0
det (A − λ I ) = −λ = −
5 2 01 5 2 0λ
10 − λ −5
= = (10 − λ)(2 − λ) − 5 · (−5) = λ2 − 12λ + 45
5 2−λ
=0
∴ λ1 = 6 − 3j, λ2 = 6 + 3j (j 2 = −1)

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 6 − 3j, and λ2 = 6 + 3j .

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 6 − 3j :
  
10 − (6 − 3j ) −5 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 =
5 2 − (6 − 3j ) y
    
4 + 3j −5 x 0
= =
5 −4 + 3j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
4 + 3j −5 0 ← (1) · [4 − 3j ] 25 −20 + 15j 0 ← (1) ÷ 25
=
5 −4 + 3j 0 5 −4 + 3j 0
   
1 −4/5 + 3/5 j 0 1 −4/5 + 3/5 j 0
= =
5 −4 + 3j 0 ← (2) − 5(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1 x + (−4/5 + 3/5 j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (−4/5 + 3/5 j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (4/5 − 3/5 j ) t

so that
       
x (4/5 − 3/5 j ) t 4/5 − 3/5 j 4 − 3j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 5
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 261

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 5 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 6 + 3j :
       
10 − (6 + 3j ) −5 x 4 − 3j −5 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = = =
5 2 − (6 + 3j ) y 5 −4 − 3j y 0

Again,
   
4 − 3j −5 0 ← (1) · [4 + 3j ] 25 −20 − 15j 0 ← (1) ÷ 25
=
5 −4 − 3j 0 5 −4 − 3j 0
   
1 −4/5 − 3/5 j 0 1 −4/5 − 3/5 j 0
= =
5 −4 − 3j 0 ← (2) − 5(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1 x + (−4/5 − 3/5 j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (−4/5 − 3/5 j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (4/5 + 3/5 j ) t

so that
       
x (4/5 + 3/5 j ) t 4/5 + 3/5 j 4 + 3j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 5

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 5 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

8.75. Given
 
2 −5
4 6

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
2 − λ −5
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(6 − λ) − 4 · (−5) = λ2 − 8λ + 32 = 0
4 6−λ
∴ λ1 = 4 − 4j, λ2 = 4 + 4j (j 2 = −1)

Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 4 − 4j, and λ2 = 4 + 4j .

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that
262 Linear Algebra

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = 4 − 4j :
       
2 − (4 − 4j ) −5 x −2 + 4j −5 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = = =
4 6 − (4 − 4j ) y 4 2 + 4j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
−2 + 4j −5 0 ← (1) · [−2 − 4j ] 20 10 + 20j 0 ← (1) ÷ 20
=
4 2 + 4j 0 4 2 + 4j 0
   
1 1/2 + j 0 1 1/2 + j 0
= =
4 2 + 4j 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1 x + (1/2 + j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (1/2 + j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (−1/2 − j ) t

so that
       
x (−1/2 − j ) t −1/2 − j −1 − 2 j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 4 + 4j :
       
2 − (4 + 4j ) −5 x −2 − 4j −5 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = = =
4 6 − (4 + 4j ) y 4 2 − 4j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
−2 − 4j −5 0 ← (1) · [−2 + 4j ] 20 10 − 20j 0 ← (1) ÷ 20
=
4 2 − 4j 0 4 2 − 4j 0
   
1 1/2 − j 0 1 1/2 − j 0
= =
4 2 − 4j 0 ← (2) − 4(1) 0 00

=
⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1 x + (1/2 − j ) y = 0 ∴ x + (1/2 − j ) t = 0 ⇒ x = (−1/2 + j ) t

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 263

so that
       
x (−1/2 + j ) t −1/2 + j −1 + 2 j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

8.76. Given
  √ 
cos π/6 − sin π/6 3/2 −1/2
= √
sin π/6 cos π/6 1/2 3/2

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
√
3/2 − λ √ −1/2 √ √ √
det (A − λ I ) = 1/2 3/2 − λ
= ( 3/2 − λ)( 3/2 − λ) + 1/4 = λ2 − 3 λ + 1 = 0
√ √
∴ λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j, λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j (j 2 = −1)
√ √
Therefore, two distinct eigenvalues of matrix A are λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j, and λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j .
2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)
√
Case λ1 = 3/2 − 1/2 j :
√ √  
− ( 3/2 − 1/2 j ) √
3/2 −1/2 x
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = √
1/2 3/2 − ( 3/2 − 1/2 j ) y
    
1/2 j −1/2 x 0
= =
1/2 1/2 j y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
−1/2 0 ← (1) · [−2 j ]
1/2 j 1 j 0
=
1/2 1/2 j 0 1/2 1/2 j 0 ← (2) − 1/2(1)
 
1 j 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

1 x + j y = 0 ∴ x + j t = 0 ⇒ x = −j t
264 Linear Algebra

       
x −j t −j −j
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

√
Case λ2 = 3/2 + 1/2 j :
√ √  
− ( 3/2 + 1/2 j ) √
3/2 −1/2 x
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = √
1/2 3/2 − ( 3/2 + 1/2 j ) y
    
−1/2 j −1/2 x 0
= 1/2 −1/2 j
=
y 0

Complex matrices may be solved as same as matrices with real coefficients, as

   
−1/2 j −1/2 0 ← (1) · [2 j ] 1 −j 0
1/2 −1/2 j 0
= 1/2 −1/2 j 0 ← (2) − 1/2(1)
 
1 −j 0
=
0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t

and

1x − j y = 0 ∴ x − j t = 0 ⇒ x = j t

so that
       
x jt j j
v2 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

8.77. Given
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2
A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ 1 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1

The matrix vector products is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 2 ((−2) · 2 + (−9) · 1 + (−1) · 1) −14
A v = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (2 · 2 + (−6) · 1 + (−5) · 1) ⎦ = ⎣ −7 ⎦
−4 −3 4 1 ((−4) · 2 + (−3) · 1 + 4 · 1) −7
⎡ ⎤
2
= −7 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ v
1

Therefore, v is an eigenvector and λ = −7 is an eigenvalue of A.

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 265

8.78. Given
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 4
A = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ , v = ⎣ −3 ⎦
−4 −3 4 7

The matrix vector products is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 −9 −1 4 ((−2) · 4 + (−9) · (−3) + (−1) · 7) 12
A v = ⎣ 2 −6 −5 ⎦ ⎣ −3 ⎦ = ⎣ (2 · 4 + (−6) · (−3) + (−5) · 7) ⎦ = ⎣ −9 ⎦
−4 −3 4 7 ((−4) · 4 + (−3) · (−3) + 4 · 7) 21
⎡ ⎤
4
= 3 ⎣ −3 ⎦ = λ v
7

Therefore, v is an eigenvector and λ = 3 is an eigenvalue of A.

8.79. Given
⎡ ⎤
300
⎣0 5 1⎦
042

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

3−λ 0 0
det (A − λ I ) = 0 5−λ 1 (take advantage of zeros to calculate )
0 4 2−λ
5−λ 1 · · · ·
= (3 − λ) −0 +0
4 2−λ · · · ·
 
= (3 − λ) (5 − λ)(2 − λ) − 4
= −λ3 + 10λ2 − 27λ + 18 = 0

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 3, and λ3 = 6.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 4 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
041 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

266 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2000 ← (1) ÷ [2] 1 0 0 0
⎣ 0 4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [4] = ⎣ 0 1 1/4 0⎦
0410 0 4 1 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 00
⎣ 0 1 1/4 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2),

1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ⇒ x = 0
0 x + 1 y + 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −1/4 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1/4 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 4

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 3:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
00 0 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 0 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −1 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
00 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ x = t
⎣ 0 2 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2]
0 4 −1 0 ← (3) ÷ [4]
⎡ ⎤
0 0 00 x=t
⎣ 0 1 1/2 0 ⎦
0 1 −1/4 0

that is to say, x = t; then from rows (2) and (3), it follows that

0 x + 1 y + 1/2 z = 0 ⇒ y = 1/2 z
0 x + 1 y − 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 z

which is possible only if z = 0 followed by y = 0. Consequently,

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 267

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

Case λ3 = 6:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 0 0 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −4 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−3 0 0 0 ← (1) ÷ [−3] 1 0 0 0
⎣ 0 −1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 1 −1 0⎦ =
0 4 −4 0 0 4 −4 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 00
⎣ 0 1 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z=t

that is to say, z = t; then from rows (1) and (2), it follows that

1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ⇒ x = 0
0x + 1y − 1z = 0 ⇒ y = z = t

In other words, as long as y = z, any arbitrary value (except infinity) of t is valid. Consequently,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 0 3 · 0 + 0 · (−1) + 0 · 4 0 0
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 5 · (−1) + 1 · 4 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
042 4 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 2 · 4 4 4
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 1 3·1 + 0·0 + 0·0 3 1
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 1 + 5 · 0 + 1 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 3 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2
042 0 0·1 + 4·0 + 2·0 0 0
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 0 3·0 + 0·1 + 0·1 0 0
⎣ 0 5 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 5 · 1 + 1 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 6 ⎦ = 6 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ3 v3
042 1 0·0 + 4·1 + 2·1 6 1
268 Linear Algebra

8.80. Given
⎡ ⎤
200
⎣0 4 5⎦
043

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

2−λ 0 0
det (A − λ I ) = 0 4−λ 5 (take advantage of zeros to calculate )
0 4 3−λ
4−λ 5 · · · ·
= (2 − λ) −0 +0
4 3−λ · · · ·
 
= (2 − λ) (4 − λ)(3 − λ) − 20
= −λ3 + 9λ2 − 6λ − 16 = 0

Three roots (see chapters on algebra) of this characteristic polynomial are λ1 = −1, λ2 =
2, and λ3 = 8.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = −1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
300 x 0
⎣
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = 0 5 5 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
044 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
3000 ← (1) ÷ [3] 1 00 0
⎣0 5 5 0⎦ ← (2) ÷ [5] = ⎣ 0 1 1 0⎦
0440 0 44 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦
00 00 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z = t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2),

0 x + 1 y + 1 z = 0 ⇒ y = −t

so that
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 269

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 x 0
⎣
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = 0 2 5 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
041 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 0 ⇒ x=t 0 0 00
⎣025 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] = ⎣ 0 1 5/2 0 ⎦
041 0 ← (3) ÷ [4] 0 1 1/4 0

which is to say that x = t, and from rows (2) and (3),

0 x + 1 y + 5/2 z = 0 ⇒ y = −5/2 z
0 x + 1 y + 1/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = −1/4 z

which is possible only if z = 0 ; then it follows that y = 0 . That being the case,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 8:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−6 0 0 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 0 −4 5 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 4 −5 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−6 0 0 0 ← (1) ÷ [−6] 1 0 00
⎣ 0 −4 5 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−4] = ⎣ 0 1 −5/4 0 ⎦ =
0 4 −5 0 0 4 −5 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣ 0 1 −5/4 0 ⎦
00 0 0 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ z = t
270 Linear Algebra

which is to say that z = t, and from row (2),

0 x + 1 y − 5/4 z = 0 ⇒ y = 5/4 t

That being the case,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 5/4 t ⎦ = t ⎣ 5/4 ⎦ = ⎣ 5 ⎦
z t 1 4

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 4 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 0 2 · 0 + 0 · (−1) + 0 · 1 0 0
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 5 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
043 1 0 · 0 + 4 · (−1) + 3 · 1 −1 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 1 2·1 + 0·0 + 0·0 2 1
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 1 + 4 · 0 + 5 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2
043 0 0·1 + 4·0 + 3·0 0 0
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 0 2·0 + 0·5 + 0·4 0 0
⎣ 0 4 5 ⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 · 0 + 4 · 5 + 5 · 4 ⎦ = ⎣ 40 ⎦ = 8 ⎣ 5 ⎦ = λ3 v3
043 4 0·0 + 4·5 + 3·4 32 4

8.81. Given
⎡ ⎤
4 6 10
⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦
−2 −6 −8

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

4−λ 6 10
det (A − λ I ) = 3 10 − λ 13
−2 −6 −8 − λ
10 − λ 13 3 13 3 10 − λ
= (4 − λ) −6 + 10
−6 −8 − λ −2 −8 − λ −2 −6
 
= (4 − λ) (10 − λ)(−8 − λ) − (−6) × 13
 
− 6 3(−8 − λ) − (−2) × 13
 
+ 10 3 × (−6) − (−2)(10 − λ)
= (−λ3 + 6λ2 − 6λ − 8) + (−12 + 18λ) + (20 − 20λ)
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 271

= −λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0

Roots of this characteristic polynomial may be found as

−λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0
−λ(λ2 − 6λ + 8) = 0
−λ(λ2 − 4λ − 2λ + 8) = 0

 
−λ λ(λ − 4) − 2(λ − 4) = 0
−λ(λ − 2)(λ − 4) = 0
∴
λ1 = 0, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 4

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 0:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = A v1 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 0 ← (1) ÷ [4] 1 3/2 5/2 0
⎣ 3 10 13 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 10 13 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 3 × (1)
−2 −6 −8 0 −2 −6 −8 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3/2 5/2 0 1 3/2 5/2 0
= ⎣ 0 11/2 11/2 0 ⎦ ← (2) × 2/11 = ⎣ 0 1 1 0 ⎦
0 3/2 3/2 0 ← (3) × 2/3 0 1 1 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 3/2 5/2 0 ⇒ 1 x + 3/2 y + 3/2 z = 0
⎣
= 0 1 10 ⎦ ⇒ 0x + 1y + 1z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1), it follows that

y + z = 0 ∴ y = −z ∴ y = −t
3 5 3 5
x + y + z = 0 ∴ x − t + t = 0 ∴ x + t = 0 ∴ x = −t
2 2 2 2

so that
272 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −t −1 −1
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 6 10 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 3 8 13 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
−2 −6 −10 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 6 10 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 1 3 50
⎣ 3 8 13 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 8 13 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 3(1)
−2 −6 −10 0 −2 −6 −10 0 ← (3) + 2(1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3 50 13 50 ⇒ 1x + 3y + 5z = 0
= ⎣ 0 −1 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 1 2 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 1 y + 2 z = 0
0 0 00 00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from (2) and (1) rows,

y + 2z = 0 ∴ y = −2z ∴ y = −2t

x + 3y + 5z = 0 ∴ x − 6t + 5t = 0 ∴ x − t = 0 ∴ x = t

and
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −2t ⎦ = t ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 4:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 6 10 x 0
(A − λ3 I ) v3 = ⎣ 3 6 13 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −6 −12 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 6 10 0 ← (1) ↔ (2) 3 6 13 0 ← (1) ÷ [3]
⎣ 3 6 13 0⎦ = ⎣ 0 6 10 0⎦
−2 −6 −12 0 −2 −6 −12 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 273

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2 13/3 0 1 2 13/3 0
= ⎣ 0 6 10 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [6] = ⎣ 0 1 5/3 0 ⎦
1 3 6 0 ← (3) − (1) 0 1 5/3 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 2 13/3 0 ⇒ 1 x + 2 y + 13/3 z = 0
⎣
= 0 1 /3 0
5 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 1 y + 5/3 z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1), it follows that

5 5 5
y+ z=0 ∴ y=− z ∴ y=− t
3 3 3
13 10 13
x + 2y + z = 0 ∴ x − t + t = 0 ∴ x + t = 0 ∴ x = −t
3 3 3

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −t −3
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −5t/3 ⎦ = ⎣ −5 ⎦
z t 3

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 3 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 −1 4 · (−1) + 6 · (−1) + 10 · 1 0
A v1 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · (−1) + 10 · (−1) + 13 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
−2 −6 −8 1 −2 · (−1) + (−6) · (−1) + (−8) · 1 0
⎡ ⎤
−1
= 0 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1 (i.e., zero times any vector, including v1 )
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 1 4 · 1 + 6 · (−2) + 10 · 1 2
A v2 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · 1 + 10 · (−2) + 13 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ −4 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 1 −2 · 1 + (−6) · (−2) + (−8) · 1 2
⎡ ⎤
1
= 2 ⎣ −2 ⎦ = λ2 v2
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
4 6 10 −3 4 · (−3) + 6 · (−5) + 10 · 3 −12
A v3 = ⎣ 3 10 13 ⎦ ⎣ −5 ⎦ = ⎣ 3 · (−3) + 10 · (−5) + 13 · 3 ⎦ = ⎣ −20 ⎦
−2 −6 −8 3 −2 · (−3) + (−6) · (−5) + (−8) · 3 12
⎡ ⎤
−3
= 4 ⎣ −5 ⎦ = λ3 v3
3
274 Linear Algebra

8.82. Given
⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2
⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦
−1 1 1

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

2−λ 2 −2
det (A − λ I ) = 1 3 − λ −1
−1 1 1−λ
3 − λ −1 1 −1 1 3−λ
= (2 − λ) −2 −2
1 1−λ −1 1 − λ −1 1
 
= (2 − λ) (3 − λ)(1 − λ) − (−1)
 
− 2 1(1 − λ) − 1

 
− 2 1 − (−1)(3 − λ)
= (−λ3 + 6λ2 − 12λ + 8) + 2λ + (−8 + 2λ)
= −λ3 + 6λ2 − 8λ = 0

Roots of this characteristic polynomial may be found as (see A.8.81)

λ1 = 0, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 4

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 0:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = A v1 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−1 1 1 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 3 −1 0
⎣ 1 3 −1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 2 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 2(1)
−1 1 1 0 ← (3) + (2) 04 00
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 3 −1 0 1 3 −1 0
= ⎣ 0 −4 0 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 −4 0 0⎦
0 4 0 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 0 0 0
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 275

⇒ 1x + 3y − z = 0
⇒ 0x − 4y + 0z = 0
⇒ z=t

That is to say, from rows (2) and (1), it follows that

−4y = 0 ∴ y = 0

x + 3(0) − t = 0 ∴ x = t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2 = ⎣ 1 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−1 1 −1 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 2 −2 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 1 −1 0
⎣ 1 1 −1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 2 −2 0 ⎦
−1 1 −1 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 2 −2 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 1 −1 0 ⇒ 1x + 1y − 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 2 −2 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 2 y − 2 z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t

That is to say, from (2) and (1) rows,

2y − 2z = 0 ∴ y = t

x+y−z=0 ∴ x+t −t =0 ∴ x =0

and
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = y = t = t 1 = 1 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
276 Linear Algebra

Case λ3 = 4:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 −2 x 0
(A − λ I 
v
3 ) 3 = ⎣ 1 −1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0⎦
−1 1 −3 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 −2 0 ← (1) ↔ (2) 1 −1 −1 0
⎣ 1 −1 −1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 2 −2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−2]
−1 1 −3 0 ← (3) + (2) 0 0 −2 0 ← (3) ÷ [−2]
⎡ ⎤
1 −1 −1 0 ⇒ 1x − 1y − 1z = 0
= ⎣ 1 −1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 1 x − 1 y + 1 z = 0
0 0 10 ⇒z=0

That is to say, from rows (1) and (2), it follows that

x−y−0=0 ∴ x =y =t

x−y+0=0 ∴ x =y =t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 1 2 · 1 + 2 · 0 + (−2) · 1 0 1
A v1 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 1 + 3 · 0 + (−1) · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = 0 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ1 v1
−1 1 1 1 (−1) · 1 + 1 · 0 + 1 · 1 0 1

(i.e., zero times any vector, including v1 )

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 0 2 · 0 + 2 · 1 + (−2) · 1 0 0
A v2 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 0 + 3 · 1 + (−1) · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ2 v2
−1 1 1 1 (−1) · 0 + 1 · 1 + 1 · 1 2 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 2 −2 1 2 · 1 + 2 · 1 + (−2) · 0 4 1
A v3 = ⎣ 1 3 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 1 + 3 · 1 + (−1) · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 4 ⎦ = 4 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ3 v3
−1 1 1 0 (−1) · 1 + 1 · 1 + 1 · 0 0 0
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 277

8.83. Given
 
10
21

it follows that

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
1−λ 0
det (A − λ I ) = = (1 − λ)(1 − λ) − 2 · 0 = 0
2 1−λ
∴ λ1 = 1, λ2 = 1

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 1.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 1:
   
000 (1) ↔ (2) 1 0 0 ⇒ x + 0·y = 0 ∴ x = 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = =
200 ← (2) ÷ [2] 0 00 ⇒y=t

that is to say, all vectors are of the form

       
x 0 0 0
v1 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since all eigenvectors are generated by a single eigenvector (by changing t), it is said
that the eigenspace has dimension “1”.
3. Verification:
      
10 0 1·0 + 0·1 0
A v1 = = = = λ1 v1
21 1 2·0 + 1·1 1

8.84. Given
 
20
02

it follows that

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

278 Linear Algebra

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
2−λ 0
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 · 0 = 0
0 2−λ
∴ λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 2.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 2:
 
000 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 =
000 ⇒ 0x + 0y = 0

Consequently, both coordinates (x, y) may be arbitrary, that is to say, two possible eigenvectors
are as follows:
       
x t 1 1
x = t ⇒ y = 0 ∴ v1 = = =t =
y 0 0 0
       
x 0 0 0
y = t ⇒ x = 0 ∴ v2 = = =t =
y t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1. Since there are two distinct eigenvectors, it
is said that the eigenspace has dimension “2”.
3. Verification:
        
20 1 2·1 + 0·0 2 1
A v1 = = = =2 = λ1 v1
02 0 0·1 + 2·0 0 0
        
20 0 2·0 + 0·1 0 0
A v2 = = = =2 = λ2 v2
02 1 0·0 + 2·1 2 1

8.85. Given
 
23
02

it follows that

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) = 0
∴
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 279

2−λ 3
det (A − λ I ) = = (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 · 3 = 0
0 2−λ
∴ λ1 = 2, λ2 = 2

That is to say, there is duplicity of eigenvalues λ1 = λ2 = 2.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) may be calculated as

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2)

Case λ1 = λ2 = 2:
   
0 30 (1) ↔ (2) 000 ⇒x=t
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = =
0 00 030 ⇒ 3y = 0 ∴ y = 0

that is to say, all vectors are of the form

       
x t 1 1
v1 = = =t =
y 0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since all eigenvectors are generated by a single eigenvector (by changing t), it is said
that the eigenspace has dimension “1”.
3. Verification:
        
23 1 2·1 + 3·0 2 1
A v1 = = = =2 = λ1 v1
02 0 0·1 + 2·0 0 0

8.86. Given
⎡ ⎤
324
⎣2 0 2⎦
423

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

det (A − λ I ) =
3−λ 2 4
−λ 2 2 2 2 −λ
= 2 −λ 2 = (3 − λ) −2 +4
2 3−λ 4 3−λ 4 2
4 2 3−λ
     
= (3 − λ) −λ(3 − λ) − 4 − 2 2(3 − λ) − 8 + 4 4 + 4λ
   
= (3 − λ) λ2 − 3λ − 4 − 2 −2λ − 2 + 16 + 16λ
= −λ3 + 6λ2 + 15λ + 8 = −(λ − 8)(x + 1)2 = 0
280 Linear Algebra

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are λ1 = 8, λ2 = −1, and λ3 = −1, i.e., there is
second-order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 8:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−5 2 4 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 2 −8 2 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
4 2 −5 z 0

It can be verified that determinant |A−8I | = 0 indicating that at least two equations are correlated,
i.e., not independent. Consequently, Cramer’s rule cannot deliver the complete solution of this
system of equations. By writing the extended matrix form and doing row transformations,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−5 2 4 0 ← (1) ÷ [−5] 1 −2/5 −4/5 0
⎣ 2 −8 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2] = ⎣ 1 −4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1)
4 2 −5 0 4 2 −5 0 ← (3) − 4(2)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2/5 −4/5 0 1 −2/5 −4/5 0
= ⎣ 0 −18/5 9/5 0 ⎦ ← −5/9 (2) = ⎣ 0 2 −1 0 ⎦
0 18 −9 0 ← (3) ÷ [9] 0 2 −1 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 −2/5 −4/5 0
= ⎣0 2 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z = t in rows (1) and (2),

2 4 2 4
x− y− z=0 ⇒x= y+ z
5 5 5 5
0 x + 2y − z = 0 ⇒ z = 2y
2 4
∴ x= y + 2y = 2y ⇒ x = z = t
5 5

so that x = t, y = t/2, and z = t,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 2
v1 = y = t/2 = t 1/2 = 1 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
z t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2,3 = −1: (double eigenvalue)

8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 281

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
  424 x 0
A − λ2,3 I v2,3 = ⎣2 1 2⎦⎣y ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
424 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
424 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 212 0 212 0
⎣2 1 2 0⎦ = ⎣2 1 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 0 0 0⎦
424 0 ← (3) ÷ [2] 212 0 ← (3) − (1) 000 0

which is to say that, aside from the trivial solution x = y = z = 0, any other linear combinations
that satisfy row (1) are valid solutions, for example,

−y − 2z
2x + y + 2z = 0 ⇒ x =
2
∴
⎤ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t 1 1
if y = 0 : x = −z ∴ x = t, z = −t ⇒ v2 = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = t ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−t −1 −1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t 1 1
y
if z = 0 : x = − ∴ x = t, y = −2 t ⇒ v3 = ⎣ −2 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ −2 ⎦
2
0 0 0

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 2 3·2 + 2·1 + 4·2 16 2
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 2 + 0 · 1 + 2 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ 8 ⎦ = 8 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
423 2 4·2 + 2·1 + 3·2 16 2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 1 3 · 1 + 2 · 0 + 4 · (−1) −1 1
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 1 + 0 · 0 + 2 · (−1) ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ 0 ⎦ = λ2 v2
423 −1 4 · 1 + 2 · 0 + 3 · (−1) 1 −1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
324 1 3 · 1 + 2 · (−2) + 4 · 0 −1 1
⎣ 2 0 2 ⎦ ⎣ −2 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 · 1 + 0 · (−2) + 2 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = −1 ⎣ −2 ⎦ = λ3 v3
423 0 4 · 1 + 2 · (−2) + 3 · 0 0 0

8.87. Given
⎡ ⎤
102
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦
002

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

282 Linear Algebra

det (A − λ I ) =
1−λ 0 2
1−λ 3 · · −1 1 − λ
= −1 1 − λ 3 = (1 − λ) −0 +2
0 2−λ · · 0 0
0 0 2−λ
 
= (1 − λ)(1 − λ)(2 − λ) − 0 + 2 −1 · 0 − 0(1 − λ) = (1 − λ)(1 − λ)(2 − λ)

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are λ1 = 2, λ2 = 1, and λ3 = 1, i.e., there is

second-order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ −1 −1 3 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 00 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form and doing row transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 0 ← (1) ÷ [−1] 1 0 −2 0 ⇒ 1x + 0y − 2z = 0
⎣ −1 −1 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 −1 1 0⎦ ⇒ 0x − 1y + 1z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒ z=t 0 0 0 0 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in rows (1) and (2),

x − 2t = 0 ⇒ x = 2t
−y + t = 0 ⇒ y = t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 2
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 1: (double eigenvalue)

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
002 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2,3 = ⎣ −1 0 3 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
001 z 0
8.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 283

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
002 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 0 −3 0 ← (1) + 3(3)
⎣ −1 0 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−1] = ⎣ 0 0 2 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 2(3)
001 0 00 10
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 ⇒ 1x + 0y + 0z = 0 ∴ x = 0
=⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⇒ y = t
0 0 1 0 ⇒ 0x + 0y + 1z = 0 ∴ z = 0

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1. Since the third eigenvector may be
generated only by changing the value of t, it is said that this eigenspace has dimension “2”.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 2 1·2 + 0·1 + 2·1 4 2
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1) · 2 + 1 · 1 + 3 · 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 2 ⎦ = 2 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
002 1 0·2 + 0·1 + 2·1 2 1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 0 1·0 + 0·1 + 2·0 0 0
⎣ −1 1 3 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ (−1) · 0 + 1 · 1 + 3 · 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ 1 ⎦ = λ2 v2
002 0 0·0 + 0·1 + 2·0 0 0

8.88. Given
⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1
⎣ 1 7 1⎦
−2 −4 3

1. Eigenvalues λ: the roots of characteristic polynomial are eigenvalues, as

1 − λ −2 −1
det (A − λ I ) = 1 7−λ 1
−2 −4 3 − λ
7−λ 1 1 1 1 7−λ
= (1 − λ) − (−2) + (−1)
−4 3 − λ −2 3 − λ −2 −4

     
= (1 − λ) (7 − λ)(3 − λ) − (−4) + 2 (3 − λ) − (−2) − −4 − (−2)(7 − λ)
= −λ3 + 11λ2 − 35λ + 25 = −(λ − 5)(λ − 5)(λ − 1)
284 Linear Algebra

Three roots of this characteristic polynomial are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 5, and λ3 = 5, i.e., there is

second-order multiplicity of λ2,3 eigenvalue.

2. Eigenvectors v = (x, y) are calculated for each eigenvalue λ1,2,3 so that

(A − λi I ) vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)

Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 −2 −1 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 1 6 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
−2 −4 2 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form and doing row transformations,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 −2 −1 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 6 1 0
⎣ 1 6 1 0⎦ = ⎣ 0 −2 −1 0⎦
−2 −4 2 0 ← (3) + 2(2) 0 8 4 0 ← (3) + 4(2)
⎡ ⎤
1 6 1 0 ⇒ 1x + 6y + 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 −2 −1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x − 2 y − 1 z = 0
0 0 00 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2) and then in row (1),

−2y − t = 0 ∴ y = −(1/2) t

x + 6 (−1/2) t + t = 0 ∴ x = 2t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 4
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −(1/2) t ⎦ = t ⎣ −(1/2) ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.
Case λ2 = 5: (double eigenvalue)
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−4 −2 −1 x 0
(A − λ2 I ) v2,3 = ⎣ 1 2 1⎦⎣y ⎦ = ⎣0⎦
−2 −4 −2 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−4 −2 −1 0 (1) ↔ (2) 1 2 1 0
⎣ 1 2 1 0⎦ = ⎣ −4 −2 −1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + 4(1)
−2 −4 −2 0 ← (2) + 2(2) 0 0 0 0 ⇒z=t
8.8 Matrix Inversion 285

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
12 10 1 2 1 0 ⇒ 1x + 2y + 1z = 0
= ⎣ 0 6 3 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [3] = ⎣ 0 2 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ 0 x + 2 y + 1 z = 0
00 00 ⇒z=t 00 00 ⇒z=t

and, by substituting z = t in row (2) and then in row (1),

2y + t = 0 ∴ y = −(1/2) t

x + 2 (−1/2) t + t = 0 ∴ x = 0

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ (−1/2) t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1/2 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 2

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 2 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. Since the third eigenvector may be generated only by changing the value of t, it is
said that this eigenspace has dimension “2”.

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1 4 1 · 4 + (−2) · (−1) + (−1) · 2 4 4
⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 4 + 7 · (−1) + 1 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦ = 1 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ1 v1
−2 −4 3 2 (−2) · 4 + (−4) · (−1) + 3 · 2 2 2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −2 −1 0 1 · 0 + (−2) · (−1) + (−1) · 2 0 0
⎣ 1 7 1 ⎦ ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 · 0 + 7 · (−1) + 1 · 2 ⎦ = ⎣ −5 ⎦ = 5 ⎣ −1 ⎦ = λ2 v2
−2 −4 3 2 (−2) · 0 + (−4) · (−1) + 3 · 2 10 2

8.8 Matrix Inversion

8.89. Given
 
12
A=
34

1. det(A):

12
= = 1 · 4 − 2 · 3 = −2 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
34

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the extended
matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended form, the objective
is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
286 Linear Algebra

   
12 10 1 2 10
⇒ ⇒
3 4 0 1 ← (2) − 3(1) 0 −2 −3 1 ← (2) ÷ [−2]
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
   
1 2 1 0 ← (1) − 2(2) 1 0 −2 1
⇒
0 1 3/2 −1/2 0 1 3/2 −1/2
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
 
−2 1
A−1 = 3/2 −1/2

3. Verification:
      
12 −2 1 1 · (−2) + 2 · (3/2) 1 · 1 + 2 · (−1/2) 10
AA−1 = 3/2 −1/2
= =
34 3 · (−2) + 4 · (3/2) 3 · 1 + 4 · (−1/2) 01

8.90. Given
 
4 −2
A=
2 3

1. det(A):

4 −2
= = 4 · 3 − 2 · (−2) = 16 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
2 3

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the extended
matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended form, the objective
is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
   
4 −2 1 0 ← (1) ÷ [4] 1 −1/2 1/4 0
⇒ ⇒
2 3 01 2 3 0 1 ← (2) − 2(1)
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
   
1 −1/2 0 1/4 1 −1/2 1/4 0 ← (1) + 1/2(2)
⇒ ⇒
0 4 −1/2 1 ← (2) ÷ [4] 0 1 −1/8 1/4
 
1 0 3/16 1/8
0 1 −1/8 1/4
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
 
3/16 1/8
−1
A = −1/8 1/4
8.8 Matrix Inversion 287

3. Verification:
      
4 −2 3/16 1/8 4 · 3/16 + (−2) · (−1/8) 4 · 1/8 + (−2) · 1/4 10
AA−1 = = =
2 3 −1/8 1/4 2 · 3/16 + 3 · (−1/8) 2 · 1/8 + 3 · 1/4 01

or, by linear combination,

  
       
4 −2 3/16 4 −2 (12/16 + 1/4) 1
= + /8
−1
3/16 = =
2 3 −1/8 2 3 (6/16 − 3/8) 0
          
4 −2 1/8 4 −2 (4/8 − 1/2) 0
= 1/8 + 1/4 = 2 =
2 3 1/4 2 3 ( /8 + 3/4) 1

8.91. Given
⎡ ⎤
123
A = ⎣4 5 4⎦
321

1. det(A):

123
 = 4 5 4 = −3 − 2(−8) + 3(−7) = −8 = 0 ∴ A−1 exists
321

2. One possible method of matrix inversion is by Gaussian elimination, i.e., by writing the extended
matrix form and doing row transformations. Starting with the “ A | I ” extended form, the objective
is to derive “I | A−1 ” form, as
⎡ ⎤
123 100
⎣ 4 5 4 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 4(1) ⇒
3 2 1 0 0 1 ← (3) − 3(1)
" #$ % " #$ %
A I
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 100
⎣ 0 −3 −8 −4 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [−3] ⇒
0 −4 −8 −3 0 1 ← (2) ÷ [−4]
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0⎦ ⇒
0 1 2 /4 3 0 − /4 ← (3) − (2)
1
⎡ ⎤
1 2 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0⎦ ⇒
0 0 − /3 − /12 /3 − /4 ← (3)[−3/2]
2 7 1 1
⎡ ⎤
12 3 1 0 0
⎣ 0 1 8/3 4/3 −1/3 0 ⎦ ← (2) − 8/3(3) ⇒
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8
288 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤
12 3 1 0 0 ← (1) − 2(2)
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦ ⇒
0 0 1 /8 − /2 /8
7 1 3

⎡ ⎤
1 0 3 3 −2 2 ← (1) − 3(3)
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦ ⇒
0 0 1 7/8 −1/2 3/8
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 3/8 −1/2 7/8
⎣ 0 1 0 −1 1 −1 ⎦
0 0 1 /8 − /2 3/8
7 1
" #$ % " #$ %
I A−1

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
−1/2 7/8
3/8

A−1 = ⎣ −1 1 −1 ⎦
7/8 −1/2 3/8

3. Verification:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
123 3/8 −1/2 7/8 100
AA−1 = ⎣ 4 5 4 ⎦ ⎣ −1 1 −1 ⎦ = · · · = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
321 7/8 − /2 3/8
1 001

8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices

Reminder: Calculation of a matrix power is a very time-consuming process. However, one

special type of matrices may be raised to powers by the process of “diagonalization”. By
definition,

1. A square matrix A is diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix. This is conditioned

by the existence of two extra matrices: an invertible matrix P and a diagonal matrix D. If
existent, then it is possible to write the products

D = P −1 AP or, equivalently,
A = P D P −1

where:
(a) P is a matrix that has its inverse, i.e., P P −1 = I exists
(b) D is a diagonal matrix
2. In this form, for example,

(continued)
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 289

(continued)
)(P D 
P −1
A5 = AAAAA = (P D  )(P D 
P −1 )(P D 
P −1 )(P D P −1 )
P −1
= P DDDDDP −1 = P D 5 P −1

That is to say, the problem of calculating A5 is replaced with the problem of calculating D 5 and
calculation of P −1 matrix, which may be easier to calculate.

8.92. Given
 2
20
02

note that this matrix is already in diagonal form; therefore,

 2    
20 22 0 40
= =
02 0 22 04

8.93. Given
 5
20
05

note that this matrix is already diagonal; therefore,

 5    
20 25 0 32 0
= =
05 0 55 0 3125

8.94. Given
 
20
A=
−1 3

note that this matrix is not diagonal; however, it may be possible to diagonalize it.

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

     
20 10 2−λ 0
det(A − λI ) = −λ = = (2 − λ)(3 − λ) = 0
−1 3 01 −1 3 − λ

Therefore, two eigenvalues are λ1 = 2 and λ2 = 3.

2. Eigenvectors are
 
000 ⇒x=t
λ1 = 2 : A − λ1 I = 0 ∴
−1 1 0 ⇒ −x + y = 0 ∴ x = y = t
290 Linear Algebra

     
x t 1
∴ v1 = = =
y t 1

after the arbitrary t = 1 as convenient value, and

 
−1 0 0 ⇒ −x + 0y = 0 ∴ x = 0
λ2 = 3 : A − λ2 I = 0 ∴
−1 0 0 ⇒ −x + 0y = 0 ∴ y = t
     
x 0 0
∴ v2 = = =
y t 1

after the arbitrary t = 1 as convenient value. Note that two eigenvectors are linearly independent;
in other words, matrix A is diagonalizable.
3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as
   
λ1 0 20
D= =
0 λ2 03

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

 
 10
P = v1 v2 =
11

where det P is

10
det P = = 1 = 0
11

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists, and consequently, A is diagonalizable. Inverse of P may be
derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
     
1010 10 10 −1 10
= ∴ P =
1101 ← (2) − (1) 0 1 −1 1 −1 1

5. Now, the fifth power of diagonalizable matrix A is

       
10 25 0 10 10 32 0 10
A5 = P D 5 P −1 = =
11 0 35 −1 1 11 0 243 −1 1
    
32 0 10 32 0
= =
32 243 −1 1 −211 243

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications. However, note that for higher-order
matrices, the above method may be more efficient than the “brute force” multiplications.
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 291

8.95. Given
⎡ ⎤
202
A = ⎣ −1 2 1 ⎦
014

then,

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

2−λ 0 2
|A − λI | = −1 2 − λ 1
0 1 4−λ
2−λ 1 · · −1 2 − λ
= (2 − λ) −0 +2
1 4−λ · · 0 1
   
= (2 − λ) (2 − λ)(4 − λ) − 1 + 2 −1(1) = −λ3 + 8λ2 − 19λ + 12
= −(λ − 1)(λ − 3)(λ − 4) = 0

Three distinct eigenvalues are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 3, and λ3 = 4; thus, matrix A is diagonalizable.

2. Eigenvectors are therefore
Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
102 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ −1 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
013 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1020 102 0
⎣ −1 1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + (1) = ⎣ 0 1 3 0⎦
0130 013 0 ← (3) − (2)
⎡ ⎤
10 20
⎣0 1 3 0⎦
00 00 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2),

1 x + 0 y + 2 z = 0 ⇒ x = −2t
0 x + 1 y + 3 z = 0 ⇒ y = −3 t

so that
292 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x −2t −2 −2
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −3 t ⎦ = t ⎣ −3 ⎦ = ⎣ −3 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 3:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 x 0
⎣
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = −1 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y = 0⎦
⎦ ⎣
0 11 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 2 0 ← (1) ÷ [−1] 1 0 −2 0
⎣ −1 −1 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) − (1) = ⎣ 0 −1 −1 0⎦
0 11 0 0 1 1 0 ← (3) + (2)
⎡ ⎤
1 0 −2 0
⎣ 0 −1 −1 0⎦
0 0 0 0 ⇒ z=t

and, by substituting z in rows (1) and (2),

1 x + 0 y − 2 z = 0 ⇒ x = 2t
0 x − 1 y − 1 z = 0 ⇒ y = −t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 2t 2 2
v2 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ3 = 4:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 0 2 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ −1 −2 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 10 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 293

⎡ ⎤
−2 0 2 0 ⇒ −2x + 0y + 2z = 0 ∴ x = z = t
⎣ −1 −2 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ − 1 x + −2 y + 1 z = 0 ∴ y = 0 (because x = z)
0 10 0 ⇒ 0x + 1y + 0z = 0 ∴ y = 0

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v1 = y = 0 = t 0 = 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. These three eigenvectors are easily verified by definition.

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 100
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 3 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 004

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

⎡ ⎤
 −2 2 1
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦
1 11

where det P is
⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1
det(P ) = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ = −2(−1) − 2(−3) + (−3 + 1) = 6 = 0
1 11

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists, and consequently, A is diagonalizable. Inverse of P may be
derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” (note: if multiple transformations are listed at the same
time, then “ () ↔ ()” is the last) as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 1 0 0 ← (1) + 2(3) 111001
⎣ −3 −1 0 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + 3(3) = ⎣ 0 2 3 0 1 3 ⎦ ← (2) ÷ [2]
1 1 1 0 0 1 (3) ↔ (1) 0 4 3 1 0 2 ← (3) − 2(2)
⎡ ⎤
11 10 0 1
= ⎣ 0 1 3/2 0 1/2 3/2 ⎦
0 0 −3 1 −2 −4 ← (3) ÷ [−3]
⎡ ⎤
11 1 0 0 1
= ⎣ 0 1 3/2 0 1/2 3/2 ⎦ ← (2) − 3/2(3)
0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3
294 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤
111 0 0 1 ← (1) − (3)
= ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 0 1/3 −2/3 −1/3 ← (1) − (2) 1 0 0 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 − /3 /3 /3
1 2 4 0 0 1 −1/3 2/3 4/3

⎡ ⎤
−1/6 −1/6 1/6
∴ P −1 = ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
−1/3 2/3 4/3

5. The third power of this diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤3 ⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 100 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
A3 = P D 3 P −1 = ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 3 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 11 004 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
−2 2 1 1 0 0 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ −3 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 27 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 11 0 0 64 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
−2 54 64 −1/6 −1/6 1/6
= ⎣ −3 −27 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1/2 −1/2 −1/2 ⎦
1 27 64 −1/3 2/3 4/3
⎡ ⎤
6 16 58
= ⎣ −13 14 13 ⎦
−8 29 72

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications of A.

8.96. Given
⎡ ⎤
200
A = ⎣0 2 1⎦
012

then,

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

⎤
2−λ 0 0
2−λ 1
|A − λI | = 0 2−λ 1 ⎦ = (2 − λ)
1 2−λ
0 1 2−λ
 
= (2 − λ) (2 − λ)(2 − λ) − 1 = −(λ − 1)(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 295

Therefore, there are three distinct eigenvalues which are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2, and λ3 = 3.

Consequently, matrix A is diagonalizable.
2. Eigenvectors are therefore
Case λ1 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
100 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
011 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1000 10 00 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ y = −z = −t
0 1 1 0 ← (3) − (2) 00 00 ⇒ z=t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ2 = 2:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
000 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
010 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
000 0 ⇒ x=t
⎣001 0⎦ ⇒ z = 0
010 0 ⇒ y=0

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x t 1 1
v2 = y = 0 = t 0 = 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
z 0 0 0

after the value of parameter t is conveniently set to t = 1.

Case λ3 = 3:
296 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 1 −1 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
−1 0 0 0 ⇒ x=0
⎣ 0 −1 1 0⎦ ⇒ y = z = t
0 1 −1 0 ⇒ y=z=t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v1 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ t ⎦ = t ⎣ 1 ⎦ = ⎣ 1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates. These three eigenvectors are easily verified by definition.

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 100
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 2 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 003

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

⎡ ⎤
 010
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦
101

where det P is
⎡ ⎤
010
det(P ) = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ = −(−1)(1) − 1 = 2 = 0
101

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists, and consequently, A is diagonalizable. Inverse of P may be
derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
010100 101001
⎣ −1 0 1 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
1 0 1 0 0 1 (3) → (1) −1 0 1 0 1 0 ← (3) + (1)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
101001 1 0 1 0 0 1 ← (1) − (3)
= ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦ = ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
0 0 2 0 1 1 ← (3) ÷ [2] 0 0 1 0 1/2 1/2
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 297

⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣0 1 0 1 0 0⎦
0 0 1 0 /2 1/2
1

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
0 −1/2 1/2
P −1 = ⎣1 0 0⎦
0 /2 1/2
1

5. Thus, the fourth power of this diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤4 ⎡ ⎤
010 100 0 −1/2 1/2
A4 = P D 4 P −1 = ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 2 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
101 003 0 /2 1/2
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
010 1 0 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣ −1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 16 0 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
101 0 0 81 0 /2 1/2
1
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
0 16 0 0 −1/2 1/2
= ⎣ −1 0 81 ⎦ ⎣ 1 0 0⎦
1 0 81 0 /2 1/2
1
⎡ ⎤
16 0 0
= ⎣ 0 41 40 ⎦
0 40 41

which may be verified by repetitive matrix multiplications of A.

8.97. Given
⎡ ⎤
100
A = ⎣0 0 1⎦
010

then,

Method 1:

1. Eigenvalues of A are roots of characteristic polynomial as

⎤
1−λ 0 0
−λ 1
|A − λI | = 0 −λ 1 ⎦ = (1 − λ)
1 −λ
0 1 −λ
= (1 − λ)(λ2 − 1) = −(λ − 1)(λ − 1)(λ + 1) = 0
298 Linear Algebra

Therefore, there are three eigenvalues which are λ1,2 = 1 (double value), and λ3 = −1. It is
necessary to verify if there are three independent eigenvectors or not.
2. Eigenvectors are therefore
Case λ3 = −1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
200 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
011 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
2 0 0 0 ← (1) ÷ [2] 100 0 ⇒ x=0
⎣0 1 1 0⎦ = ⎣0 1 1 0 ⎦ ⇒ y = −z = −t
0110 011 0 ⇒ y = −z = −t

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x 0 0 0
v3 = ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ −t ⎦ = t ⎣ −1 ⎦ = ⎣ −1 ⎦
z t 1 1

after the arbitrary value of parameter t is set to t = 1 as a convenient way to derive integer
coordinates.

Case λ1,2 = 1:
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 x 0
(A − λ1 I ) v1 = ⎣ 0 −1 1 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ = ⎣ 0 ⎦
0 1 −1 z 0

By writing the extended matrix form,

⎡ ⎤
0 0 0 0 ⇒ x=t
⎣ 0 −1 1 0⎦ ⇒ y = z
0 1 −1 0 ⇒ y=z

Thus, there are two possible non-trivial (i.e., x = y = z = 0) normalized solutions,

t =1 : ⇒ y=z=0
t =0 : ⇒ y=z=1

so that
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 0
v1 = ⎣ 0 ⎦ , v2 = ⎣ 1 ⎦
0 1
8.9 Powers of Diagonalizable Matrices 299

There are three distinct eigenvectors; therefore, A is diagonalizable (may be verified by

multiplication).

3. Diagonal matrix D consists of eigenvalues as

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
λ1 0 0 10 0
D = ⎣ 0 λ2 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
0 0 λ3 0 0 −1

4. Matrix P and its P −1 , by definition, are

⎡ ⎤
 10 0
P = v1 v2 v3 = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦
01 1

where det P is
⎡ ⎤
10 0
det(P ) = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ = (1)(1 + 1) = 2 = 0
01 1

Therefore, its inverse matrix exists, and consequently, A is diagonalizable. Inverse of P may be
derived by transformation “P |I → I |P −1 ” as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 0100 10 01 00
⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦
0 1 1 0 0 1 (3) − (2) 0 0 2 0 −1 1 ← (3) ÷ [2]
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
10 01 0 0 1001 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 0 1 0 ⎦ ← (2) + (3) = ⎣ 0 1 0 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
0 0 1 0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 1 0 −1/2 1/2

Therefore,
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0
P −1 = ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
0 −1/2 1/2

5. Thus, the tenth power of diagonalizable matrix A is

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤
10 0 10 0 1 0 0
A10 = P D 10 P −1 = ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 0 0 −1 0 −1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
10 0 100 1 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 001 0 −1/2 1/2
300 Linear Algebra

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
10 0 1 0 0
= ⎣ 0 1 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 1/2 1/2 ⎦
01 1 0 −1/2 1/2
⎡ ⎤
100
= ⎣0 1 0⎦
001

Method 2:: Instead of diagonalization, it can be noted that

⎡ ⎤10 ⎡⎡ ⎤2 ⎤5 ⎡ ⎤5 ⎡ ⎤
100 100 100 100
⎣0 0 1⎦ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
010 010 001 001

Method 3:: or, a simple exchange of the last two rows,

⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤10 ⎡ ⎤
100 100 100
⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ← (2) ↔ (3) = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
010 001 001
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Index

A Inequalities, 9, 11, 12, 55–73, 77, 85, 90–96, 98, 101,

Absolute numbers, 3, 8–13 131–136
Algebra, 8, 20, 36, 127, 137–170, 199–300
Amplitude, 82
Arbitrary base, 82–84, 89, 93, 94, 95 L
Linear algebra, 199–300
Linear equations, 45, 55–73, 203, 220, 221, 229, 238
B Linear transformation, 199, 201–202, 217–222
Bode plot, 171–197 Logarithm, 8, 75–96, 193–195, 197

C N
Complex numbers, 137–139, 141–149, 152, 153, 163, Numbers, 1, 20, 57, 83, 137, 171, 199
166, 172, 211
Complex plane, 138–139, 141–143, 147, 149–152, 164
Complex transfer function, 172 P
Partial fraction decomposition, 21–22, 44–53
Phase, 145, 153, 172, 174–197
D
Piecewise linear approximation, 172, 177–197
Determinant, 199, 202–203, 205, 206, 222–229, 234,
Polynomials, 15–53, 57, 58, 85, 168, 204, 205, 256, 258,
242–246, 250, 280
260, 261, 263, 265, 268, 270, 271, 274, 277–284,
289, 291, 294, 297
E
Eigenvalue, 199, 205–206, 247, 248, 255–285, 289–291,
293–299 R
Eigenvector, 199, 205–206, 247, 248, 255–285, 289–291, Radicals, 2–3, 5–7, 161, 162
293, 295, 296, 298, 299
Equations, 8, 20, 55, 76, 98, 139, 203
Euler’s equation, 139, 153 S
Exponent, 4, 81, 89 Special angles, 97, 110, 111, 145
System of equations, 45, 55, 60–63, 165, 204, 208, 220,
221, 228–232, 235–238, 242–245, 256, 258, 280
F System of inequalities, 56, 70–73
Factor theorem, 20–21, 51
Fractional powers, 2–3, 5–7, 161, 162
T
Trigonometry, 97–136
I
Identities, 4, 7, 18, 36, 38, 40, 47, 57, 83, 89, 97, 98,
100–102, 104, 107, 110–122, 127, 137, 139, 143, V
152–161, 166, 205 Vector space, 204–205, 211, 217, 246–255

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 303
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
R. Sobot, Engineering Mathematics by Example,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41200-4