Prepared by;

Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

1. Theory of Errors and Measurements

2. Measurement of Horizontal
Distances
Table of Contents 3. Measurement of Vertical Distances
4. Compass Surveying
FUNDAMENTALS OF 5. Traverse
SURVEYING 6. Area Computations
Engr. Gabriel I. Gamana, M.Sc.

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5.1 Introduction

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Traverse Computation
5. Traverse 5.3 Traverse Adjustment
5.4 Omitted Measurements

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction

• A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have 5.1.1 Types of Traverse
been marked in the field and whose lengths and directions • Open Traverse - An open traverse is a series of lines that do
have been determined from observations. not return to the starting point. It is used in route surveying for
• In traditional surveying by ground methods, traversing, the act the location of highways, pipelines, canals, and so on. To
of marking the lines, that is, establishing traverse stations and check the accuracy of an open traverse, the traverse must
making the necessary observations, is one of the most basic start and end at points of known position.
and widely practiced means of determining the relative
locations of points.

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5.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Types of Traverse 5.1.2 Types of Traverse Angles
• Closed Traverse - A closed traverse, also called a loop • Interior Angles - Interior-angle traverses are used for many
traverse, starts and ends at the same point. Because it is a types of work, but they are especially convenient for property
closed polygon, the interior angles and the lengths of the surveys. Although interior angles could be observed either
sides may be checked for accuracy and mathematically clockwise or counterclockwise, to reduce mistakes in reading,
adjusted. recording, and computing, they should always be turned
clockwise from the backsight station to the foresight station.

For Closed Traverse ONLY

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction

5.1.2 Types of Traverse Angles 5.1.2 Types of Traverse Angles
• Exterior Angles - Exterior angles, located outside a closed • Deflection Angles - A deflection angles is an angle between
polygon, are explements of interior angles. a line and the extension of the preceding line, as shown in the
figure below. It may be turned either right or left from the
extension, but the direction of turning must be recorded with
the angular measurement. In an open traverse, the straight
lines between the points of change in direction are known as
For Closed Traverse ONLY points of intersection (PI).

For Closed Traverse ONLY

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5.2 Traverse Computation 5.2 Traverse Computation

Problem 5-1 Problem 5-2
The azimuth of line XO is 350° from South. The deflection of line The bearing of line KO is due East. The deflection angle of line
OY is 170°L. Find the bearing OY. OL is 74°22’R. Find the azimuth of line OL.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.2 Traverse Computation 5.2 Traverse Computation

Problem 5-3 Problem 5-4
Compute and tabulate the bearings and azimuths of a regular A table as shown below. Determine the adjustment on the
hexagon. Given the first starting direction of side AB: N34°09’E, observed values on the assumption that the error is the same for
Station C is easterly from B. each angle

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5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

5.3.1 Latitude and Departure • As illustrated in figure below, the departure of a course is its
• After balancing the angles and calculating preliminary orthographic projection on the east-west axis of the survey
azimuths (or bearings), traverse closure is checked by and is equal to the length of the course multiplied by the sine
computing the departure and latitude of each line. of its azimuth (or bearing) angle. Departures are sometimes
called eastings or westings.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

• Also as shown in figure below, the latitude of a course is its 5.3.2 Traverse Balancing
orthographic projection on the north-south axis of the survey • For a closed-polygon traverse, it can be reasoned that if all
and is equal to the course length multiplied by the cosine of its angles and distances were measured perfectly, the algebraic
azimuth (or bearing) angle. Latitude is also called northing or sum of the departures of all courses in the traverse should
southing. equal zero. Likewise, the algebraic sum of all latitudes should
equal zero.
• Because the observations are not perfect and errors exist in
the angles and distances, the conditions just stated rarely
occur. The amounts by which they fail to be met are termed
departure disclosure and latitude disclosure.

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5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

5.3.3 Traverse Balancing
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡
• For any closed traverse, the linear misclosure must be
adjusted (or distributed) throughout the traverse to “close” or
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝 “balance” the figure. This is true even though the misclosure
is negligible in plotting the traverse at map scale.

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒𝑝

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

5.3.3.1 Compass Rule 5.3.3.1 Compass Rule
• The compass, or Bowditch, rule adjusts the departures and 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑡. = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑡. −𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑡.
∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡
latitudes of traverse courses in proportion to their lengths. 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑡. = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
Although not as rigorous as the least-squares method, it does 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
result in a logical distribution of misclosures.
• The compass rule, also known as the Bowditch rule, is 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑝. = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝. −𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑝.
∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝
adaptable to traverse in which angular accuracy and linear 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑝. = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
accuracy are about the same. In this type of traverse, the 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
compass rule will give very nearly the same results as the
least squares adjustment. It is used in a great majority of
traverse closures.

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5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

Problem 5-5 5.3.3.2 Transit Rule
Given the observed lengths and directions of a closed traverse, • The method of adjusting a traverse using transit rule is similar
adjust the length and bearing of the courses using Compass to the compass rule. The main difference is that with transit
Rule. rule the latitude and departure correction depends on the
length of the latitude and departure instead of the line length.
• The transit rule is adaptable to traverses in which angular
accuracy is much higher than linear accuracy. It is seldom
used.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.3 Traverse Adjustment 5.3 Traverse Adjustment

5.3.3.2 Transit Rule Problem 5-6
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑎𝑡. = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑡. −𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑡. Given the observed lengths and directions of a closed traverse,
∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡.
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑎𝑡. = 𝐿𝑎𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 adjust the length and bearing of the courses using Transit Rule.
∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑝. = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝. −𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑝.

∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝.
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑝. = 𝐷𝑒𝑝. 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒
∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝.

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5.4 Omitted Measurements 5.4 Omitted Measurements

• Sometimes it is not possible or practical to determine by field 5.4.1 Omitted Measurements Are in One Side
observation the length or direction of a line within a close • If the measurements for the known sides presumed to be
traverse. correct and without error, it is acceptable to compute the
• These missing quantities may be determined analytically to missing quantities of the unknown side assuming a close
obtained a complete set of notes for the traverse as long as traverse.
they do not exceed.

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 Prepared by;
Gabriel I. Gamana, CE, MSCE

5.4 Omitted Measurements 5.4 Omitted Measurements

Problem 5-7 Problem 5-8
Given the following tabulation data for a closed traverse. The data for the tract of land shown below. The whole tract is
Determine the length and bearing of the unknown side FA. supposed to be divided into three smaller parts, however, the
length and bearing of the dividing lines CH and DG have not
been observed in the field. Assuming that an acceptable
precision has been obtained in the measurement of the sides of
the main traverse, determine the lengths and bearings of the
unknown quantities.

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5.4 Omitted Measurements 5.4 Omitted Measurements

Problem 5-8 5.4.2 Omitted Measurements Involving Adjoining Sides
• If the measurements for the known sides presumed to be
correct and without error, it is acceptable to compute the
missing quantities of the unknown side assuming a close
traverse.

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