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10/19/2021
 1. Stationary Ship (Transverse View)
CG below CB CB below CG
Heeling moment

Air
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

▼
Free surface
Above water
Under water

Water
𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
After applying Righting / Heeling moment

Righting moment Capsizing moment

Air
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

Water
𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

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1. Stationary Ship (Longitudinal View)

Air
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

Free surface ▼ Above water

(Air-Water Interface) Under water
p=patm=const

Water
𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

Trimming moment Air

𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

Above water
Under water

Water
𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

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 2. Moving Ship
Ship Resistance

Air
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

▼ Above water
Under water
Air-Water Interface
p=patm=const

Water
𝜌𝑓𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝜌𝑠𝑤 = 1025 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3

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 2. Moving Ship
Ship Resistance

Above water part

Under water part

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 2. Moving Ship
Components of Still-Water Resistance

➢Classical division of
resistance
(Froude assumption)
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝑭 + 𝑹𝑹
Where:
𝑅𝑇 : Total resistance
𝑅𝐹 : Friction resistance
𝑅𝑅 : Residuary resistance

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 2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )
➢𝑅𝐹 appears as a frictional/tangential force due to water
rubbing against the ship wetted surface area.
➢𝑅𝐹 depends on ship speed, length, wetted surface area,
hull surface roughness, and fluid kinematic viscosity.
➢Froude W (1810)
assumed that 𝑅𝐹 of
the ship hull surface
equals that of the
equivalent flat plate
(same length,
wetted surface area,
and speed).
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 2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )
Comparison of Inviscid and Viscous Flow along a Flat Plate

Plan View

Plan View

Plan View

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 2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )
➢Drag on flat plate is solely due to friction created by
laminar, transition, turbulent boundary layers.
Free stream

𝑉∙𝐿
𝑅𝑛 ≤ 105 105 < 𝑅𝑛 < 106 𝑅𝑛 ≥ 106 𝑅𝑛 =
𝜈
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝑽

𝑽 𝒙

v 𝒙, 𝒚 𝜕𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦
𝜏𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜇 ∙
𝜕𝑦
Plan View

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 2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )
Comparison of Inviscid and Viscous Fluid Flow past a Symmetric
Symmetric hull (ford & aft)
Symmetric disturbance (primary wave)
and Asymmetric Submerged Streamlined Body

• Symmetric hull (ford & aft)

• Inviscid fluid flow

• Symmetric hull (ford & aft)

• Viscous fluid flow

• Asymmetric hull (ford & aft)

• Viscous fluid flow

Plan View 11
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2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )

Viscous Flow past a Streamlined Body

(Navier-Stokes)

Applied Theories

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 2.1. Frictional Resistance (𝑹𝑭 )

Effect of Streamlining/Bluntness
Effect of Surface Roughness

Low pressure,
Turbulent wake

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2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )

Plan View

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2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )

Bow View

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2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )

Stern View

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 17
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 2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )
➢The wave systems consist of divergent waves starting
with a large wave at the bow at an angle of 19o28`
followed by other divergent waves and transverse
waves.

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 2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )
➢The wave systems consist of divergent waves starting
with a large wave at the bow at an angle of 19o28`
followed by other divergent waves and transverse
waves.

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 2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )
➢ 𝑅𝑊 appears in the form of normal pressure on the hull due to
surface wave systems generated by the ship (Bow wave,
Shoulder wave, Quarter wave and Stern wave).

0.4 m
Direction of motion
Fn= 0.238
1.77 m 1.34 m 1.77 m
Primary wave
Secondary waves

Stern Bow
Components of transverse wave
systems for a simple body. 20
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 2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )
➢ 𝑅𝑊 appears in the form of normal pressure on the hull due to
surface wave systems generated by the ship (Bow wave,
Shoulder wave, Quarter wave and Stern wave).
Direction of motion

Primary wave
Secondary waves

Components of
transverse
waves for a
body with
Stern Bow
convex ends and
a parallel
middle body. 21
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 2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )
➢The wave systems consist of divergent waves starting
with a large wave at the bow at an angle of 19o28`
followed by other divergent waves and transverse
waves.
➢The wave-making resistance of a ship is concerned
with dynamic movements of large masses of the fluid
𝑉
and is governed by Froude’s number; 𝐹𝑛 = .
𝑔∙𝐿
➢The value of the wave-making resistance of a ship is
affected by the interference between the different wave
systems, speed (𝑉), dimensional ratios ( 𝐿Τ𝐵, 𝐵Τ𝑑,
𝐿Τ𝛻 1Τ3 ) and form coefficients (𝐶𝑏 , 𝐶𝑝 , 𝐶𝑚 , 𝐶𝑤 ) of the
ship.
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2.2. Wave-making Resistance (𝑹𝑾 )

(a) Floating (b) Shallowly submerged (c) Deeply submerged

𝑹𝒘 ≅ 𝟒𝟎 % 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝒘 ≅ 𝟓 % 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝒘 ≅ 𝟎 % 𝑹𝑻

The numerical percentages are based on a high-speed

submarine.

Effect of the vehicle's immersion Variation on the contribution of

Friction Resistance and Wave-Making Resistance in the Total
Resistance.

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2.3. Eddy-making Resistance (𝑹𝑬 )
Effect of Shapes on Stream-lined Flow
𝑳
Effect of Increased Horizontal Wetted Aspect Ratio
𝑩

Low pressure, Turbulent wake, High kinetic energy

Attached flow
Pressure

Pressure
Separated flow
Backward-pushing pressure force
(a) Flat Plate 𝑹𝑬 ≅ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 % 𝑹𝑻 (b) Sphere 𝑹𝑬 ≅ 𝟓𝟎 % 𝑹𝑻
Low pressure, Turbulent wake, High kinetic energy
Pressure
Pressure

Pressure recovery with attached flow

Forward-pushing pressure force
(c) Ovoid 𝑹𝑬 ≅ 𝟏𝟓 % 𝑹𝑻 (d) Streamlined 𝑹𝑬 ≅ 𝟓 % 𝑹𝑻
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2.3. Eddy-making Resistance (𝑹𝑬 )

Stern View

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 2.3. Eddy-making Resistance (𝑹𝑬 )
➢𝑅𝐸 results from the formation of eddies behind bluff
endings.
➢𝑅𝐸 appears in the form of normal pressure on the hull
𝑉
and it follows Froude’s number; 𝐹𝑛 = .
𝑔∙𝐿

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2.4. Variation of 𝑹𝑭 , 𝑹𝑾 , and 𝑹𝑬 w.r.t. Ship Speed

For a merchant ship of conventional geometry, it has

been found experimentally, that
➢𝑅𝐹 decreases as ship speed increases, and vice versa.
➢𝑅𝑊 increases as ship speed increases, and vice versa.
➢𝑅𝐸 decreases as ship speed increases, and vice versa.
Speed Range Slow speed ships Medium speed ships High speed ships
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 ~ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 ~ 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 ~ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎
Resis. Comp. 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳

𝑹𝑭 75-90% 65-75% 50-65%

𝑹𝑾 10-20% 20-30% 35-50%

𝑹𝑬 10-15% 5-10% 3-5%

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2.4. Variation of 𝑹𝑭 , 𝑹𝑾 , and 𝑹𝑬 w.r.t. Ship Speed

Where:
𝑅𝐹 : Friction resistance of the ship; 𝑁
𝑅𝑊 : Wave-making resistance of the ship; 𝑁
𝑅𝐸 : Eddy making resistance of the ship; 𝑁

Note:
• 𝑅𝑊 , 𝑅𝐸 are scale-independent (or pressure) resistance
components and is governed by Froude’s number; 𝐹𝑛 =
𝑉
.
𝑔∙𝐿
• 𝑅𝐹 is a scale-dependent resistance component, and is
𝑉∙𝐿
governed by Reynold’s number; 𝑅𝑛 =
𝜈
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 2.5. Bulbous Bow Resistance (𝑹𝑩 )
➢Wigley (1936) investigated the basic theoretical work
on the bulbous bow effectiveness.
➢Bulbous bow is designed with non-circular forms so as
to minimize the effects of slamming in rough seas.

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 2.5. Bulbous Bow Resistance (𝑹𝑩 )

Conventional Bow-generated Wave Bulb-generated Wave

Bulbous Bow-generated Wave

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 2.5. Bulbous Bow Resistance (𝑹𝑩 )
➢Bulbous bow may increase the waterline length, and
hence it has a fundamental influence on some of the
length-dependent resistance components.

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 2.5. Bulbous Bow Resistance (𝑹𝑩 )
➢The bulbous bow affects the ship resistance as follow:
• It increases the frictional resistance due to the added
surface area of the bulb.
• It changes the propulsion efficiency due to its
hydrodynamic influence on the global hull flow field.
• It changes the associated pattern and magnitude of the
wave breaking resistance.
• It reduces the bow pressure wave due to the bulb-
induced pressure field and the consequent reduction in
wave making resistance.
• The upper part of the bulb and its intersection with the
bow introduces a downward flow component in the
vicinity of the bow.
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 2.5. Bulbous Bow Resistance (𝑹𝑩 )
➢A bulb is beneficial above a certain shoulder speed;
whereas it is non-beneficial at lower speeds.
➢This is because of the balance between the bow
pressure wave reduction effect and the frictional
resistance increment caused by the presence of the bulb
on the hull.

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2.6. Transom Immersion Resistance (𝑹𝑺 )
➢Wet transom increases the ship resistance due to the
pressure loss behind the transom which results from the
transom-induced vortices.
➢The magnitude of the transom immersion resistance is
generally small and vanishes for dry transom.
➢Transom immersion resistance is largely a pressure
resistance, i.e., scale independent.

Cruiser Stern Transom Stern Profile View

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 2.7. Skin Friction Resistance (𝑹𝑺𝑭 )
➢Skin friction resistance 𝑅𝑆𝐹 is the tangential resistance
on the surface of the equivalent flat plate.
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑅𝑆𝐹 + 𝑅𝐹𝐸
Where:
𝑅𝐹 : Total frictional resistance; due to the tangential
shear stresses on the immersed hull; 𝑁
𝑅𝑆𝐹 : Skin friction resistance; due to the equivalent flat
plate; 𝑁
𝑅𝐹𝐸 : Velocity form effect resistance; due to the curved
shape of the hull; 𝑁
Note:
𝑅𝐹 , 𝑅𝑆𝐹 are scale-dependent resistance component
𝑅𝐹𝐸 is a scale-independent resistance components 39
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2.8. Normal Pressure Resistance (𝑹𝑵 )
➢The normal pressure resistance 𝑅𝑁 component is
induced by the normal stress 𝜎 on the hull surface and
can be subdivided into two components 𝑅𝑉𝑃 and 𝑅𝑊 .
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑉𝑃 + 𝑅𝑊

Where:
𝑅𝑁 : Normal pressure resistance; 𝑁
𝑅𝑉𝑃 : Viscous pressure resistance; 𝑁
𝑅𝑊 : Wave-making resistance; 𝑁

Note:
𝑅𝑁 , 𝑅𝑉𝑃 and 𝑅𝑊 are scale-independent resistance
components. 40
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 2.9. Wave-added Resistance (𝑹𝑾𝑨 )
➢This is an added resistance due to the sea wind-induced
waves which encountered by the ship.
➢Its value depends on the condition of the sea, i.e., sea
state, and may be amount to 25 ~ 35% and 15 ~ 20%
from the total still water resistance of the ship which
navigates in North-Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea
respectively.

𝑅𝑊𝐴 = 25 ~ 35 % 𝑅𝑇 North Atlantic Sea

𝑅𝑊𝐴 = 15 ~ 20 % 𝑅𝑇 Mediterranean Sea

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 2.10. Air Resistance (𝑹𝑨 )
➢This is an added resistance due to the wind action on the
above water part of the ship.
➢Its value depends on the speed and direction of the wind, as
well as the shape and area of the emerged part of the ship.
➢It may be amount to 1~2% and 8~10% from the total still
water resistance of the ship for slow, medium, and high-
speed crafts, respectively.
𝑅𝐴 = 1 ~ 2 % 𝑅𝑇 Slow and medium speed crafts
𝑅𝐴 = 8 ~ 10 % 𝑅𝑇 High speed crafts

Note:
0.10 ≤ 𝐹𝑛 < 0.40 Displacement/Slow speed crafts
0.40 ≤ 𝐹𝑛 < 0.80 Semi-disp./Semi-plan./Medium speed crafts
0.80 ≤ 𝐹𝑛 Planning/High speed crafts 42
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 2.10. Air Resistance (𝑹𝑨 )
➢Wind resistance may be calculated according to (API-
RP-2A, WSD, 2000)
𝟏
𝑹𝑨 = ∙ 𝝆𝑨 ∙ σ𝒆𝒓=𝟏 𝑪𝒇𝒓 ∙ 𝑨𝒑𝒓 ∙ 𝑼𝑨𝒓 𝒛 ∙ 𝑼𝑨𝒓 𝒛
𝟐

𝑼𝑨𝒓 𝒛 = 𝑼𝑨𝟏𝟎 𝒎 ∙ 𝒁𝒓 Τ𝟏𝟎 𝟎.𝟏𝟏

Variation of
mean wind
speed with
height
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3.1. Components of Still-Water Resistance
(Classical decomposition I)

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3.2. Components of Still-Water Resistance
(Classical decomposition II)

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3.3. Components of Still-Water Resistance
(Classical decomposition III)

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3.4. Components of Still-Water Resistance
(Classical decomposition IV)

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4. Methods of Ship Resistance Evaluation

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4.1. Standard Series Methods

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4.1. Standard Series Methods

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4.1. Standard Series Methods

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4.1. Standard Series Methods

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 4.2. Regression-based Methods
➢The resistance coefficient is estimated according to
approximate methods based on statistical regressions to
the results of the model tests and ship trials.
The resistance coefficient may be given in the form of
constants, formulae, or charts.

➢The database may pertain to one parent ship or a wide

range of ships. For extreme ship shapes the number of
cases in the database is small, and then, the accuracy of
the estimates is worse.

➢These methods may be used to assess qualitatively the

resistance of a ship design.
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4.3. Direct Model Testing (Tank)

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4.3. Direct Model Testing (Sea)

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4.4. Computational Fluid Dynamics

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5. Methods of Fuel Consumption Reduction

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6. Methods of Drag Reduction

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