Tyler Graff 10/24/2023

Erik Cooley The Effects of a Diodes and Rectifiers in Circuits Table 6

Joe Robl Section 52

Introduction:
The purpose of this lab is to acquaint ourselves with the behavior of diodes and their usage in the
construction and function of rectifiers. A diode is a device that only allows current flow in one direction
through its nodes. Diodes also exhibit an interesting relationship between the current flowing through
them and the voltage across them, given by the following equation:
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1)
Here 𝐼𝑆 is known as the saturation current, typically extremely small, n is the unitless non-ideality factor
typically between 1 and 2, 𝑉𝑇 is the thermal voltage, typically around 0.025 V at room temperature, and I
and V stand for the current and voltage of the diode. Since 0.025V is smaller than the majority of the
voltages we will be using in this lab, the exponential of the function will almost always be larger than 1 in
the case of positive voltage (forward bias) and will thus increase rapidly in proportion to the voltage
across the diode. Thus, the -1 can be excluded without a major impact to calculations, allowing the
equation to be simplified to
𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )
in the case of forward bias. This is the equation we will use throughout the lab to calculate voltage from
current and visa-versa (in forward bias scenarios).
The two properties of diodes that we will investigate in this lab are their ability to inhibit current
flow and the exponential relationship between their current and voltage. We will then use a diode to
implement a device called a rectifier. A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current to direct
current. In this lab, we will attempt to accomplish this using a diode and a capacitor, modeling a
hypothetical DC circuit using a resistor. The diode will prevent the resistor from experiencing any
negative voltages that the AC power supply supplies by inhibiting undesirable current flow. Thus, when
negative voltage is supplied, current over the resistor will be zero, causing its voltage to be zero.
However, when positive voltage is supplied, the voltage over the resistor will again be positive. Next, a
capacitor will be put in parallel with the resistor. This will cause the voltage over the resistor to equal the
voltage over the capacitor. If a correct time constant is implemented relative to the period of the AC, there
will be a small ripple voltage, or voltage discharged by the capacitor. Since the capacitor stores the
voltage for a certain period of time, voltage oscillation will be mitigated, and we will end up with
something very like DC.
The voltage ripple caused by the discharge of the capacitor can be calculated as follows. Let Vo
be the max. voltage of the AC output, V be the min. voltage reached by the capacitor, and ΔV be the
ripple voltage, the amount of voltage lost by the capacitor as it discharges. Also let T be the period of the
AC and t be the time spent discharging by the capacitor. Although T and t are slightly different, we will let
T = t, increasing our calculations’ convenience while decreasing their accuracy, though the former by a
much larger margin than the latter. We can then use the formula for a discharging capacitor,
𝑇
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜(𝑒 −𝑅𝐶)
To determine the min. voltage reached by the capacitor. Then recognizing that 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 + ∆𝑉, we can
solve for the ripple voltage.
Our first two experiments will deal with the characteristics of diodes as stand-alone entities, while
the second two will deal with the application of diodes to build a rectifier.
Experiment 1:
Procedure:
1. Using the protoboard, create a circuit with a resistor and diode in forward bias in series with one
another.
2. Measure and record the resistance of the resistor.
3. After supplying the current with five volts of DC current from the power supply, measure and
record the current through the circuit and the voltages on the resistor and diode using a digital
multimeter.
4. Repeat step three four more times while increasing the DC current applied to the circuit by five
volts each time.
5. Repeat steps three and four after placing the same diode in reverse bias.
6. Observe the behavior of the two circuits.
In this experiment, we observe the behavior of the diode in altering the voltage in a simple circuit.
To do this, we placed a diode and a resistor in series with one another and connected these to a DC power
supply of 10V, first with the diode in forward bias and next with the diode in reverse bias, according to
the schematic shown below:

In this circuit, we chose a resistor R1 and measured it to be 1467 Ohms.

We then collected five data points for each of these configurations by varying the voltage applied
by the power source to the circuit. According to our understanding of the equations governing voltage and
current through a diode, we should see a clear contrast between the measurements made of the diode in
forward bias and those made of the diode in reverse bias; specifically, the diode in reverse bias should
produce a voltage of zero over the resistor, a voltage over the diode equal to that of the voltage source,
and a current through the circuit of nearly, but not exactly, zero. However, the diode in forward bias
should produce a voltage over the resistor close to the voltage of the voltage source, a voltage over the
diode that increases linearly with respect to the natural log of the current through it, and a current through
the circuit that increases with respect to the voltage applied to the circuit.
After measuring these values, we tabulate them in the two tables below.
Source Voltage (V) Current (mA) Diode Voltage (V) Resistor Voltage (V)
5 2.989 0.636 4.395
10 6.414 0.671 9.42
15.1 9.897 0.69 14.48
20 13.3 0.704 19.4
24.3 16.33 0.711 23.67
Table 1: Forward Bias
Source Voltage (V) Current (μA) Diode Voltage (V) Resistor Voltage (V)
5 0.457 5.097 0
10 0.999 10.1 0
15 1.495 15.11 0
20 1.993 20.13 0
24.3 2.417 24.42 0
Table 2: Reverse Bias
As can be seen, these measurements agree with our predictions. Regarding the first set of
measurements, which represents forward bias, the diode clearly allows current to flow, having a small
voltage itself but allowing most of the voltage drop to take place over the resistor. Conversely, the second
set of measurements, showing the diode in reverse bias, shows the diode voltage equaling the source
voltage, and the resistor voltage as zero regardless of the source voltage. Additionally, the current through
the circuit in this case is extremely low, beneath 2.5 microamperes. Thus, it is confirmed that a diode will
only allow unidirectional current flow, taking a fairly small voltage drop and emulating normal current
flow in its forward direction and almost completely stopping current in its reverse direction.
Experiment 2:
Procedure:
1. Using the protoboard, create a circuit with a diode in reverse bias and resistor in parallel and then
add a second resistor in series.
2. Measure and record the resistance of the resistors.
3. Supply the circuit with enough DC current so that the measured current of the diode is zero, and
measure and record the voltage and current across the diode using a multimeter.
4. Repeat step three a few more times while changing the voltage each time, but still maintaining a
measured current across the diode of zero.
5. Switch to forward bias. Supply the circuit with enough DC current so that the measured current of
the diode is less than one milliamp, and measure and record the voltage and current across the
diode using a multimeter for a few different voltages.
6. Supply the circuit with enough DC current so that the measured current of the diode is greater
than one milliamp, and measure and record the voltage and current across the diode using a
multimeter for fifteen to twenty voltages.
 7. Plot the data and observe the behavior of the circuit.
In this experiment, we extended our understanding of the behavior of diodes by observing the
relationship between the current flowing through a diode and the voltage across the diode. As stated, this
relationship is not Ohmic, nor is it linear—in fact, current through a diode is related exponentially to the
voltage across it.
To accomplish this, we set up a circuit according to the schematic below, with R1 = 1467 Ohms,
R2 = 509.9 Ohms, and the source voltage set to 10V:

By varying the applied to the circuit, we were able graph our data in order to verify the
exponential relationship purported by the diode equation. In order to model negative voltages, we placed
the diode in reverse bias.

Current v. Voltage
16
14
12
10
Currnet (mA)

8
6
4
2
0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-2
Voltage (V)
 Graph 1

Natural Log of Current v. Voltage

3
y = 21.23x - 12.421
2.5

2
ln(I) (mA)

1.5

0.5

0
0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72
Voltage (v)

Graph 2
As can be observed, the data in Graph 1 shows an exponential relationship between the voltage
across the diode and the current through it. Additionally, the first three values with negative voltage
values have values very close to zero, corroborating the hypothesis that little to no current will flow
through a diode in reverse. In Graph 2, we see that graphing the voltage against the natural log of the
current reveals a linear relationship. We can use the diode equation to deduce what this linear relationship
means as follows. First, taking the natural log of our diode equation:
( 𝑉 )
ln (𝐼) = ln (𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )

𝑉
ln(𝐼) = ln(𝐼𝑠 ) + ln (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )

1
ln (𝐼) = ln (𝐼𝑆 ) + 𝑉( )
𝑛𝑉𝑇

Thus, the y-intercept of this graph is the natural log of 𝐼𝑆, and the slope of the graph is
1
. Plugging our values from the graph into this equation, we obtain 𝐼𝑆 = 0.000004033A and, assuming
𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑇 ≈ 0.024 V, n = 1.88. This current value is very small, and n is between 1 and 2, which agrees with our
model of diodes.
Experiment 3:
Procedure:
1. Using the protoboard, create a circuit with a resistor and diode in forward bias in series with one
another.
2. Attach channel one and channel two of the oscilloscope across the diode and connect the ground.
3. Supply ten volts of AC current from the power supply to the circuit.
 4. Analyze the input and output voltage in the circuit by observing channel one and channel two on
the oscilloscope.
In this experiment, we begin building a rectifier by incorporating a diode into an alternating series
circuit. Thus, our completed circuit looked like the one shown below, with R1 = 1467 Ohms and the
voltage oscillating between -15 V and 15 V:

We used the oscilloscope to measure both the voltage output by the generator (yellow) and the
voltage after the diode (blue). The graph of this measurement is shown in the image below:

Image 1: Voltage before and after diode.

As can be seen, the diode eliminates the negative voltage values from its output. This is consistent
with how we know a diode works. When the generator applies a positive voltage to the diode, the voltage
output by the diode over the resistor closely resembles the voltage output by the generator, as the diode is
in forward bias. However, when the generator outputs negative voltage values, the diode is put into
reverse bias, meaning that virtually zero current is allowed past and, since channel two measures the
voltage over the resistor, there is zero voltage, according to Ohm’s Law.
Our resistor therefore experiences no negative voltage, an important step in rectifying AC to DC.
Experiment 4
Procedure:
1. Using the protoboard, create a circuit with a diode in forward bias in series with two capacitors
and a resistor in parallel.
2. Measure and record the values of the resistor and capacitors.
3. Attach channel one and channel two of the oscilloscope across the diode and connect the ground.
4. Supply the circuit with ten volts of AC from the power supply.
5. Observe the behavior of the circuit on the oscilloscope.
6. Measure and record the value of a second capacitor of different capacitance and replace the
original capacitors with the new capacitor.
7. Repeat steps three through five with the new capacitor.
In the fourth experiment, we completed our creation of a rectifier by incorporating a capacitor.
We experimented with several different capacitors in order to accomplish this: an 8.28 μF capacitor, then
two capacitors in series, an 8.28 μF capacitor and a 5.47 μF capacitor (producing a combined capacitance
of 3.29 μF), and finally a 330 μF capacitor. These capacitors were inserted into our circuit according to
the figure below, with R1 = 1467 Ohms and the voltage alternating between -15 V and 15 V:

We made predictions for the ripple voltages (ΔV) of the rectifiers, using the method detailed in
the introduction. These gave the values shown in the table below. It should be again noted that the method
used to calculate these values makes use of an assumption that is not entirely accurate, and thus that the
predictions are only rough approximations, not precise quantitatively but indicative of the quality of the
measurements.
The measurements made using the oscilloscope are also shown in the images below. The
tabulated experimental values for ripple voltage are taken from these images.
Image 2: Combined Capacitance = 3.29 μF

Image 3: Capacitance = 5.47 μF

 Image 4: Capacitance = 330 μF
Capacitor Used (μF) Calculated ΔV (V) Measured ΔV (V) Percent Error
3.29 14.33 12.4 13.47%
5.47 12.95 10.0 22.78%
330 0.7009 1.6 56.19%

These measurements agree in part with our calculations. However, as the capacitance is
increased, the error becomes increasingly aggravated. This is likely a result of the imprecise assumption
made in our method of calculation of setting the period of the capacitor’s discharge equal to the period of
the alternating voltage. However, quantitatively, these calculations are still indicative of the actual
measurements in that the ripple voltage decreases significantly as the capacitance is increased. Thus, a
new layer of our rectifier has been successfully established. The increase in the capacitance leads to an
increase in the time constant of the circuit, meaning that the capacitor takes a longer time to discharge.
This has the effect of stabilizing the voltage across the capacitor, meaning that a steadier voltage is
supplied to the resistor in our circuit. Thus, with a diode and a capacitor, we have caused alternating
current to closely emulate direct current. (It should also be noted that since the time constant is the
product of resistance and capacitance, an increase in resistance would have the same effect on the ripple
voltage that an increase in capacitance does. This means that, for a small ripple voltage to be achieved, if
the resistance of the circuit in question is high, the capacitance of the capacitor need not be extremely
large, and, conversely, if that same resistance is low, the capacitance must be higher in order to
compensate.)
Conclusion
This lab introduced us to a new electrical component called a diode. Diodes allow current to flow
in one direction and restrict current to flow in the opposite direction. One way to conceptualize this is a
one-way switch for current. When the direction of the diode is aligned with the direction of the current,
the diode is said to have forward bias, and the current is allowed to flow freely. When the direction of the
diode is contrary to the direction of the current, the diode is said to have reverse bias, and the flow of
current is restricted. There are multiple types of diodes, but we focused on semiconducting diodes. This
lab allows us to draw conclusions about the practicality of diodes and where they can be used in the real
world. One of these conclusions is a diode's role in a rectifier. A rectifier is an electrical component that
can translate AC current into DC current. We were able to make our own rectifier in this lab by using
combinations of diodes, resistors, and capacitors.
To improve this lab, we could have run more trials and collected more data. This would have
resulted in more accurate results. We collected enough data to get accurate results and to visually see the
behaviors of our circuits; however, if we wanted to conduct our experiment with even greater certainty,
more trials would achieve this. We also encountered some errors in experiment four. Our calculated
results still follow the same trend that our measured values follow, which is voltage decreases as the
capacity increases. This error is due to the imprecisions in calculating and syncing the discharge period of
our capacitors and the period of the alternating current, and unfortunately, the error increases when the
capacitance increases. But to reiterate, we were still able to accurately model the decrease in voltage as
capacitance increases in a simple rectifier.
Overall, this lab was an insightful and rewarding look at the far-reaching applications of diodes
and an instructive lesson in the use of voltage rectifiers to convert different types of current.