KERTAS

PENERANGAN
MODUL 3
L03-04-23 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
 GROUP CLUSTERING MODULE 3

L03-04-23-LA1 ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE AND PERFORM WORKS ELECTRICAL WITH

SAFE

05A.01/L4 Identify electric hazards and safety

L03-04-23-LA2 ABILITY TO TEST AND ANALYZE FOR BASIC ELECTRIC MACHINE

05A.02/L4 Test Electrical Machine System

05A.03/L4 Test Electric Circuit
05A.04/L4 Test Transformer
05A.05/L4 Test Inductor and Capacitor

L03-04-23-LA3 ANALYSE THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEOREM

05A.06/L4 Apply Magnetic and Electromagnetic

MUKASURAT 81
 INSTITUSI LATIHAN
JABATAN TENAGA MANUSIA
KEMENTERIAN SUMBER MANUSIA
MALAYSIA

KERTAS PENERANGAN
KOD DAN NAMA
L03 DIPLOMA TEKNOLOGI TELEKOMUNIKASI
KURSUS

KOD DAN NAMA

L03-04-23 ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
MODUL

LA1 ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE AND PERFORM WORKS

AKTIVITI ELECTRICAL WITH SAFE
PEMBELAJARAN LA2 ABILITY TO TEST AND ANALYZE FOR BASIC ELECTRIC
(LA) MACHINE
LA3 ANALYSE THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT AND NETWORK
THEOREM
05A.01/L4,
05A.02/L4,
CU.WA NO./ 05A.03/L4,
TAHAP 05A.04/L4,
05A.05/L4,
05A.06/L4

PERFORM ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY USING CONSTRUCTION,

OBJEKTIF EQUIVALENT, ANALYZING AND MEASURING CIRCUITS AND TOOLS
PRESTASI SO THAT PROVIDES KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS RELATING IN
AKHIRAN (TPO) ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION, EQUIVALENT, COMPONENT/CIRCUIT
IS TESTED AND FUNCTIONAL.

WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 82
LA1 ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE AND PERFORM WORKS ELECTRICAL WITH
SAFE

2.1. Electric hazards and safety

2.1.1. Introduction

Electricity is essential to modern life, both at home and on the job.

Some employees such as engineers, electricians, electronic
technicians, and power line workers, among them was work with
electricity directly. Others, such as office workers and sales people,
work with it indirectly. Perhaps because it has become such a familiar
part of our daily life, many of us don't give much thought to how
much our work depends on a reliable source of electricity. More
importantly, we tend to overlook the hazards electricity poses and fail
to treat it with the respect it deserves.

2.1.2. What causes shocks?

Electricity travels in closed circuits, normally through a conductor. But

sometimes a person's body an efficient conductor of electricity
mistakenly becomes part of the electric circuit. This can cause an
electrical shock. Shocks occur when a person's body completes the
current path with both wires of an electric circuit;

What kind of burns can a shock cause?

Burns are the most common shock-related injury. An electrical accident

can result in an electrical burn, arc burn, thermal contact burn, or a
combination of burns.

Electrical burns are among the most serious burns and require
immediate medical attention. They occur when electric current flows
through tissues or bone, generating heat that causes tissue damage.

Arc or flash burns result from high temperatures caused by an electric

arc or explosion near the body. These burns should be treated
promptly.

Thermal contact burns are caused when the skin touches hot surfaces
of overheated electric conductors, conduits, or other energized
equipment. Thermal burns also can be caused when clothing catches
on fire, as may occur when an electric arc is produced.

In addition to shock and burn hazards, electricity poses other dangers.

For example, arcs that result from short circuits can cause injury or
start a fire. Extremely high-energy arcs can damage equipment,
causing fragmented metal to fly in all directions. Even low-energy arcs
can cause violent explosions in atmospheres that contain flammable

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 gases, vapors, or combustible dusts.

Why do people sometimes “freeze" when they are shocked?

When a person receives an electrical shock, sometimes the electrical

stimulation causes the muscles to contract. This “freezing" effect makes
the person unable to pull free of the circuit. It is extremely dangerous
because it increases the length of exposure to electricity and because
the current causes blisters, which reduce the body's resistance and
increases the current.

The longer the exposure, the greater the risk of serious injury. Longer
exposures at even relatively low voltages can be just as dangerous as
short exposures at higher voltages. Low voltage does not imply low
hazard.

In addition to muscle contractions that cause “freezing," electrical

shocks also can cause involuntary muscle reactions. These reactions
can result in a wide range of other injuries from collisions or falls,
including bruises, bone fractures, and even death.

What should you do if someone" freezes" to a live electrical

contact?

If a person is “frozen" to a live electrical contact, shut off the current

immediately. If this is not possible, use boards, poles, or sticks made of
wood or any other non-conducting materials and safely push or pull the
person away from the contact. It's important to act quickly, but
remember to protect yourself as well from electrocution or shock.

How can you tell if a shock is serious?

A severe shock can cause considerably more damage than meets the
eye. A victim may suffer internal hemorrhages and destruction of
tissues, nerves, and muscles that aren't readily visible. Renal damage
also can occur. If you or a co-worker receives a shock, seek
emergency medical help immediately.

What is the danger of static electricity?

Static electricity also can cause a shock, though in a different way and
generally not as potentially severe as the type of shock described
previously. Static electricity can build up on the surface of an object
and, under the right conditions, can discharge to a person, causing a
shock. The most familiar example of this is when a person reaches for
a door knob or other metal object on a cold, relatively dry day and
receives a shock.

However, static electricity also can cause shocks or can just discharge
to an object with much more serious consequences, as when friction
causes a high level of static electricity to build up at a specific spot on
an object. This can happen simply through handling plastic pipes and
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 materials or during normal operation of rubberized drive or machine
belts found in many worksites. In these cases, for example, static
electricity can potentially discharge when sufficient amounts of
flammable or combustible substances are located nearby and cause an
explosion. Grounding or other measures may be necessary to prevent
this static electricity build up and the results.

2.1.3. Type of electrical hazards

Consider the following hazards in your risk assessment:

a. Live parts

Normal mains voltage, 230 volts AC, can kill. Also, contact with live
parts can cause shocks and burns.
b. Fire

Electrical faults can cause fires. This is particularly true where the
equipment contains a heat source (e.g. heaters, including water
heaters, washing machines, ovens, heat-seal packaging equipment).
c. Flammable or explosive atmospheres

Electricity can be a source of ignition in a potentially flammable or

explosive atmosphere, e.g. in spray paint booths or around refuelling
areas.

Why should you be concerned about electrical hazards?

Electricity has long been recognized as a serious workplace hazard,

exposing employees to electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and
explosions. In 1999, for example, 278 workers died from electrocutions
at work, accounting for almost 5 percent of all on-the-job fatalities that
year, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. What makes these
statistics more tragic is that most of these fatalities could have been
easily avoided.

How do OSHA's standards minimize electrical hazards?

OSHA standards focus on the design and use of electrical equipment

and systems. The standards cover only the exposed or operating
elements of an electrical installation such as lighting, equipment,
motors, machines, appliances, switches, controls, and enclosures,
requiring that they be constructed and installed to minimize workplace
electrical dangers. Also, the standards require that certain approved
testing organizations test and certify electrical equipment before use in
the workplace to ensure it is safe.

L03-04-23-LA1-IS WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 85

 2.1.4. How electric shock

May cause one wire of an energized circuit and the ground, a metal
part that accidentally becomes energized due for example to a break in
its insulation;or another “conductor" that is carrying a current. When a
person receives a shock, electricity flows between parts of the body or
through the body to a ground or the earth.

Electricity flows more easily through some materials than others. Some
substances such as metals generally offer very little resistance to the
flow of electric current and are called “conductors." A common but
perhaps overlooked conductor is the surface or subsurface of the earth.
Glass, plastic, porcelain, clay, pottery, dry wood, and similar
substances generally slow or stop the flow of electricity. They are called
“insulators." Even air, normally an insulator, can become a conductor,
as occurs during an arc or lightning stroke.

Pure water is a poor conductor. But small amounts of impurities in

water like salt, acid, solvents, or other materials can turn water itself
and substances that generally act as insulators into conductors or
better conductors? Dry wood, for example, generally slows or stops the
flow of electricity. But when saturated with water, wood turns into a
conductor. The same is true of human skin. Dry skin has a fairly high
resistance to electric current. But when skin is moist or wet, it acts as a
conductor. This means that anyone working with electricity in a damp or
wet environment needs to exercise extra caution to prevent electrical
hazards.

2.1.5. How electric shock can result in anything from a slight tingling
sensation to immediate cardiac arrest. The severity depends on the
following:

 the amount of current flowing through the body,

 the current's path through the body,
 the length of time the body remains in the circuit, and
 the current's frequency.

L03-04-23-LA1-IS WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 86

 Figure 1.1: Don’t touch non isolation cable

Figure1.2: Use non-conductor material to safe from electrical shock

Figure 1.3: Sign of electric cautions

Table 1.1 below was show the general relationship between the amount of current
received and the reaction when current flows from the hand to the foot for just 1 second.

L03-04-23-LA1-IS WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 87

 Table 1.1: Effect of electric current in the Human Body

Current Reaction

Below 1 milliampere Generally not perceptible

1 milliampere Faint tingle

5 milliamperes Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average

individual can let go. Strong involuntary reactions can lead
to other injuries.

6–25 milliamperes Painful shock, loss of muscular control*

(women)

9–30 milliamperes The freezing current or " let-go" range.* Individual cannot let
(men) go, but can be thrown away from the circuit if extensor
muscles are stimulated.

50–150 milliamperes Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular

contractions. Death is possible.

1,000–4,300 Rhythmic pumping action of the heart ceases. Muscular

milliamperes contraction and nerve damage occur; death likely.

10,000 milliamperes Cardiac arrest, severe burns; death probable

* If the extensor muscles are excited by the shock, the person may be thrown away from
the power source.

2.1.5. Safety and rules

What is the best way to protect yourself against electrical hazards?

Most electrical accidents result from one of the following three factors:

unsafe equipment or installation, unsafe environment, or Unsafe work

practices.

Some ways to prevent these accidents are through the use of

insulation, guarding, grounding, electrical protective devices, and safe
work practices.

What protection does insulation provide?

Insulators such as glass, mica, rubber, or plastic used to coat metals

L03-04-23-LA1-IS WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 88
 and other conductors help stop or reduce the flow of electrical current.
This helps prevent shock, fires, and short circuits. To be effective, the
insulation must be suitable for the voltage used and conditions such as
temperature and other environmental factors like moisture, oil,
gasoline, corrosive fumes, or other substances that could cause the
insulator to fail.

How do you identify different types of insulation?

Insulation on conductors is often colour coded. Insulated equipment

grounding conductors usually are either solid green or green with
yellow stripes. Insulation covering grounded conductors is generally
white or grey. Ungrounded conductors or hot wires,” often are black or
red, although they may be any colour other than green, white, or grey.

Before connecting electrical equipment to a power source, it's a good

idea to check the insulation for any exposed wires for possible defects.
Insulation covering flexible cords such as extension cords is particularly
vulnerable to damage.

What is guarding and what protection does it offer?

Guarding involves locating or enclosing electric equipment to make

sure people don't accidentally come into contact with its live parts.
Effective guarding requires equipment with exposed parts operating at
50 volts or more to be placed where it is accessible only to authorized
people qualified to work with it. Recommended locations are a room,
vault, or similar enclosure; a balcony, gallery, or elevated platform; or a
site elevated 8 feet (2.44 meters) or more above the floor. Sturdy,
permanent screens also can serve as effective guards.

Conspicuous signs must be posted at the entrances to electrical rooms

and similarly guarded locations to alert people to the electrical hazard
and to forbid entry to unauthorized people. Signs may contain the word
“Danger," " Warning," or” Caution," and beneath that, appropriate
concise wording that alerts people to the hazard or gives an instruction,
such as “Danger/High Voltage/Keep Out."

What is grounding and what protection does it offer?

“Grounding" a tool or electrical system means intentionally creating a

low-resistance path that connects to the earth. This prevents the build-
up of voltages that could cause an electrical accident.

Grounding is normally a secondary protective measure to protect

against electric shock. It does not guarantee that you won't get a shock
or be injured or killed by an electrical current. It will, however,
substantially reduce the risk, especially when used in combination with
other safety measures discussed in this booklet.

A service or system ground is designed primarily to protect machines,

tools, and insulation against damage. One wire, called the “neutral" or
L03-04-23-LA1-IS WIM/L03/12011/S04/P1(12016) MUKASURAT 89
 “grounded" conductor, is grounded. In an ordinary low-voltage circuit,
the white or grey wire is grounded at the generator or transformer and
at the building's service entrance.

An equipment ground helps protect the equipment operator. It furnishes

a second path for the current to pass through from the tool or machine
to the ground. This additional ground safeguards the operator if a
malfunction causes the tool's metal frame to become energized. The
resulting flow of current may activate the circuit protection devices.

What are circuit protection devices and how do they work?

Circuit protection devices limit or stop the flow of current automatically

in the event of a ground fault, overload, or short circuit in the wiring
system. Well-known examples of these devices are fuses, circuit
breakers, ground-fault circuit interrupters, and arc-fault circuit
interrupters.

Fuses and circuit breakers open or break the circuit automatically when
too much current flows through them. When that happens, fuses melt
and circuit breakers trip the circuit open. Fuses and circuit breakers are
designed to protect conductors and equipment. They prevent wires and
other components from overheating and open the circuit when there is
a risk of a ground fault.

Arc-fault devices provide protection from the effects of arc-faults by

recognizing characteristics unique to arcing and by functioning to
reenergize the circuit when an arc-fault is detected.

What work practices help protect you against electrical hazards?

Electrical accidents are largely preventable through safe work

practices. Examples of these practices include the following:

 reenergizing electric equipment before inspection or repair,

 keeping electric tools properly maintained,
 exercising caution when working near energized lines, and
 Using appropriate protective equipment.

How can you protect yourself against metal parts that become
energized?

A break in an electric tool's or machine's insulation can cause its metal

parts to become “hot" or energized, meaning that they conduct
electricity. Touching these energized parts can result in an electrical
shock, burn, or electrocution. The best way to protect user when using
electrical tools or machines is to establish a low-resistance path from
the device's metallic case to the ground. This requires an equipment
grounding conductor, a low-resistance wire that directs unwanted
current directly to the ground. A properly installed grounding conductor
has a low resistance to ground and greatly reduces the amount of
current that passes through your body. Cord and plug equipment with a
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 three-prong plug is a common example of equipment incorporating this
ground conductor.

Another form of protection is to use listed or labelled portable tools and

appliances protected by an approved system of double insulation or its
equivalent. Where such a system is employed, it must be marked
distinctively to indicate that the tool or appliance uses an approved
double insulation system.

How can you prevent an accidental or unexpected equipment start

up?

The first step before beginning any inspection or repair job is to turn the
current off at the switch box and padlock the switch in the OFF position.
This applies even on so-called low-voltage circuits. Securely tagging
the switch or controls of the machine or equipment being locked out of
service clarifies to everyone in the area which equipment or circuits are
being inspected or repaired.

Only qualified electricians who have been trained in safe lockout

procedures should maintain electrical equipment. No two of the locks
used should match, and each key should fit just one lock. In addition,
one individual lock and key should be issued to each maintenance
worker authorized to lock out and tag the equipment. All employees
who repair a given piece of equipment should lock out its switch with an
individual lock. Only authorized workers should be permitted to remove
it.

What protection does personal equipment offer?

Employees who work directly with electricity should use the personal
protective equipment required for the jobs they perform. This
equipment may include rubber insulating gloves, hoods, sleeves,
matting, blankets, line hose, and industrial protective helmets designed
to reduce electric shock hazard. All help reduce the risk of electrical
accidents.

What role do tools play?

Appropriate and properly maintained tools help protect workers against

electric hazards. It's important to maintain tools regularly because it
prevents them from deteriorating and becoming dangerous. Check
each tool before using it. If you find a defect, immediately remove it
from service and tag it so no one will use it until it has been repaired or
replaced.

When using a tool to handle energized conductors, check to make sure

it is designed and constructed to withstand the voltages and stresses to
which it has been exposed.

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 What special training do employees need?

All employees should be trained to be thoroughly familiar with the

safety procedures for their particular jobs. Moreover, good judgment
and common sense are integral to preventing electrical accidents.
When working on electrical equipment, for example, some basic
procedures to follow are to:

 reenergize the equipment,

 use lockout and tag procedures to ensure that the equipment
remains reenergised,
 use insulating protective equipment, and
 Maintain a safe distance from energized parts.

What's the value of a safety and health program in controlling

electrical hazards?

Every good safety and health program provides measures to control

electrical hazards. The measures suggested in this booklet should be
helpful in establishing such a program. The responsibility for this
program should be delegated to someone with a complete knowledge
of electricity, electrical work practices, and the appropriate OSHA
standards for installation and performance.

Everyone has the right to work in a safe environment. Safety and health
add value to your business and your workplace. Through cooperative
efforts, employers and employees can learn to identify and eliminate or
control electrical hazards.

What are the risks from electricity?

Harm can be caused to any person when they are exposed to ‘live
parts’ that are either touched directly or indirectly by means of some
conducting object or material. Voltages over 240 volts AC considered
hazardous.

Shocks from faulty equipment can cause severe and permanent injury
and can also lead to indirect injuries, due to falls from ladders,
scaffolds, or other work platforms.

Faulty electrical appliances can also lead to fires. As well as causing

injuries and loss of life, fires cause damage to plant, equipment and
property.

Who is most at risk from electricity?

Anyone can be exposed to the dangers of electricity while at work and

everyone should be made aware of the dangers.

Those most at risk include maintenance staff, those working with

electrical plant, equipment and machinery, and people working in harsh
environments such as construction sites.

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 Most electrical accidents occur because individuals:

are working on or near equipment which is thought to be dead but

which is, in fact, live are working on or near equipment which is known
to be live, but where those involved are without adequate training or
appropriate equipment, or they have not taken adequate precautions
Misuse equipment or use electrical equipment which they know to be
faulty.

Legal duties and obligations around electricity

As well as a moral duty on employers to protect employees and

members of the public, General Health and Safety Legislation cover all
employers and workplaces. In addition, specific duties and obligations
are laid out in the following regulations:

The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 these regulations apply to all

aspects of the use of electricity within the workplace from electrical
supplies to the use of electrical equipment. They place a duty on
employers, employees and the self-employed to:

have the electrical systems constructed in a way that prevents danger

maintain their electrical systems as necessary to prevent danger have
work on, use of, or closure of, electrical systems carried out in a way
that prevents danger.

Additionally electrical equipment used in hazardous environments (e.g.

extremes of weather, temperature, corrosive conditions) must be
constructed or protected to prevent it becoming dangerous only those
with adequate knowledge or experience, or who are under adequate
supervision should work with, or on, electrical equipment that could
cause danger or injury.

The following incidents must be reported:

 injury to staff due to an electric shock or electrical burn leading to

unconsciousness or requiring resuscitation; or admittance to
hospital
 electrical short circuit or overload causing fire or explosion
 Plant or equipment coming into contact with overhead power lines.

Where and how electricity is used

The risks from electricity are greatest in harsh conditions.

- In wet conditions, unsuitable equipment can easily become live

and can make its surroundings live.
- While outdoors, equipment may not only become wet but may be
at greater risk of damage.

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 In cramped or confined spaces with a lot of earthed metalwork, such as
inside tanks, ducts and silos, if an electrical fault develops it can be
very difficult to avoid a shock.

Types of equipment in use some items of equipment can also involve

greater risk than others. Extension leads are particularly liable to
damage to their plugs and sockets, cables, and electrical connections.
Other flexible leads, particularly those connected to equipment that is
moved a great deal, can suffer from similar problems.

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LA2 ABILITY TO TEST AND ANALYZE FOR BASIC ELECTRIC MACHINE

1. Ability to test and analyze for basic Electric Machine

1.1. Electrical Machine System

Electric current is nothing but the rate of flow of electric charge through a
conductor with respect to time. It is caused by drift of free electrons through a
conductor to a particular direction. As we all know, the measuring unit of electric
change is Coulomb and the unit of time is second, the measuring unit of current is
Coulombs per second and this logical unit of current has a specific name Ampere
after the famous French scientist André-Marie Ampere.
For better understanding, let give an example, suppose total 100 coulombs of
charge is transferred through a conductor in 50 seconds. What is the current?

As the current is nothing but the rate at which charge is transferred per unit of time,
it would be ratio of total charge transferred to the required time for that. Hence, here

'Ampere' is Sl unit of current.

Definition of Electric Current

While a potential difference is applied across a conductor, electrical charge flows

through it and electrical current is the measure of the quantity of the electrical
charge flowing through the conductor per unit time.

Types of Current

There are only two types of electrical current, direct current and alternating
current. We abbreviate them as DC and AC respectively. Concept of DC was
developed before AC. But AC becomes most popular means of generating,
transmitting and distributing of electric power. The direction of the flow of direct
current is unidirectional, means this current does not alter its direction during
flowing. Most common examples of DC in our daily life, are the current that we get
from all kinds of battery system. But most popular form of electrical current is
alternating current or AC. AC does have some advantages over DC for generating,
transmitting and distributing and that is why the current we get from our electric
supply companies, is normally alternating current.

1.2. DC Machine System

1.2.1. Electrical motors are everywhere around us. Almost all the electro-mechanical
movements we see around us are caused either by an A.C. or a DC motor.
Here we will be exploring this kind of motors. This is a device that converts DC
electrical energy to a mechanical energy.
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 1.2.2. Principle of DC Motor

This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a
tendency to move. This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current
in the wire is reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses. When magnetic
field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical force, and based on
that the working principle of dc motor established.

Figure 2.1: Fleming’s left hand rule

Refer to figure 2.1, the direction of rotation of a this motor is given by

Fleming’s left hand rule, which states that if the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to each other and
if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger
indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction in
which force is experienced by the shaft of the dc motor.

Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a

DC generator, but electrically it is just the opposite. Here we unlike a generator
we supply electrical energy to the input port and derive mechanical energy
from the output port. We can represent it by the block diagram shown below.

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 Figure 2.2: Process i/o

Refer to figure 2.2, here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is
given to the electrical port or the input port and we derive the mechanical
output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the mechanical port or output port.

The input and output port variables of the direct current motor are related by
the parameter K.

So from the picture above we can well understand that motor is just the
opposite phenomena of a DC generator, and we can derive both motoring and
generating operation from the same machine by simply reversing the ports.

Detailed Description of a DC Motor

To understand the DC motor in details let’s consider the figure 2.3 below,

Figure 2.3: DC motor diagram

The direct current motor is represented by the circle in the center, on which is
mounted the brushes, where we connect the external terminals, from where
supply voltage is given. On the mechanical terminal we have a shaft coming
out of the Motor, and connected to the armature, and the armature-shaft is
coupled to the mechanical load. On the supply terminals we represent the
armature resistance Ra in series. Now, let the input voltage E, is applied
across the brushes. Electric current which flows through the rotor armature via

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 brushes, in presence of the magnetic field, produces a torque Tg . Due to this
torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates.

As the armature conductors are carrying currents and the armature rotates
inside the stator magnetic field, it also produces an emf Eb in the manner very
similar to that of a generator. The generated Emf Eb is directed opposite to the
supplied voltage and is known as the back Emf, as it counters the forward
voltage. The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

Where, P = no of poles

φ = flux per pole

Z= No. of conductors

A = No. of parallel paths and N is the speed of the DC Motor.

So from the above equation we can see Eb is proportional to speed ‘N’. That is
whenever a direct current motor rotates, it results in the generation of back
Emf. Now lets represent the rotor speed by ω in rad/sec. So Eb is proportional
to ω.

So when the speed of the motor is reduced by the application of load, Eb

decreases. Thus the voltage difference between supply voltage and back emf
increases that means E − Eb increases. Due to this increased voltage
difference, armature current will increase and therefore torque and hence
speed increases. Thus a DC Motor is capable of maintaining the same speed
under variable load.

Now armature current Ia is represented by

Now at starting,speed ω = 0 so at starting Eb = 0.

Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor
has a very high starting current in the absence of back Emf. As a result we
need to use a starter for starting a DC Motor.

Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back Emf starts being generated
and gradually the current decreases as the motor picks up speed.

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 1.2.3. DC construction machines.

A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy

into direct current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle
of production of dynamically induced emf. This article outlines the basics of
construction and working of a DC generator.

Construction of A DC Generator:

Note: A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional

changes. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for a DC motor.
Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine.

Figure 2.4: 4 pole DC motor generator

Above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC generator.

A DC generator consist two basic parts, stator and rotor. Basic constructional
parts of a DC generator are described below.

Yoke:

- The outer frame of a generator or motor is called as yoke. Yoke is made up

of cast iron or steel. Yoke provides mechanical strength for whole assembly
of the generator (or motor). It also carries the magnetic flux produced by the
poles.

Poles:

- Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of screws or welding. Poles are
to support field windings. Field winding is wound on poles and connected
in series or parallel with armature winding or sometimes separately.
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 Pole shoe:

Pole shoe is an extended part of the pole which serves two purposes,

(i) To prevent field coils from slipping and

(ii) To spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Figure 2.5: Armature core (rotor)

Armature core:

- Armature core is the rotor of a generator. Armature core is cylindrical in shape on

which slots are provided to carry armature winding. Armature winding can be
wound by one of the two methods known as lap winding and wave winding.

Commutator and brushes:

- As emf is generated in the armature conductor’s terminals must be taken out to

make use of generated emf. But we can't directly solder wires to commutator
conductors, because the commutator conductors will be rotating and the wires
will get twisted and break. Thus commutator is connected to the armature
conductors and mounted on the same shaft as that of armature core.
Conducting brushes rest on commutator and they slides over when rotor
(hence commutator) rotates. Thus brushes are physically in contact with
armature conductors hence wires can be connected to brushes.

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 Working Principle:

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, 'when a conductor

moves in a magnetic field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), an emf gets
induced in the conductor'. The magnitude of generated emf can be given
by emf equation of DC generator. If a closed path is provided to the moving
conductor then generated emf causes a current to flow in the circuit.

One of the main functions of commutator is to convert generated AC emf into

DC. As you can see in the above image, direction of generated emf will
change across every conductor when it rotates (see the direction across
conductor ABCD in case 1 and case 2 in above image). It can be understood
from the image, comparing both cases, that even though the generated emf
across the conductors is alternating, the output of a DC generator is converted
to DC with the help of commutator. The output voltage waveform of a DC
generator is as shown below.

Figure 2.6: waveform of DC generator

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 Types Of A DC Generator:

- DC generators can be classified in two main categories,

(i) Separately excited and

(ii)Self excited.

- (i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an
independent external DC source.

(ii) Self excited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced
by the generator itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in
field poles. The generated emf causes a part of current to flow in the field
coils, thus strengthening the field flux and thereby increasing emf generation.
Self-excited dc generators can further be divided into three types -

(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding

(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding

(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding

1.2.4. Characteristics of DC Generators

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into

considerations:

(i) Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.),

(ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and

(iii) External Characteristic.

These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

i. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load

saturation characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between
generated emf at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at the given fixed
speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is practically
similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by
operating the generator at no load and keeping speed constant. Field current
is varied and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded.

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 Figure 2.7: Open circuit characteristic (O.C.C)

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit
characteristics for all types of DC generators.

ii. Internal Or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

The internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-
load generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated
emf Eg is always less than E0 due to armature reaction. Eg can be determined
by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from
no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below O.C.C.
curve.

iii. External Characteristic (V/IL)

The external characteristic curve shows the relation between the terminal
voltage (V) and load current (IL). The terminal voltage V is less than
generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore the
external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve.
External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a
generator for a given purpose.

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 Figure 2.6: Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, voltage will remain
constant for any load current. Thus the straight line AB in above figure
represents the no-load voltage vs. load current IL. Due to demagnetizing effect
of armature reaction the on-load generated emf is less than the no-load
voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load
current IL i.e. internal characteristic. The curve AD represents the terminal
voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics Of DC Series Generator

Figure 2.7: Characteristics of DC series generator

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 The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.)
curve. This is because, in DC series generators field winding is connected in
series with armature and load. Hence, here load current is similar to field
current. The curve OC and OD represents internal and external characteristic
respectively.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Generator

Figure 2.8: Characteristics of DC shunt Generator

When load resistance is decreased in DC shunt generator, the load current

increases. But, load resistance can be decreased upto a certain limit, beyond
this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load
current and terminal voltage. Consequently, the external characteristic curve
turns back as shown by dotted line in above figure.

Figure 2.9: Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristic of DC compound

generators. If series winding is adjusted so that, increase in load current
causes increase in terminal voltage then the generator is called to be over

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 compounded. The external characteristic for over compounded generator is
shown by the curve AB in above figure.

If series winding is adjusted so that, terminal voltage remains constant even

the load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat
compounded. The external characteristic for a flat compounded generator is
shown by the curve AC.

If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to
be flat compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded.
The external characteristics for an under compounded generator is shown by
the curve AD.

DC machines (i.e. DC generators or DC motors) can be classified on the basis

of configuration of their excitation winding. Field winding may be connected
to armature winding (in series or parallel) or it may be separately excited. This
divides DC machines in two main types. You will understand further
classification of DC machines from the diagram below.

Figure 3.0: Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

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 1.2.5. Efficiency and loss in DC motor

Introduction :

Swinburne‟s test is the most commonly used method for testing of

D.C machines. It is an indirect method of testing D.C machines. In this
method, the no load losses of the machine are determined experimentally and
the additional losses on load are estimated from the known data of the
machine, and with the help of the losses and input power the efficiency at any
desired load is predetermined.

Losses:

Power losses owing to the fact that no distinction need be made between the
losses in the D.C generator and the motor. The law of conservation of energy
dictates that the input power must always be equal to the output power plus
the losses in the machine. There are three major categories of losses:

1) Mechanical losses

2) Magnetic losses

3) Copper losses

1) Mechanical losses

Mechanical losses are the result of :

(a) The friction between the bearings and the shaft,

(b) The friction between the brushes and the commutator, and

(c) The drag on the armature caused by air enveloping the armature
(windage loss).

The bearing-friction loss depends upon the diameter of the shaft at the
bearing, the shaft‟s peripheral speed, and the coefficient of friction between
the shaft and the bearing. To reduce the coefficient of friction, the bearing are
usually lubricated.

The brush-friction loss depends upon the peripheral speed of the commutator,
the brush pressure, and the coefficient of friction between the brush and
the commutator. The graphite is the brush helps provide lubrication to lessen
the coefficient of friction.

The windage loss depends upon the peripheral speed of the armature, the
number of slots on its periphery, and its length.

Mechanical losses due to friction and windage Pfw can be determined by

rotating the armature of an unexcited machine at its rated speed by coupling it

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 to a calibrated motor. Because there is no power output, the power supplied to
the armature is the mechanical loss.

2) Magnetic loss

Since the induce E.M.F. in the conductors of the armature alternates with a
frequency determined by the speed of rotation and the number of poles, a
magnetic loss Pm (hysteresis and eddy-current) exists in the armature.

The hysteresis loss depends on the frequency of the induced E.M.F., the area
of the hysteresis loop, the magnetic flux density, and the volume of the
magnetic material. The area of the hysteresis loop is smaller for soft magnetic
materials. This is one of the reasons why soft magnetic materials are used for
electrical machines.

Although the armature is build using thin laminations, the eddy currents do
appear in each lamination and produce eddy-current loss. The eddy-current
loss depends upon the thickness of the lamination, the magnetic flux density,
the frequency of the induced E.M.F. and the volume of the magnetic material.

A considerable reduction in the magnetic loss can be obtained by operating

the machine in the linear region at a low flux density at the expense of its size
and initial cost.

Rotational lossesIn the analysis of a D.C. machine, it is a common practice to

lump the mechanical loss and the magnetic loss together. The sum of the two
losses is called the rotational loss, Pr.

i.e. Pr = Pfw + Pm

The rotational loss of a D.C. machine can be determined by running the

machine as a separately excited motor under no load. The armature winding
voltage be so adjusted that the induced E.M.F. in the armature winding is
equal to its rated value, Ea . If Vt is the terminal voltage and Ra is the
armature-winding resistance, then the voltage that must be applied to the
armature terminals is should

Va = Vt - IaRa For the motor.

Apply Va across the armature terminals and adjust the field excitation until the
machine rotates at its rated speed. Then measure the armature current.
Because the armature current under no load is small fraction of its rated value
and the armature winding resistance is usually very small, we can neglect the
power loss in the armature winding. As there is no power output, the power
supplied to the motor, VaIa, must be equal to the rotational loss in the
machine. By subtracting the mechanical loss, we can determine the magnetic
loss in the machine.

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 3) Copper losses

Whenever a current flows in a wire, a copper loss, Pcu, is associated with it.
2
The copper losses, also known as electrical or I R losses, can be segregated
as follows:

1. Armature-winding loss

2. Shunt field-winding loss

3. Series field- winding loss

4. Interpole field- winding loss

5. Compensating field-winding loss

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 Stray-load loss

A machine always has some losses that cannot be easily accounted

for; they are termed as stray-load losses. It is suspected that the stray-
load losses in the D.C. machine s are the result of (a) the distorted flux
due to armature reaction and (b) short-circuit currents in the coils
undergoing commutation. As a rule of thumb, the stray-load loss is
assumed to be 1% of the power output in large machines (above 100
horse power) and can be neglected in small machines.

Figure 3.1: Power flow diagram of a DC motor

Formula used:

We should basically find out the constant losses as follows -

V = D.C supply voltage

Io = no-load line current

Ish = shunt field winding current

Iao = no-load armature current = (Io-Ish)

Pao = no-load armature copper losses

No-load input power =VIo

Constant losses (Pc) =Ps+Pf
Pc = VIo – Pf – Pao + Pf

Therefore,

Constant losses (Pc) = VIo - Pao

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 Calculation of total losses:

Let us consider,

we have to find out the efficiency of the D.C. shunt motor at the load

current of „I‟ amperes

then, Armature copper losses = I2aRa = (I – Is)2Ra

Constant losses = Pc (we found them above)

Therefore, total losses = Armature copper losses + constant losses

Total losses = (I - Ish)2Ra + Pc

Efficiency:

Efficiency = (output / input )*100

Input to the Motor (Total power) = VI

Motor efficiency

Ƞm = 1 – losses / input

REFERENCES:

1. Dr. Bhag S.Guru, “Electric Machinery and transformers”, oxford university

press, 3rd edition.
2. D.R. Kohli-S.K Jain, “A laboratory course in ELECTRICAL MACHINES” Nem
Chand & Bros., 2000.

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LA3 ANALYSE THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEOREM

1. Electrical Circuit

1.1. Electrical source

Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from

other sources of primary energy. The fundamental principles of
electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early
1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still
used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire,
or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet. For electric utilities, it
is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other
processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power
storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally
carried out by the electric power industry. Electricity is most often
generated at a power station by electromechanical generators,
primarily driven by heat engines fuelled by chemical
combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as
the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources
include solar photovoltaic and geothermal power and
electrochemical batteries.

Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other

forms of energy into electrical energy:
 Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of
charge (examples: triboelectric effect and lightning)
 Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical
generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy
of motion) into electricity. This is the most used form for generating
electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be experimented
by simply rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting
material (e.g. copper wire)
 Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into
electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse
 Photovoltaic effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy,
as in solar cells.
 Thermoelectric effect, the direct conversion of temperature
differences to electricity, as in thermocouples, thermopiles,
and thermionic converters.
 Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of
electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals. Researchers at the
US Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National

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 Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have developed
a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal
display using thin films.
 Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged
particles (examples: alpha particle emission)
 Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and
the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices
such as the Van de Graff generator and MHD generators. Charge
carriers are separated and physically transported to a position of
increased electric potential. Almost all commercial electrical
generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in
which mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate.
There are many different methods of developing the mechanical
energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. The
direct conversion of nuclear potential energy to electricity by beta
decay is used only on a small scale. In a full-size nuclear power
plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine.
This drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into
electricity by magnetic induction. Most electric generation is driven
by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of
the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear
fission and some from renewable sources. The modern steam
turbine (invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884) currently
generates about 80% of the electric power in the world using a
variety of heat sources

1.2. Resistance and factors which influence the resistance

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to
the passage of an electric current through that conductor. The inverse
quantity is electrical conductance, the ease with which an electric
current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels
with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance
is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens
(S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its
resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors,
which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across
it (V) to current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:

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 For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly
proportional to each other, and therefore R and G are constant
(although they can depend on other factors like temperature or strain).
This proportionality is called Ohm's law, and materials that satisfy it are
called "Ohmic" materials.

In other cases, such as a diode or battery, V and I are not directly

proportional, or in other words the I–V curve is not a straight line
through the origin, and Ohm's law does not hold. In this case,
resistance and conductance are less useful concepts, and more difficult
to define. The ratio V/I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a
"chordal resistance" or "static resistance", as it corresponds to the
inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an I–V curve. In other
situations, the

Derivative may be most useful; this is called the "differential

resistance".

1.2.1. Type of electrical circuit

a. Series Circuits

Circuits consisting of just one battery and one load resistance are very
simple to analyse, but they are not often found in practical applications.
Usually, we find circuits where more than two components are
connected together.

There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit
components: series and parallel. First, an example of a series circuit:

Figure3.2: Series circuit

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3), connected in a
long chain from one terminal of the battery to the other. (It should be
noted that the subscript labeling those little numbers to the lower-right

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 of the letter “R”are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They serve
only to identify one resistor from another.) The defining characteristic of
a series circuit is that there is only one path for electrons to flow. In this
circuit the electrons flow in a counter-clockwise direction, from point 4
to point 3 to point 2 to point 1 and back around to 4.

1.2.2. Relationship between voltage, current and resistor

Parallel circuit

Figure3.3: Parallel circuit

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one
continuous path for electrons to flow. There’s one path from 8 to 7 to 2
to 1 and back to 8 again. There’s another from 8 to 7 to 6 to 3 to 2 to 1
and back to 8 again. And then there’s a third path from 8 to 7 to 6 to 5
to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. Each individual path (through R1,
R2, and R3) is called a branch.

The defining characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are

connected between the same set of electrically common points.
Looking at the schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all
resistors as well as the battery are connected between these two sets
of points.

And, of course, the complexity doesn’t stop at simple series and

parallel either! We can have circuits that are a combination of series
and parallel.

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 Figure3.4: Series-parallel circuit

In this circuit, we have two loops for electrons to flow through: one from
6 to 5 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again, and another from 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to
2 to 1 and back to 6 again. Notice how both current paths go through
R1 (from point 2 to point 1). In this configuration, we’d say that R2 and
R3 are in parallel with each other, while R1 is in series with the parallel
combination of R2 and R3.

The basic idea of a “series” connection is that components are

connected end-to-end in a line to form a single path for electrons to
flow:

Figure3.5: Series connection

The basic idea of a “parallel” connection, on the other hand, is that all
components are connected across each other’s leads. In a purely
parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of electrically
common points, no matter how many components are connected.
There are many paths for electrons to flow, but only one voltage across
all components:

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 Figure3.6: Parallel connection

 REVIEW:
 In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end,
forming a single path for electrons to flow.
 In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each
other, forming exactly two sets of electrically common points.
 A “branch” in a parallel circuit is a path for electric current formed
by one of the load components (such as a resistor).

Let’s start with a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a

single battery:

The first principle to understand about series circuits is that the amount
of current is the same through any component in the circuit. This is
because there is only one path for electrons to flow in a series circuit,
and because free electrons flow through conductors like marbles in a

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 tube, the rate of flow (marble speed) at any point in the circuit (tube) at
any specific point in time must be equal.

From the way that the 9 volt battery is arranged, we can tell that the
electrons in this circuit will flow in a counter-clockwise direction, from
point 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 4. However, we have one source of
voltage and three resistances. How do we use Ohm’s Law here?

An important caveat to Ohm’s Law is that all quantities (voltage,

current, resistance, and power) must relate to each other in terms of
the same two points in a circuit. For instance, with a single-battery,
single-resistor circuit, we could easily calculate any quantity because
they all applied to the same two points in the circuit:

Since points 1 and 2 are connected together with wire of negligible

resistance, as are points 3 and 4, we can say that point 1 is electrically
common to point 2, and that point 3 is electrically common to point 4.
Since we know we have 9 volts of electromotive force between points 1
and 4 (directly across the battery), and since point 2 is common to point
1 and point 3 common to point 4, we must also have 9 volts between
points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor). Therefore, we can apply
Ohm’s Law (I = E/R) to the current through the resistor, because we
know the voltage (E) across the resistor and the resistance (R) of that
resistor. All terms (E, I, R) apply to the same two points in the circuit, to
that same resistor, so we can use the Ohm’s Law formula with no
reservation.

However, in circuits containing more than one resistor, we must be

careful in how we apply Ohm’s Law. In the three-resistor example
circuit below, we know that we have 9 volts between points 1 and 4,
which is the amount of electromotive force trying to push electrons
through the series combination of R1, R2, and R3. However, we cannot
take the value of 9 volts and divide it by 3k, 10k or 5k Ω to try to find a

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 current value, because we don’t know how much voltage is across any
one of those resistors, individually.

The figure of 9 volts is a total quantity for the whole circuit, whereas the
figures of 3k, 10k, and 5k Ω are individual quantities for individual
resistors. If we were to plug a figure for total voltage into an Ohm’s Law
equation with a figure for individual resistance, the result would not
relate accurately to any quantity in the real circuit.

For R1, Ohm’s Law will relate the amount of voltage across R1 with the
current through R1, given R1‘s resistance, 3kΩ:

But, since we don’t know the voltage across R1 (only the total voltage
supplied by the battery across the three-resistor series combination)
and we don’t know the current through R1, we can’t do any calculations
with either formula. The same goes for R2 and R3: we can apply the
Ohm’s Law equations if and only if all terms are representative of their
respective quantities between the same two points in the circuit.

So what can we do? We know the voltage of the source (9 volts)

applied across the series combination of R1, R2, and R3, and we know
the resistances of each resistor, but since those quantities aren’t in the
same context, we can’t use Ohm’s Law to determine the circuit current.
If only we knew what the total resistance was for the circuit: then we
could calculate total current with our figure for total voltage (I=E/R).

This brings us to the second principle of series circuits: the total

resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances. This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors in
series that the electrons must flow through, the more difficult it will be
for those electrons to flow. In the example problem, we had a 3 kΩ, 10
kΩ, and 5 kΩ resistor in series, giving us a total resistance of 18 kΩ:

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 In essence, we’ve calculated the equivalent resistance of R1, R2, and
R3 combined. Knowing this, we could re-draw the circuit with a single
equivalent resistor representing the series combination of R1, R2, and
R3:

Now we have all the necessary information to calculate circuit current,

because we have the voltage between points 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the
resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 kΩ):

Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit

(and we just determined the current through the battery), we can go
back to our original circuit schematic and note the current through each
component:

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 Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can
use Ohm’s Law to determine the voltage drop across each one
(applying Ohm’s Law in its proper context):

Notice the voltage drops across each resistor, and how the sum of the
voltage drops (1.5 + 5 + 2.5) is equal to the battery (supply) voltage: 9
volts. This is the third principle of series circuits: that the supply voltage
is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops.

However, the method we just used to analyze this simple series circuit
can be streamlined for better understanding. By using a table to list all
voltages, currents, and resistances in the circuit, it becomes very easy
to see which of those quantities can be properly related in any Ohm’s
Law equation:

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 The rule with such a table is to apply Ohm’s Law only to the values
within each vertical column. For instance, ER1 only with IR1 and R1;
ER2 only with IR2 and R2; etc. You begin your analysis by filling in those
elements of the table that are given to you from the beginning:

As you can see from the arrangement of the data, we can’t apply the 9
volts of ET (total voltage) to any of the resistances (R1, R2, or R3) in any
Ohm’s Law formula because they’re in different columns. The 9 volts of
battery voltage is not applied directly across R1, R2, or R3. However, we
can use our “rules” of series circuits to fill in blank spots on a horizontal
row. In this case, we can use the series rule of resistances to determine
a total resistance from the sum of individual resistances:

Now, with a value for total resistance inserted into the rightmost
(“Total”) column, we can apply Ohm’s Law of I=E/R to total voltage and
total resistance to arrive at a total current of 500 µA:

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 Then, knowing that the current is shared equally by all components of a
series circuit (another “rule” of series circuits), we can fill in the currents
for each resistor from the current figure just calculated:

Finally, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the voltage drop across
each resistor, one column at a time:

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 Just for fun, we can use a computer to analyze this very same circuit
automatically. It will be a good way to verify our calculations and also
become more familiar with computer analysis. First, we have to
describe the circuit to the computer in a format recognizable by the
software. The SPICE program we’ll be using requires that all electrically
unique points in a circuit be numbered, and component placement is
understood by which of those numbered points, or “nodes,” they share.
For clarity, I numbered the four corners of our example circuit 1 through
4. SPICE, however, demands that there be a node zero somewhere in
the circuit, so I’ll re-draw the circuit, changing the numbering scheme
slightly:

In summary, a series circuit is defined as having only one path for

electrons to flow. From this definition, three rules of series circuits follow:
all components share the same current; resistances add to equal a larger,
total resistance; and voltage drops add to equal a larger, total voltage. All
of these rules find root in the definition of a series circuit. If you understand
that definition fully, then the rules are nothing more than footnotes to the
definition.

REVIEW:

 Components in a series circuit share the same current: ITotal = I1 = I2 = . . .

In
 Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances: RTotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn
 Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
voltage drops: ETotal = E1 + E2 + . . . En

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 1.2.3. Let’s start with a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors and a
single battery:

The first principle to understand about parallel circuits is that the

voltage is equal across all components in the circuit. This is because
there are only two sets of electrically common points in a parallel
circuit, and voltage measured between sets of common points must
always be the same at any given time. Therefore, in the above circuit,
the voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage across R2 which is equal
to the voltage across R3 which is equal to the voltage across the
battery. This equality of voltages can be represented in another table
for our starting values:

Just as in the case of series circuits, the same caveat for Ohm’s Law
applies: values for voltage, current, and resistance must be in the same
context in order for the calculations to work correctly. However, in the
above example circuit, we can immediately apply Ohm’s Law to each
resistor to find its current because we know the voltage across each
resistor (9 volts) and the resistance of each resistor:

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 At this point we still don’t know what the total current or total resistance
for this parallel circuit is, so we can’t apply Ohm’s Law to the rightmost
(“Total”) column. However, if we think carefully about what is happening
it should become apparent that the total current must equal the sum of
all individual resistor (“branch”) currents:

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 As the total current exits the negative (-) battery terminal at point 8 and
travels through the circuit, some of the flow splits off at point 7 to go up
through R1, some more splits off at point 6 to go up through R2, and the
remainder goes up through R3. Like a river branching into several
smaller streams, the combined flow rates of all streams must equal the
flow rate of the whole river. The same thing is encountered where the
currents through R1, R2, and R3 join to flow back to the positive terminal
of the battery (+) toward point 1: the flow of electrons from point 2 to
point 1 must equal the sum of the (branch) currents through R1, R2, and
R3.

This is the second principle of parallel circuits: the total circuit current is
equal to the sum of the individual branch currents. Using this principle,
we can fill in the IT spot on our table with the sum of IR1, IR2, and IR3:

Finally, applying Ohm’s Law to the rightmost (“Total”) column, we can

calculate the total circuit resistance:

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 The total circuit resistance is only 625 Ω: less than any one of the
individual resistors. In the series circuit, where the total resistance was
the sum of the individual resistances, the total was bound to
be greater than any one of the resistors individually. Here in the parallel
circuit, however, the opposite is true: we say that the individual
resistances diminish rather than add to make the total. This principle
completes our triad of “rules” for parallel circuits, just as series circuits
were found to have three rules for voltage, current, and resistance.
Mathematically, the relationship between total resistance and individual
resistances in a parallel circuit looks like this:

The same basic form of equation works for any number of resistors
connected together in parallel; just add as many 1/R terms on the
denominator of the fraction as needed to accommodate all parallel
resistors in the circuit.

Just as with the series circuit, we can use computer analysis to double-
check our calculations. First, of course, we have to describe our
example circuit to the computer in terms it can understand. I’ll start by
re-drawing the circuit:

REVIEW:

 Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage: ETotal = E1 = E2 =

. . . En
 Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual
resistances: RTotal = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . . 1/Rn)
 Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
branch currents: ITotal = I1 + I2 + . . . In.

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 1.3. Voltage Transformer Basics

1.3.1. One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and
currents in our homes and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be
easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed (hence the name
transformer) into much higher voltages and then distributed around the
country using a national grid of pylons and cables over very long
distances.

The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that
higher distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same power
and therefore lower I2R losses along the networked grid of cables.
These higher AC transmission voltages and currents can then be
reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where it can
be used to supply electrical equipment in our homes and workplaces,
and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage Transformer.

Figure 3.2: A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component

rather than an electronic component. A transformer basically is very
simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device
that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting
electrical energy from one value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical

circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced
by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of
“electromagnetic induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically

induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then
we can say that transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and
transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform” one
voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage

and current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or
the amount of Electrical Power being transferred from one winding to
another via the magnetic circuit.

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 A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical
coils of wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another called the
“Secondary Winding”. For this tutorial we will define the “primary” side
of the transformer as the side that usually takes power, and the
“secondary” as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase
voltage transformer the primary is usually the side with the higher
voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are
instead wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron
circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of
individual laminations connected together to help reduce the core’s
losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power
to be transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current
passed through the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed
which induces a voltage into the secondary winding as shown.

Figure 3.3: Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection

between the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of
an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a
transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and converts or
transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of
the secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into
electrical power producing the required output voltage as shown.

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  Where:
 VP - is the Primary Voltage
 VS - is the Secondary Voltage
 NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
 NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
 Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Figure 3.5: Transformer Construction (single-phase)

1.3.2. Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are
only linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to
either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding.
When a transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary
winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer.
When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding
with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the

same voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In
other words, its output is identical with respect to voltage, current and
power transferred. This type of transformer is called an “Impedance
Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the
isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary

windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the
primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the
secondary winding ( NS ).

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 As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists
between the number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number
of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of
transformation, more commonly known as a transformers “turns ratio”,
( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer
and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the

primary winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio,
which has no units, compares the two windings in order and is written
with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if
there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the
secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see that if the ratio
between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also
change by the same ratio, and this is true.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the
secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any
given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words
for a transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of
turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the turns
ratio and this relationship is given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a

transformers turns ratio value is very important as the turns
ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output
voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500
turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of
the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary
windings for every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a

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 larger number on the left to a smaller number on the right, the primary
voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same

transformer above, what will be the resulting secondary no load
voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down transformer as

the primary voltage is 240 volts and the corresponding secondary
voltage is lower at 80 volts.

Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at

preset ratios and we can see that the primary winding has a set amount
or number of windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the
secondary output voltage is to be the same value as the input voltage
on the primary winding, then the same number of coil turns must be
wound onto the secondary core as there are on the primary core giving
an even turns ratio of 1:1 (1-to-1). In other words, one coil turn on the
secondary to one coil turn on the primary.

If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input

voltage, (step-up transformer) then there must be more turns on the
secondary giving a turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N), where N represents the
turns ratio number. Likewise, if it is required that the secondary voltage
is to be lower or less than the primary, (step-down transformer) then
the number of secondary windings must be less giving a turns ratio
of N:1 (N-to-1).

Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding
compared to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of
voltage available from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are
electrically isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage
produced?

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 We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two
coils wound around a common soft iron core. When an alternating
voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the
coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual
inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up
as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given
as dΦ/dt.

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand

outward from the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and
concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of
both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions
under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron
core depends upon the amount of current and the number of turns in
the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength
reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass
through the turns of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be
induced into the secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will be
determined by: N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number of coil
turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary
winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of
both windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both
the windings together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each
winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in that winding.
However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the
secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core
are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to

overcome the cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger
current through the coil, or keep the same current flowing, and instead
increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The product of
amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines the
magnetising force of the coil.

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 So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary,
and only one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn
of the primary coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and
enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt in the single turn of
the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of
volts per turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic
relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is
given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

 Where:
 ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π
 Ν - is the number of coil windings.
 Φ - is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary

winding emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the
secondary winding emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).

Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic

flux to operate correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to
transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic field
must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In
other words,Transformers DO NOT Operate on DC Voltages, ONLY
AC.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the

inductive reactance of the winding would be zero as DC has no
frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will therefore be
very low and equal only to the resistance of the copper used. Thus the

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 winding will draw a very high current from the DC supply causing it to
overheat and eventually burn out, because as we know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and
90 turns on the secondary winding. The maximum value of the
magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the
transformer primary winding. Calculate:

a). The maximum flux in the core.

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

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 Electrical Power in a Transformer

Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating.

Transformers are rated inVolt-amperes, ( VA ), or in larger units of Kilo
Volt-amperes, ( kVA ). In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the
power available in the secondary winding will be the same as the power
in the primary winding, they are constant wattage devices and do not
change the power only the voltage to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal
transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the
voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will remain constant.

That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is

“transformed” into electric power, at the same frequency, to the same
voltage/current level on the secondary side. Although the transformer
can step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-up power. Thus,
when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current and
vice-versa, so that the output power is always at the same value as the
input power. Then we can say that primary power equals secondary
power, ( PP = PS ).

Power in a Transformer

Where: ΦP is the primary phase angle and ΦS is the secondary phase

angle.

Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current
being transmitted, that is:I2R, increasing the voltage, let’s say doubling
( ×2 ) the voltage would decrease the current by the same amount,
( ÷2 ) while delivering the same amount of power to the load and
therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by
a factor of 10, the current would decrease by the same factor reducing
overall losses by factor of 100.

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 1.3.3. Transformer Basics – Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy.

This means that there are no friction or windage losses associated with
other electrical machines. However, transformers do suffer from other
types of losses called “copper losses” and “iron losses” but generally
these are quite small.

Copper losses, also known as I2R loss is the electrical power which is
lost in heat as a result of circulating the currents around the
transformers copper windings, hence the name. Copper losses
represents the greatest loss in the operation of a transformer. The
actual watts of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by
squaring the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the
winding (I2R).

Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic

molecules within the core, in response to the alternating magnetic flux.
This lagging (or out-of-phase) condition is due to the fact that it requires
power to reverse magnetic molecules; they do not reverse until the flux
has attained sufficient force to reverse them.

Their reversal results in friction and friction produces heat in the core
which is a form of power loss. Hysteresis within the transformer can be
reduced by making the core from special steel alloys.

The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency.

The efficiency of a transformer is reflected in power (wattage) loss
between the primary (input) and secondary (output) windings. Then the
resulting efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the power
output of the secondary winding, PS to the power input of the primary
winding, PP and is therefore high.

An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy

it receives. Real transformers on the other hand are not 100% efficient
and at full load, the efficiency of a transformer is between 94% to 96%
which is quiet good. For a transformer operating with a constant voltage
and frequency with a very high capacity, the efficiency may be as high
as 98%. The efficiency, η of a transformer is given as:

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 Transformer Efficiency

where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called
“volt-amps”, VA to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then
the efficiency equation above can be modified to:

It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the

transformers input, output and efficiency by using pictures. Here the
three quantities of VA, W and η have been superimposed into a triangle
giving power in watts at the top with volt-amps and efficiency at the
bottom. This arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity in the efficiency formulas.

Transformer Efficiency Triangle

and transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following

combinations of the same equation:

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 Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or
to find Efficiency, eff. =W/VA, etc.

1.4. Magnetic Fields and Inductance

1.4.1. Inductors

Whenever electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field will

develop around that conductor. This effect is called electromagnetism.
Magnetic fields effect the alignment of electrons in an atom, and can
cause physical force to develop between atoms across space just as
with electric fields developing force between electrically charged
particles. Like electric fields, magnetic fields can occupy completely
empty space, and affect matter at a distance.

Fields have two measures: a field force and a field flux. The
field force is the amount of “push” that a field exerts over a certain
distance. The field flux is the total quantity, or effect, of the field through
space. Field force and flux are roughly analogous to voltage (“push”)
and current (flow) through a conductor, respectively, although field flux
can exist in totally empty space (without the motion of particles such as
electrons) whereas current can only take place where there are free
electrons to move. Field flux can be opposed in space, just as the flow
of electrons can be opposed by resistance. The amount of field flux that
will develop in space is proportional to the amount of field force applied,
divided by the amount of opposition to flux. Just as the type of
conducting material dictates that conductor’s specific resistance to
electric current, the type of material occupying the space through which
a magnetic field force is impressed dictates the specific opposition to
magnetic field flux.

Whereas an electric field flux between two conductors allows for an

accumulation of free electron charge within those conductors, a
magnetic field flux allows for a certain “inertia” to accumulate in the flow
of electrons through the conductor producing the field.

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 Inductors are components designed to take advantage of this
phenomenon by shaping the length of conductive wire in the form of a
coil. This shape creates a stronger magnetic field than what would be
produced by a straight wire. Some inductors are formed with wire
wound in a self-supporting coil. Others wrap the wire around a solid
core material of some type. Sometimes the core of an inductor will be
straight, and other times it will be joined in a loop (square, rectangular,
or circular) to fully contain the magnetic flux. These design options all
have an effect on the performance and characteristics of inductors.

The schematic symbol for an inductor, like the capacitor, is quite

simple, being little more than a coil symbol representing the coiled wire.
Although a simple coil shape is the generic symbol for any inductor,
inductors with cores are sometimes distinguished by the addition of
parallel lines to the axis of the coil. A newer version of the inductor
symbol dispenses with the coil shape in favor of several “humps” in a
row:

Figure 3.6: Symbol of inductor

As the electric current produces a concentrated magnetic field around

the coil, this field flux equates to a storage of energy representing the
kinetic motion of the electrons through the coil. The more current in the
coil, the stronger the magnetic field will be, and the more energy the
inductor will store.

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 Because inductors store the kinetic energy of moving electrons in the
form of a magnetic field, they behave quite differently than resistors
(which simply dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy
storage in an inductor is a function of the amount of current through it.
An inductor’s ability to store energy as a function of current results in a
tendency to try to maintain current at a constant level. In other words,
inductors tend to resist changes in current. When current through an
inductor is increased or decreased, the inductor “resists” the change by
producing a voltage between its leads in opposing polarity to
the change.

To store more energy in an inductor, the current through it must be

increased. This means that its magnetic field must increase in strength,
and that change in field strength produces the corresponding voltage
according to the principle of electromagnetic self-induction. Conversely,
to release energy from an inductor, the current through it must be
decreased. This means that the inductor’s magnetic field must
decrease in strength, and that change in field strength self-induces a
voltage drop of just the opposite polarity.

REVIEW:

 Inductors react against changes in current by dropping voltage in the polarity

necessary to oppose the change.
 When an inductor is faced with an increasing current, it acts as a load: dropping
voltage as it absorbs energy (negative on the current entry side and positive on
the current exit side, like a resistor).
 When an inductor is faced with a decreasing current, it acts as a source: creating
voltage as it releases stored energy (positive on the current entry side and
negative on the current exit side, like a battery).
 The ability of an inductor to store energy in the form of a magnetic field (and
consequently to oppose changes in current) is called inductance. It is measured
in the unit of the Henry (H).
 Inductors used to be commonly known by another term: choke. In large power
applications, they are sometimes referred to as reactors.

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 1.4.2. Capacitors

Whenever an electric voltage exists between two separated

conductors, an electric field is present within the space between those
conductors. In basic electronics, we study the interactions of voltage,
current, and resistance as they pertain to circuits, which are conductive
paths through which electrons may travel. When we talk about fields,
however, we’re dealing with interactions that can be spread across
empty space.

Admittedly, the concept of a “field” is somewhat abstract. At least with

electric current it isn’t too difficult to envision tiny particles called
electrons moving their way between the nuclei of atoms within a
conductor, but a “field” doesn’t even have mass, and need not exist
within matter at all.

Despite its abstract nature, almost every one of us has direct

experience with fields, at least in the form of magnets. Have you ever
played with a pair of magnets, noticing how they attract or repel each
other depending on their relative orientation? There is an undeniable
force between a pair of magnets, and this force is without “substance.”
It has no mass, no color, no odor, and if not for the physical force
exerted on the magnets themselves, it would be utterly insensible to
our bodies. Physicists describe the interaction of magnets in terms
of magnetic fields in the space between them. If iron filings are placed
near a magnet, they orient themselves along the lines of the field,
visually indicating its presence.

The subject of this chapter is electric fields (and devices

called capacitors that exploit them), not magnetic fields, but there are
many similarities. Most likely you have experienced electric fields as
well. Chapter 1 of this book began with an explanation of static
electricity, and how materials such as wax and wool—when rubbed
against each other—produced a physical attraction. Again, physicists
would describe this interaction in terms of electric fields generated by
the two objects as a result of their electron imbalances. Suffice it to say
that whenever a voltage exists between two points, there will be an
electric field manifested in the space between those points.

Fields have two measures: a field force and a field flux. The
field force is the amount of “push” that a field exerts over a certain
distance. The field flux is the total quantity, or effect, of the field through
space. Field force and flux are roughly analogous to voltage (“push”)
and current (flow) through a conductor, respectively, although field flux
can exist in totally empty space (without the motion of particles such as
electrons) whereas current can only take place where there are free
electrons to move. Field flux can be opposed in space, just as the flow
of electrons can be opposed by resistance. The amount of field flux that
will develop in space is proportional to the amount of field force applied,
divided by the amount of opposition to flux. Just as the type of
conducting material dictates that conductor’s specific resistance to

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 electric current, the type of insulating material separating two
conductors dictates the specific opposition to field flux.

Normally, electrons cannot enter a conductor unless there is a path for

an equal amount of electrons to exit (remember the marble-in-tube
analogy?). This is why conductors must be connected together in a
circular path (a circuit) for continuous current to occur. Oddly enough,
however, extra electrons can be “squeezed” into a conductor without a
path to exit if an electric field is allowed to develop in space relative to
another conductor. The number of extra free electrons added to the
conductor (or free electrons taken away) is directly proportional to the
amount of field flux between the two conductors.

Capacitors are components designed to take advantage of this

phenomenon by placing two conductive plates (usually metal) in close
proximity with each other. There are many different styles of capacitor
construction, each one suited for particular ratings and purposes. For
very small capacitors, two circular plates sandwiching an insulating
material will suffice. For larger capacitor values, the “plates” may be
strips of metal foil, sandwiched around a flexible insulating medium and
rolled up for compactness. The highest capacitance values are
obtained by using a microscopic-thickness layer of insulating oxide
separating two conductive surfaces. In any case, though, the general
idea is the same: two conductors, separated by an insulator.

The schematic symbol for a capacitor is quite simple, being little more
than two short, parallel lines (representing the plates) separated by a
gap. Wires attach to the respective plates for connection to other
components. An older, obsolete schematic symbol for capacitors
showed interleaved plates, which is actually a more accurate way of
representing the real construction of most capacitors:

Figure 3.7: Symbol of capacitor

When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a capacitor, a

concentrated field flux is created between them, allowing a significant
difference of free electrons (a charge) to develop between the two
plates:

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 As the electric field is established by the applied voltage, extra free
electrons are forced to collect on the negative conductor, while free
electrons are “robbed” from the positive conductor. This differential
charge equates to a storage of energy in the capacitor, representing
the potential charge of the electrons between the two plates. The
greater the difference of electrons on opposing plates of a capacitor,
the greater the field flux, and the greater “charge” of energy the
capacitor will store.

Because capacitors store the potential energy of accumulated electrons

in the form of an electric field, they behave quite differently than
resistors (which simply dissipate energy in the form of heat) in a circuit.
Energy storage in a capacitor is a function of the voltage between the
plates, as well as other factors which we will discuss later in this
chapter. A capacitor’s ability to store energy as a function of voltage
(potential difference between the two leads) results in a tendency to try
to maintain voltage at a constant level. In other words, capacitors tend
to resist changes in voltage drop. When voltage across a capacitor is
increased or decreased, the capacitor “resists” the change by drawing
current from or supplying current to the source of the voltage change, in
opposition to the change.

To store more energy in a capacitor, the voltage across it must be

increased. This means that more electrons must be added to the (-)
plate and more taken away from the (+) plate, necessitating a current in
that direction. Conversely, to release energy from a capacitor, the
voltage across it must be decreased. This means some of the excess
electrons on the (-) plate must be returned to the (+) plate,
necessitating a current in the other direction.

Just as Isaac Newton’s first Law of Motion (“an object in motion tends
to stay in motion; an object at rest tends to stay at rest”) describes the
tendency of a mass to oppose changes in velocity, we can state a
capacitor’s tendency to oppose changes in voltage as such: “A charged
capacitor tends to stay charged; a discharged capacitor tends to stay
discharged.” Hypothetically, a capacitor left untouched will indefinitely
maintain whatever state of voltage charge that its been left it. Only an

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 outside source (or drain) of current can alter the voltage charge stored
by a perfect capacitor:

Practically speaking, however, capacitors will eventually lose their

stored voltage charges due to internal leakage paths for electrons to
flow from one plate to the other. Depending on the specific type of
capacitor, the time it takes for a stored voltage charge to self-dissipate
can be a long time (several years with the capacitor sitting on a shelf!).

When the voltage across a capacitor is increased, it draws current from

the rest of the circuit, acting as a power load. In this condition the
capacitor is said to be charging, because there is an increasing amount
of energy being stored in its electric field. Note the direction of electron
current with regard to the voltage polarity:

Conversely, when the voltage across a capacitor is decreased, the

capacitor supplies current to the rest of the circuit, acting as a power
source. In this condition the capacitor is said to be discharging. Its store
of energy—held in the electric field—is decreasing now as energy is
released to the rest of the circuit. Note the direction of electron current
with regard to the voltage polarity:

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 If a source of voltage is suddenly applied to an uncharged capacitor (a
sudden increase of voltage), the capacitor will draw current from that
source, absorbing energy from it, until the capacitor’s voltage equals
that of the source. Once the capacitor voltage reached this final
(charged) state, its current decays to zero. Conversely, if a load
resistance is connected to a charged capacitor, the capacitor will
supply current to the load, until it has released all its stored energy and
its voltage decays to zero. Once the capacitor voltage reaches this final
(discharged) state, its current decays to zero. In their ability to be
charged and discharged, capacitors can be thought of as acting
somewhat like secondary-cell batteries.

The choice of insulating material between the plates, as was mentioned

before, has a great impact upon how much field flux (and therefore how
much charge) will develop with any given amount of voltage applied
across the plates. Because of the role of this insulating material in
affecting field flux, it has a special name: dielectric. Not all dielectric
materials are equal: the extent to which materials inhibit or encourage
the formation of electric field flux is called the permittivity of the
dielectric.

The measure of a capacitor’s ability to store energy for a given amount

of voltage drop is called capacitance. Not surprisingly, capacitance is
also a measure of the intensity of opposition to changes in voltage
(exactly how much current it will produce for a given rate of change in
voltage). Capacitance is symbolically denoted with a capital “C,” and is
measured in the unit of the Farad, abbreviated as “F.”

An obsolete name for a capacitor is condenser or condensor. These

terms are not used in any new books or schematic diagrams (to my
knowledge), but they might be encountered in older electronics
literature. Perhaps the most well-known usage for the term “condenser”
is in automotive engineering, where a small capacitor called by that
name was used to mitigate excessive sparking across the switch
contacts (called “points”) in electromechanical ignition systems.

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 Capacitors do not have a stable “resistance” as conductors do.
However, there is a definite mathematical relationship between voltage
and current for a capacitor, as follows:

This is a fairly large capacitor in physical size, but it has quite a low
capacitance value: only 2 µF. However, its working voltage is quite
high: 2000 volts! If this capacitor were re-engineered to have a thinner
layer of dielectric between its plates, at least a hundredfold increase in
capacitance might be achievable, but at a cost of significantly lowering
its working voltage. Compare the above photograph with the one
below. The capacitor shown in the lower picture is an electrolytic unit,
similar in size to the one above, but with very different values of
capacitance and working voltage:

Here are some samples of different capacitor types, all smaller than the
units shown previously:

Figure 3.8: Ceramic capacitor

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 Figure 3.9: Plastic capacitor

Figure 4.0: Electrolytic capacitor

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 Figure 4.1: Ceramic capacitor

The electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are polarized (polarity

sensitive), and are always labeled as such. The electrolytic units have
their negative

(-) leads distinguished by arrow symbols on their cases. Some

polarized capacitors have their polarity designated by marking the
positive terminal. The large, 20,000 µF electrolytic unit shown in the
upright position has its positive (+) terminal labeled with a “plus” mark.
Ceramic, mylar, plastic film, and air capacitors do not have polarity
markings, because those types are nonpolarized (they are not polarity
sensitive).

Capacitors are very common components in electronic circuits. Take a

close look at the following photograph—every component marked with
a “C” designation on the printed circuit board is a capacitor:

Some of the capacitors shown on this circuit board are standard

electrolytic: C30 (top of board, center) and C36 (left side, 1/3 from the
top). Some others are a special kind of electrolytic capacitor
called tantalum, because this is the type of metal used to make the
plates. Tantalum capacitors have relatively high capacitance for their
physical size. The following capacitors on the circuit board shown
above are tantalum: C14 (just to the lower-left of C30), C19 (directly below
R10, which is below C30), C24 (lower-left corner of board), and
C22 (lower-right).

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 Figure 4.2: Examples of even smaller capacitors can be seen in
this photograph

1.5. Magnetism and Electromagnetism

1.5.1. Centuries ago, it was discovered that certain types of mineral rock
possessed unusual properties of attraction to the metal iron. One
particular mineral, called lodestone, or magnetite, is found mentioned in
very old historical records (about 2500 years ago in Europe, and much
earlier in the Far East) as a subject of curiosity. Later, it was employed
in the aid of navigation, as it was found that a piece of this unusual rock
would tend to orient itself in a north-south direction if left free to rotate
(suspended on a string or on a float in water). A scientific study
undertaken in 1269 by Peter Peregrinus revealed that steel could be
similarly “charged” with this unusual property after being rubbed against
one of the “poles” of a piece of lodestone.

Unlike electric charges (such as those observed when amber is rubbed

against cloth), magnetic objects possessed two poles of opposite
effect, denoted “north” and “south” after their self-orientation to the
earth. As Peregrinus found, it was impossible to isolate one of these
poles by itself by cutting a piece of lodestone in half: each resulting
piece possessed its own pair of poles:

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 There were only two types of poles to be found: north and south (by
analogy, positive and negative). Just as with electric charges, same
poles repel one another, while opposite poles attract. This force, like
that caused by static electricity, extended itself invisibly over space,
and could even pass through objects such as paper and wood with little
effect upon strength.

The philosopher-scientist Rene Descartes noted that this invisible

“field” could be mapped by placing a magnet underneath a flat piece of
cloth or wood and sprinkling iron filings on top. The filings will align
themselves with the magnetic field, “mapping” its shape. The result
shows how the field continues unbroken from one pole of a magnet to
the other:

Figure 4.2: magnetic field

1.5.2. As with any kind of field (electric, magnetic, gravitational), the

total quantity, or effect, of the field is referred to as a flux, while
the “push” causing the flux to form in space is called a force.
Michael Faraday coined the term “tube” to refer to a string of
magnetic flux in space (the term “line” is more commonly used
now). Indeed, the measurement of magnetic field flux is often
defined in terms of the number of flux lines, although it is doubtful
that such fields exist in individual, discrete lines of constant
value.

Modern theories of magnetism maintain that a magnetic field is

produced by an electric charge in motion, and thus it is theorized that
the magnetic field of a so-called “permanent” magnets such as

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 lodestone is the result of electrons within the atoms of iron spinning
uniformly in the same direction. Whether or not the electrons in a
material’s atoms are subject to this kind of uniform spinning is dictated
by the atomic structure of the material (not unlike how electrical
conductivity is dictated by the electron binding in a material’s atoms).
Thus, only certain types of substances react with magnetic fields, and
even fewer have the ability to permanently sustain a magnetic field.

Iron is one of those types of substances that readily magnetizes. If a

piece of iron is brought near a permanent magnet, the electrons within
the atoms in the iron orient their spins to match the magnetic field force
produced by the permanent magnet, and the iron becomes
“magnetized.” The iron will magnetize in such a way as to incorporate
the magnetic flux lines into its shape, which attracts it toward the
permanent magnet, no matter which pole of the permanent magnet is
offered to the iron:

Figure 4.3: attraction magnetic field

Referencing the natural magnetic properties of iron (Latin = “ferrum”),

a ferromagnetic material is one that readily magnetizes (its constituent
atoms easily orient their electron spins to conform to an external
magnetic field force). All materials are magnetic to some degree, and
those that are not considered ferromagnetic (easily magnetized) are
classified as either paramagnetic (slightly magnetic)
or diamagnetic (tend to exclude magnetic fields). Of the two,
diamagnetic materials are the strangest. In the presence of an external
magnetic field, they actually become slightly magnetized in the opposite
direction, so as to repel the external field

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 Figure 4.4: repulsion magnetic field

If a ferromagnetic material tends to retain its magnetization after an

external field is removed, it is said to have good retentivity. This, of
course, is a necessary quality for a permanent magnet.

REVIEW:

 Lodestone (also called Magnetite) is a naturally-occurring

“permanent” magnet mineral. By “permanent,” it is meant that the
material maintains a magnetic field with no external help. The
characteristic of any magnetic material to do so is called retentivity.
 Ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetized.
 Paramagnetic materials are magnetized with more difficulty.
 Diamagnetic materials actually tend to repel external magnetic
fields by magnetizing in the opposite direction.

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 Electromagnetism

The discovery of the relationship between magnetism and electricity

was, like so many other scientific discoveries, stumbled upon almost by
accident. The Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted was lecturing
one day in 1820 on the possibility of electricity and magnetism being
related to one another, and in the process demonstrated it conclusively
by experiment in front of his whole class! By passing an electric current
through a metal wire suspended above a magnetic compass, Oersted
was able to produce a definite motion of the compass needle in
response to the current. What began as conjecture at the start of the
class session was confirmed as fact at the end. Needless to say,
Oersted had to revise his lecture notes for future classes! His
serendipitous discovery paved the way for a whole new branch of
science: electromagnetics.

Detailed experiments showed that the magnetic field produced by an

electric current is always oriented perpendicular to the direction of flow.
A simple method of showing this relationship is called the left-hand rule.
Simply stated, the left-hand rule says that the magnetic flux lines
produced by a current-carrying wire will be oriented the same direction
as the curled fingers of a person’s left hand (in the “hitchhiking”
position), with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow:

Figure 4.5: left-hand rule

The magnetic field encircles this straight piece of current-carrying wire,

the magnetic flux lines having no definite “north” or “south’ poles.

While the magnetic field surrounding a current-carrying wire is indeed

interesting, it is quite weak for common amounts of current, able to
deflect a compass needle and not much more. To create a stronger
magnetic field force (and consequently, more field flux) with the same
amount of electric current, we can wrap the wire into a coil shape,
where the circling magnetic fields around the wire will join to create a
larger field with a definite magnetic (north and south) polarity:

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 Figure 4.6: magnetic field

The amount of magnetic field force generated by a coiled wire is

proportional to the current through the wire multiplied by the number of
“turns” or “wraps” of wire in the coil. This field force is
called magnetomotive force (mmf), and is very much analogous to
electromotive force (E) in an electric circuit.

An electromagnet is a piece of wire intended to generate a magnetic

field with the passage of electric current through it. Though all current-
carrying conductors produce magnetic fields, an electromagnet is
usually constructed in such a way as to maximize the strength of the
magnetic field it produces for a special purpose. Electromagnets find
frequent application in research, industry, medical, and consumer
products.

As an electrically-controllable magnet, electromagnets find application

in a wide variety of “electromechanical” devices: machines that effect
mechanical force or motion through electrical power. Perhaps the most
obvious example of such a machine is the electric motor.

Another example is the relay, an electrically-controlled switch. If a

switch contact mechanism is built so that it can be actuated (opened
and closed) by the application of a magnetic field, and an
electromagnet coil is placed in the near vicinity to produce that requisite
field, it will be possible to open and close the switch by the application
of a current through the coil. In effect, this gives us a device that
enables elelctricity to control electricity:

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 Figure 4.7: magnetic through coil

REVIEW:

 When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field will be

produced around that conductor.
 The left-hand rule states that the magnetic flux lines produced by a
current-carrying wire will be oriented the same direction as the curled
fingers of a person’s left hand (in the “hitchhiking” position), with the
thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow.
 The magnetic field force produced by a current-carrying wire can
be greatly increased by shaping the wire into a coil instead of a straight
line. If wound in a coil shape, the magnetic field will be oriented along
the axis of the coil’s length.
 The magnetic field force produced by an electromagnet (called
the magnetomotive force, or mmf), is proportional to the product
(multiplication) of the current through the electromagnet and the
number of complete coil “turns” formed by the wire.

Magnetomotive Force—The quantity of magnetic field force, or

“push.” Analogous to electric voltage (electromotive force).

Field Flux—The quantity of total field effect, or “substance” of the

field. Analogous to electric current.

Field Intensity—The amount of field force (mmf) distributed over the

length of the electromagnet. Sometimes referred to as Magnetizing
Force.

Flux Density—The amount of magnetic field flux concentrated in a

given area.

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 Reluctance—The opposition to magnetic field flux through a given
volume of space or material. Analogous to electrical resistance.

Permeability—The specific measure of a material’s acceptance of

magnetic flux, analogous to the specific resistance of a conductive
material (ρ), except inverse (greater permeability means easier
passage of magnetic flux, whereas greater specific resistance means
more difficult passage of electric current).

Figure 4.8: Standard table measurement

1.5.3. Electromagnetic Induction

Magnetism and Electromagnetism

While Oersted’s surprising discovery of electromagnetism paved the

way for more practical applications of electricity, it was Michael Faraday
who gave us the key to the practical generation of electricity:
electromagnetic induction. Faraday discovered that a voltage would be
generated across a length of wire if that wire was exposed to a
perpendicular magnetic field flux of changing intensity.

An easy way to create a magnetic field of changing intensity is to move

a permanent magnet next to a wire or coil of wire. Remember: the
magnetic field must increase or decrease in intensity perpendicular to
the wire (so that the lines of flux “cut across” the conductor), or else no
voltage will be induced:

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 Figure 4.9: Electromagnetic induction

Faraday was able to mathematically relate the rate of change of the

magnetic field flux with induced voltage (note the use of a lower-case
letter “e” for voltage. This refers to instantaneous voltage, or voltage at
a specific point in time, rather than a steady, stable voltage.):

The “d” terms are standard calculus notation, representing rate-of-

change of flux over time. “N” stands for the number of turns, or wraps,
in the wire coil (assuming that the wire is formed in the shape of a coil
for maximum electromagnetic efficiency).

This phenomenon is put into obvious practical use in the construction of

electrical generators, which use mechanical power to move a magnetic
field past coils of wire to generate voltage. However, this is by no
means the only practical use for this principle.

If we recall that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire

was always perpendicular to that wire, and that the flux intensity of that
magnetic field varied with the amount of current through it, we can see
that a wire is capable of inducing a voltage along its own length simply
due to a change in current through it. This effect is called self-

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 induction: a changing magnetic field produced by changes in current
through a wire inducing voltage along the length of that same wire. If
the magnetic field flux is enhanced by bending the wire into the shape
of a coil, and/or wrapping that coil around a material of high
permeability, this effect of self-induced voltage will be more intense. A
device constructed to take advantage of this effect is called an inductor,
and will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter.

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