lOMoARcPSD|34708490

Chapter 3- Forming A NEW LIFE

Developmental Psychology (Don Honorio Ventura Technological State University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|34708490

CHAPTER 3- FORMING A NEW LIFE

HOW FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE:

Fertilization – union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote, also called conception. Zygote – one-
celled organism resulting from fertilization. Ovulation – rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and
expulsion of its ovum.
WHAT CAUSES MULTIPLE BIRTHS
Dizygotic Twins – fraternal twins; Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum
that has split) with two different sperm cells; they are no more alike genetically than any other siblings.
Monozygotic twins – identical twins; twins resulting from the division of a single zygote after
fertilization; they are genetically similar.
THE GENETIC CODE- The stuff of heredity is chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The
double-helix structure of a DNA molecule resembles a long, spiraling ladder whose steps are made of
pairs of chemical units called bases. -The bases – adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),and guanine (G).
-Genetic code – sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that
determine the structure and functions of living cells. Mitosis - a process by which the non–sex cells
divide in half over and over again, WHERE the DNA replicates itself, so that each newly formed cell has
the same DNA structure as all the others. Mutations – permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes
that may produce harmful characteristics.
WHAT DETERMINES SEX? Autosomes – in humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual
expression. Gonosomes – 23rd pair of chromosomes that determines sex. XX in the normal female and
XY in the normal male. Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes or Y chromosomes.
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION: • Alleles – 2 or more alternative forms of a gene that
occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait. Homozygous – possessing
two identical alleles for a trait. Heterozygous – possessing differing alleles for a trait. >Dominant
inheritance – pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant
one is expressed. •Recessive inheritance – pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical
alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait. •Polygenic inheritance – pattern of inheritance in
which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait. •Although single genes
often determine abnormal traits, there is no single gene that by itself significantly accounts for individual
differences in any complex normal behavior. •Phenotype – observable characteristics of a person.
•Genotype – genetic makeup of a person containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics.
•Multifactorial transmission – combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain
complex traits. •Epigenesis – mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body
cells.
GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: Incomplete Dominance – pattern of inheritance
in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait. Sex-linked
inheritance – pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome
inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring.
DOWN SYNDROME: •The most common chromosomal abnormality, accounts for about 40 percent of
all cases of moderate-to- severe mental retardation. •The condition is also called trisomy 21 because it is
characterized in more than 90 percent of cases by an extra 21st chromosome. •The most obvious physical
characteristic associated with the disorder is a downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the eye.

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|34708490

GENETIC COUNSELING AND TESTING: •Genetic Counseling – clinical service that advises
prospective parents of their probable risk of having children with hereditary defects. •Karyotype –
photograph that shows the chromosomes when they are separated and aligned for cell division.
NATURE AND NUTURE: STUDYING HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
Behavioral Genetics – quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior.
Heritability – statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait
within a given population; expressed as a percentage ranging from 0.0 to 1.0: the higher the number, the
greater the heritability of a trait. Concordant – term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or
disorder.
HOW HEREDITY AND ENVIRONBMENT WORK TOGETHER : •Reaction range – potential
variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait. •Canalization –
limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics. •Genotype-environment
interaction – the portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different
individuals to similar environmental conditions.
GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION/GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT COVARIANCE
Passive Correlations: Parents who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to
provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait. •Reactive or Evocative
correlations: Children with differing genetic makeups evoke different reaction from others. •Active
correlations: As children get older and have more freedom to choose their own activities and
environments, they actively select or create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies. •Niche
picking – tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatible
with his or her genotype.
WHAT MAKES SIBLINGS SO DIFFERENT? •Although 2 children in the same family may bear a
striking physical resemblance, siblings can differ greatly in intellect and in personality. •One reason may
be genetic differences which lead children to need different kinds of stimulation or to respond differently
to a similar home environment. >Nonshared Environment effects – the unique environment in which each
child grows up, consisting of distinctive influences or influences that affect one child differently than
another.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCED BY HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
OBESITY: •Obesity – extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type as defined by
having a body mass index at or above the 95th percentile. •Obesity is measured by body mass index, or
BMI (comparison of weight to height). Children between the 85th and 95th percentiles are classified as
overweight, and those above the 95th percentile as obese. •The risk of obesity is 2 to 3 times higher for a
child with a family history of obesity, especially severe obesity. Therefore, we might reasonably conclude
that obesity involves genetic contributions.
INTELLIGENCE: •Heredity exerts a strong influence on general intelligence and to a lesser extent, on
specific abilities such as memory, verbal ability and spatial ability. •Intelligence is a polygenic trait, it is
influenced by the additive effects of large number of genes working together. •Adopted children’ IQs are
consistently closer to the IQs of their biological mothers than to those of their adoptive parents and
siblings, and monozygotic twins are more alike in intelligence than dizygotic twins.

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|34708490

TEMPARAMENT, PERSONALITY, AND SCHIZOPHRENIA: •Heritability of personality traits appears

to be between 40 and 50 percent and there is little evidence of shared environmental influence.
•Temperament – characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting to situations.
•Schizophrenia – mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality, symptoms include hallucinations
and delusions.
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: •Gestation – period of development between conception and birth.
•Gestational Age – age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last
menstrual cycle. •Early signs and symptoms of Pregnancy Tender, swollen breasts or nipple; Fatigue,
need to take extra naps; Slight bleeding, or cramping; Food cravings; nausea with or without vomiting;
frequent urination; frequent, mild headaches; constipation; mood swings; faintness and dizziness; and
raised basal body temperature.
STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMNENT: Both before and after birth, development proceeds
according to two fundamental principles: 1.The cephalocaudal principle, from Latin, meaning “head to
tail,” dictates that development proceeds from the head to the lower part of the trunk. 2.The proximodistal
principle, from Latin, meaning “near to far,” development proceeds from parts near the center of the body
to outer ones. 1. Germinal Stage – first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell
division, blastocyst formation and implantation in the wall of the uterus. implantation – attachment of
the blastocyst to the uterine wall; occuring at about day 6. The embryonic disk, a thickened cell mass
from which the embryo begins to develop. This mass will differentiate into three layers: 1.The ectoderm,
the upper layer, will become the outer layer of skin, the nails, hair, teeth, sensory organs, and the nervous
system, including the brain and spinal cord. 2. The endoderm, the inner layer, will become the digestive
system, liver, pancreas, salivary glands, and respiratory system. 3. The mesoderm, the middle layer, will
develop and differentiate into the inner layer of skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory
systems.
The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled membrane that encases the developing embryo, protecting it and giving
it room to move and grow. •The placenta allows oxygen, nourishment, and wastes to pass between mother
and embryo. It is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. •Nutrients from the mother pass from
her blood to the embryonic blood vessels, which carry them, via the umbilical cord, to the embryo. 2.
Embryonic Stage – second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and
development of major body systems and organs. 3. Fetal Stage – final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to
birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: Because the prenatal environment is the mother’s body, virtually
everything that influences her well-being, from her diet to her moods, may alter her unborn child’s
environment and affect its growth. •Teratogen – is an environmental agent, such as virus, a drug or
radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal development. •An event, substance, or process may be
teratogenic for some fetuses but have little or no effect on others. Sometimes, vulnerability may depend
on a gene either in the fetus or in the mother.
NUTRITION AND MATERNAL WEIGHT: •Pregnant women typically need 300 to 500 additional
calories a day, including extra protein. •Women of normal weight and body build who gain 16 to 40
pounds are less likely to have birth complications or to bear babies whose weight at birth is dangerously
low or overly high. •Folic acid – or folate; derived from fresh fruits and vegetables; deficiency causes
anencephaly and spina bifida. MALNUTRITION- •Malnourished women who take caloric dietary
supplements while pregnant tend to have bigger, healthier, more active and more visually alert infants and

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|34708490

women with low zinc levels who take daily zinc supplements are less likely to have babies with low birth
weight and small head circumference.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND STRENOUS WORK: •The American Congress of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists (2002) recommends that women in low-risk pregnancies be guided by their own abilities
and stamina. •The safest course seems to be for pregnant women to exercise moderately, not pushing
themselves and not raising their heart above 150 and as with any exercise, to taper off at the end of
session rather than stop abruptly.
DRUG INTAKE: •Thalidomide – tranquilizer which alleviates morning sickness but was banned after it
was found to have caused stunted or missing limbs, severe facial deformities, and defective organs in
some 12,000 babies. This drug sensitized medical professionals and the public to the potential dangers of
taking drugs while pregnant.
•Alcohol – prenatal alcohol exposure is the most common cause of mental retardation and the leading
cause of birth defects in the United States. •Fetal alcohol syndrome – combination of mental, motor and
developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy.
•Nicotine – maternal smoking during pregnancy has been identified as the single most important factor in
low birth weight in developed countries.
•Women who smoke during pregnancy are more than 1 ½ times as likely as nonsmokers to bear low-birth-
weight babies. Even light smoking is associated with a greater risk of low birth weight. •Caffeine – 4 or
more cups of coffee a day during pregnancy may increase the risk of sudden death in infancy. •Heavy
marijuana use can lead to birth defects, low birth weight, withdrawal like symptoms, and increased risk of
attention disorders and learning problems later in life.
MATERNAL ILLNESSES: •Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome – viral disease that undermines
effective functioning of the immune system. •Rubella – German measles; if contracted by a woman
before her 11th week of pregnancy, is almost certain to cause deafness and heart defects in her baby.
•Toxoplasmosis – can cause fetal brain damage, severely impaired eyesight or blindness, seizures,
miscarriage, stillbirth, or death of the baby.
MATERNAL STRESS, ANXIETY, AND DISORDER: •Moderate maternal anxiety may even spur
organization of the developing brain. A mother’s self-reported stress and anxiety during pregnancy has
been associated with more active and irritable temperament in newborns. •Chronic stress can result in
preterm delivery, perhaps through the action of elevated levels of stress hormones. •Children of mothers
who had been depressed during pregnancy showed elevated levels of violent and antisocial behavior.
MATERNAL AGE: •The risk of miscarriage or stillbirth reaches 90 percent for women age 45 or older.
•Women 30 to 35 are more likely to suffer complications due to diabetes, high blood pressure, or severe
bleeding. There is also higher risk of premature delivery, retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and
chromosomal abilities, such as Down Syndrome. •Adolescent mothers tend to have premature or
underweight babies – perhaps because a young girl’s still-growing body consumes vital nutrients the fetus
needs.
OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS: •Pregnant women who regularly breathe air that contains
high levels of combustion-related particles are more likely to bear infants who are premature or
undersized. •Infants exposed prenatally even to low levels of lead, especially during the third trimester,
tend to show IQ deficits during childhood.

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|34708490

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: PATERNAL INFLUENCES: •A man’s exposure to lead, marijuana, or

tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, pesticides, or high ozone levels may result in
abnormal or poor quality sperm. •A pregnant woman’s exposure to the father’s secondhand smoke has
been linked with low birth weight, infant respiratory infections, sudden infant death and cancer in
childhood and adulthood. •Older fathers may be a significant source of birth defects due to damaged or
deteriorated sperm.
MONITORING AND PROMOTING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: •Early, high-quality prenatal care,
which includes educational, social and nutritional services, can help prevent maternal or infant death and
other birth complications. •It can provide first time mothers with information about pregnancy, childbirth
and infant care. •Poor women who get prenatal care benefit by being put in touch with other needed
services, and they are more likely to get medical care for their infants after birth.
DISPARTIES IN PRENATAL CARE: • Historically, rates of low birth weight and premature birth
continue to rise. Why? 1.Increasing number of multiple births. 2.The benefits of prenatal care are not
evenly distributed. 3.Ethnic disparity in fetal and postbirth mortality.
THE NEED FOR PERCEPTION CARE: •Preconception Care should include the following:
 Physical examinations and the taking of medical and family histories.
 Vaccinations for rubella and hepatitis B.
 Risk screening for genetic disorders and infectious disease such as STDs.
 Counseling women to avoid smoking and alcohol, maintain a healthy body weight, and take folic
acid supplements.
•Good preconception and prenatal care can give every child the best possible chance for entering the
world in good condition to meet the challenges of life outside the womb.

Downloaded by Lordelee Pamaylaon ([email protected])