International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research

and Science (IJAERS)

Peer-Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)
Vol-10, Issue-12; Dec, 2023
Journal Home Page Available: https://ijaers.com/
Article DOI:https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.1012.3

Environmental Safety and Sustainability in Ghana’s Gold

Mining Sector
Li Yang, Lokko George William, Nguembi Ines Pamela

School of Economics and Management, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan, China

Received: 04 Oct 2023, Abstract— The practice of gold mining is seeing remarkable growth and
Receive in revised form: 09 Nov 2023, has emerged as a significant source of income for a large number of
inhabitants in the geographical regions where it is carried out. However,
Accepted: 20 Nov 2023,
despite the recognition of this potential, the process of extracting gold
Available online: 07 Dec 2023 presents several challenges for everyone involved, with the safety and well-
©2023 The Author(s). Published by AI being of miners being particularly precarious. Our study aims to examine
Publication. This is an open access article the occupational safety and health (OSH) practices utilised in Ghana's
under the CC BY license precious metals mines to provide valuable information to important
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). stakeholders and authorities. Overall, the findings offer a comprehensive
analysis of the welfare issues faced by individuals in Ghanaian gold
Keywords— Health safety; Ghana; Gold
mining communities. The foundation of our study is rooted in both
mining; Environmental Sustainability;
theoretical and empirical investigations. We utilised a statistical
Financial growth
methodology to sample all 110 individuals that participated in our survey.
Through the implementation of a case study, we apply regression analysis
and descriptive statistics to investigate the correlations among the
variables and ascertain the strategies utilised to achieve a harmonious
equilibrium between security, financial prosperity, and environmental
sustainability. Our investigation uncovered a lack of Occupational Safety
and Health (OSH) supervision of various systems. The main causes of
crashes were identified as mechanical, physical, chemical, biological,
auditory, ergonomic, and mental risk factors. This results in injuries,
deaths, and instances of employees being absent from work. Furthermore,
our study lacked references to the absence of occupational safety and
health (OSH) regulations and protocols aimed at improving the extraction
of precious metals. Our studies also examine the governance of the
precious metals extraction project in Ghana, including its impact on the
landscape, economic prosperity, and ecological stewardship. The findings
indicate that there are instances of non-compliance with occupational
safety and health regulations in the gold mining sector within the research
region. Hence, the inquiry proposes achieving a harmonious equilibrium
among safeguarding, financial prosperity, and sustainable growth.
Attaining workplace health and safety requirements, boosting Ghana's
economic output, and ensuring the longevity of the environment can be
achieved by increasing the use of protective clothing and regularly
incorporating aerial photography into governmental evaluations of gold
extraction operations.

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

I. INTRODUCTION large-scale mining operations (Ross, 2017). In mining-

1.1 Background related social problems, the state and major mining firms
This section reviews studies on Ghana's mining industry's often oppose impacted communities and civil society
social and environmental sustainability strategies. Since organisations (Tetreault, 2020). The institutional
the mining industry's social sustainability methods are framework of developing nations negatively impacts
usually part of CSR (Essah & Andrews, 2016), this section managerial cognition, or how managers make sense of
will also analyse them in Ghana. Social and environmental their environment, which threatens mining regions' long-
sustainability in developing nations defines a company's term viability. Ghana's sustainability efforts prioritise land
CSR operations, according to the literature. Thus, this restoration, impact reduction, and community growth. The
section examines Ghana's large-scale mining sector's usual CSR method for neighbourhood protection is also
sustainability and CSR. Sustainability in South American criticized in this study. The poor institutional structure that
mining has been studied (Loayza & Rigolini, 2016; limits compliance monitoring and regulatory enforcement
Viveros, 2016). Thus, this part analyses sustainable is the main cause of Ghana's sustainability implementation
implementation qualities using the latest research. As to problems (Andrews, 2016). Thus, multinational mining
Agyemang, Agyemang, Ansong, and Ansong (2017), CSR companies' social sustainability strategies are more
is new to the national institutional landscape but has significant. The following observations provide a
gained popularity, especially in business. Businesses in framework for studying social sustainability theoretically
banking, mining, and telecoms have adopted the idea by and empirically.
following essential statutory requirements (Agyemang et 1.2 Historical Mining Growth In Ghana
al., 2017). Oppong (2016a) says CSR initiatives often
The development of the country's economy has been
improve children, the environment, health, social
considerably aided by Ghana's mining sector. The pre-
entrepreneurship, and sports. This calls into question your
colonial age, when this region had a long and rich history,
sustainability understanding. Some of Ghana's
saw a substantial amount of wealth coming from gold
environmental and social sustainability programmes
mining. Bauxite, manganese, diamonds, and most recently,
exceed their CSR or sustainability implementation level,
oil and gas, were among the various minerals that were
as shown in Table 2.4. Ghana may employ a lot of
added to the industry over time. The most renowned of
hydropower, which minimises greenhouse gas emissions.
Ghana's several irreplaceable mineral resources is gold.
Large enterprises voluntarily disclose their energy use to
The nation, which is the largest producer of gold in Africa,
global reporting organisations like the Global Reporting
is among the top 10 producers of the metal globally. The
Initiative and ISO 14001. Table 2.4 shows that
growth of Ghana's economy, gains in foreign exchange,
sustainability problems must be addressed during the
and export income have all been significantly influenced
mine's operating period upon closing. To meet Ghana's
by the gold mining industry.
Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703)'s minimum
standards, land restoration, reforestation, and chemical The mining sector in Ghana is governed by a legislative
spill avoidance are social sustainability initiatives system that defines rules for mining operations. Mining
(Oppong, 2016a). Social sustainability, a developing term, operations are governed under the Minerals and Mining
varies from CSR owing to its broader conceptual Act, 2006 (Act 703) and its further revisions. The Ministry
similarities. Ghana may overemphasise CSR of Lands and Natural Resources, which is also in charge of
implementation as self-regulatory, which may explain regulating the business, is responsible for developing the
certain sustainability difficulties. Ghana's social regulations that will ensure its long-term viability. The
sustainability efforts, according to Andrews (2016), are primary regulatory authority, the Minerals Commission,
fragmented CSR programmes that contradict sustainable issues licenses and keeps an eye on compliance with
practices. CSR programmes prioritise physical initiatives mining laws.
above social sustainability (tangible and intangible) after The Ghanaian government has recently paid increasing
mine closure owing to the operational implications of attention to the need for moral and environmentally
mining. According to Andrews (2016), voluntary CSR friendly mining practices. Initiatives have been taken
programmes threaten social sustainability in Ghana's within the mining sector to enhance CSR, community
extractive economy. Social sustainability may involve development, and environmental protection. This includes
volunteer initiatives, mining-induced displacement efforts to guarantee the equitable distribution of mining
legislation, development partnerships, and regulatory profits, decrease the negative environmental effects of
compliance processes. Multinational companies' CSR mining operations, and promote favorable social results for
agenda limits mining stakeholders' capacity to challenge individuals residing nearby. Reading the overview will

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enable readers to get a context-specific understanding of As noted by Hilson (2017), a specific feature of gold-rich
the historical evolution, legal system, and economic nations such as Papua New Guinea, Ghana, the
significance of the mining industry in Ghana. The review's Philippines, and Peru, in addition to their respective
subsequent sections can analyze how mining has affected positions in extraction industries, is that gold is the main
various facets of the Ghanaian economy using this objective of mineral extraction, and the business primarily
information. Gold Since gold has been mined in Ghana for focuses on exporting its goods, which does not contribute
a very long time, it continues to be a significant location to the social and economic advancement of these nations.
for mineral wealth. After South Africa, Ghana is the In addition, he indicates that the constant international
continent's second-largest producer of gold. The country's need for gold for ornamentation and investment in
exports and foreign exchange earnings are greatly boosted commodities has spurred the gold mining industry
by the export of gold. Through taxes, royalties, and worldwide. Additionally, international donors have
earnings, it offers a sizable source of employment to the encouraged nations who are developing to boost their
government and financial assistance. extraction sector's vulnerability to global expenditure and
1.3 Motivation and Contribution to the Study to enlarge the minerals sector to encourage investment and
grow the global economy as a whole. Over several years,
The motivation and contribution to the study are essential
multinational mining enterprises have received exemptions
aspects of any research, and in this case, they play a
from taxes and other inducements from the countries
crucial role in understanding why this study on safety,
where they operate, the minerals industry has developed,
financial performance, and environmental sustainability in
and yet the financial gains have declined.
Ghana's gold mining sector is important. the motivation
for this study stems from the need to address critical issues 2.2 The Mining Sector in Ghana
in Ghana's gold mining sector, and its contributions This is the result of these operations. The mining industry
include generating data and insights that inform decision- in Ghana employed 12,148 people and generated G$1.24
making, promote sustainability, and enhance the overall billion ($35.4 billion) for the government in 2014,
understanding of the industry's impact. according to the Ghana Chamber of Mines (2015). Luiz
and Ruplal (2013) review research results, personal license
plate calculations with senior executives, and elements
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
affecting the global mining industry to establish the
2.1 THE RELEVANT LITERATURE characteristics of African mining operations.
Appreciating the hyperlink between social obligation and 2.3 Prior Studies and Research on how Mining Affects
trustee duties could offer a means of encouraging the Ghana's Economy
minerals sector to behave appropriately. To carry out such
Many studies explore Ghana's extraction-related finances.
procedures, the mining sector has to acknowledge that
These studies evaluated how mining affects GDP,
social accountability is not incompatible with financial
employment, fiscal responsibility, sustainable
prosperity (Carroll, 2015). This empirical study aimed to
development, and social impacts. Many Ghanaian studies
comprehend the links between corporate fiduciary duty
have addressed extraction and income growth. Using
owed to its stakeholders, social responsibility,
statistical methods, Amankwah and Anim-Sackey (2018)
environmental policies, and societal concerns among
studied coal's GDP impact in Ghana. Their businesses
Ghanaian gold mining enterprises. We talk about the gap
discovered that drilling helped the economy, proving the
in the relevant literature in Chapter 2 of this study. Some
industry's importance. The immediate and long-term
of the topics that will be covered include Ghana's
consequences of quarrying on employment have been
corporate social responsibility, the mining sector there, and
explored. Mining communities were less poor and lived
its relationship to trusteeship. We concluded this section
better. More studies have studied how extraction impacts
by highlighting the importance of the current inquiry and
fiscal revenues. Ghana Revenue Authority data was used
summarizing the findings from the chapter.
by Bawumia et al. (2015) to examine extractive industry
In the opinion of Hilson (2017), Guyana is a success case' revenues. They discovered that extraction dramatically
within a handful of nations that utilized an alternate route increased constitutional tariffs, compensation, and
to the development of the minerals industry. The mineral bonuses, which supported roads and vital services. The
extraction sector is dominated by local modest mining environmental sustainability of Ghanaian extraction has
firms, which has significantly aided its financial growth, been researched. Gyamfi et al. (2019) examined extractive
but Hilson questions how the sector could have been industries' local environmental implications. Forest loss,
allowed to avoid the negative effects of the resource curse. filthy water, and soil erosion were connected to mineral

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mining. The report underlined the need for strict Ghana's economy thanks to these fundamental ideas and
environmental laws and eco-friendly mining technologies beliefs. While the concept of equitable growth
to mitigate these effects. Also addressed were extraction's concentrates on obtaining financial success while taking
consequences on community growth and social tensions. social and environmental variables into account, the "curse
Many studies explore Ghana's extraction-related finances. of resources" hypothesis places a particular emphasis on
These studies evaluated how mining affects GDP, the dangers of drug consumption. Companies' social
employment, fiscal responsibility, sustainable responsibility plays a crucial role in promoting
development, and social impacts. Many Ghanaian studies environmentally responsible mining practices, and the
have addressed extraction and income growth. Using assessment of social impact helps pinpoint and address the
statistical methods, Amankwah and Anim-Sackey (2018) social effects of mining. Administrators, individuals
studied coal's GDP impact in Ghana. Mining's impact on involved, and mining entrepreneurs will be better able to
Ghana's economy is well studied. The study examined how manage Ghana's natural resources while advancing toward
mining sector components affected social results, attaining equitable and sustainable growth by embracing
employment growth, tax income, and environmental the aforementioned principles and ideas.
sustainability. Several empirical studies have examined 2.5 Mining's Economic Impact
Ghana's mining and economic growth. Amankwah and
The mining sector has had a big impact on Ghana's
Anim-Sackey (2018) used econometrics to study mining's
economic development. Due in large part to gains in
impact on Ghana's GDP. Mining drives economic growth,
foreign exchange, investments, and ties to other economic
proving its importance. Studies have examined how
sectors, the sector has significantly raised the country's
mining will affect employment now and later. They
GDP. Mining activity money has been crucial in fostering
discovered that mining jobs supported nearby businesses.
infrastructure growth and social service investment, both
Mining locations offer better living conditions and less
of which are essential for the advancement of the economy
poverty. Research shows mining affects tax revenues.
and the well-being of society. In addition to other
Using Ghana Revenue Authority statistics, Bawumia et al.
developmental activities, these expenditures have aided in
(2015) examined Ghana's mining industry's fiscal
the development of public utilities, education and
contributions. Their findings showed that mining increased
healthcare facilities, and transportation networks (World
tax revenues, royalties, and profits, funding infrastructure
Bank, 2020; Aryee, 2016). Additionally, Ghana's
and public services. A Ghanaian mining study emphasises
industrialization and economic diversification have been
sustainability. The ecology of mining areas was explored
sparked by the mining industry. The existence of the
by Gyamfi et al. (2019). Deforestation, water pollution,
business has encouraged the expansion of related
and soil deterioration resulted from mining. The research
industries including manufacturing, construction, and
recommended strict environmental restrictions and ethical
transportation. The interconnection of the mining industry
mining to mitigate these effects. Community development
with other industries has increased employment
and social disagreements dominate mining social effects
possibilities and fueled global economic growth (Aryee,
research. Aryee (2016) analysed Ghana's mining industry's
2016). Ghana's economic expansion has also been aided by
social consequences and CSR's potential benefits. Along
foreign exchange revenues from exports of mining
with infrastructural and educational developments, benefit-
products. Improvements are made to the country's standing
sharing and stakeholder participation difficulties were
in international trade, the state of its balance of payments,
noticed. These past studies detailed mining's complex
and the availability of resources for the importation of
economic, environmental, and social repercussions on
products and services supporting various economic
Ghana's economy and its expanding mining sector's
activities (World Bank, 2020). Ghana's economy has
advantages and disadvantages.
benefited from the mining sector's backing of
2.4.1 Mining Resource and Theory Will Impact technological development and innovation. Modern tools,
Society equipment, and knowledge are often needed for mining
The application of the resource curse hypothesis to the activities, which promotes the development and
Ghanaian extractive industry allows for the analysis of application of cutting-edge technologies. This
potential hazards and the creation of mitigating strategies. technological transfer and its knock-on effects have the
Examining the social impact the anticipated societal potential to increase overall productivity and
repercussions of growth initiatives like extractive competitiveness across all economic sectors (Aryee, 2016).
industries are examined using a method known as social It is crucial to keep in mind that the level of economic
impact assessment (SIA) (IAIA, 2018). We have a solid growth that mining contributes to might vary depending on
foundation for understanding how mining has impacted a range of variables, such as commodity prices,

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

governmental regulations, and environmental • The greatest environmental dangers are

sustainability. To provide long-term advantages for associated with conventional mining
Ghana's economy and its people, mining requires careful methods like open pit and underground
management, strong legislation, and ethical standards. mining.
2.6 Innovation in the Gold Mining Industry in Ghana • Mining waste reuse.
• We can increase the profitability and productivity of • Eco-friendly machinery.
Ghana's gold mining sector by utilizing digital • Cleaning up Old Mines.
innovation. They can therefore be used to increase
• Eliminating Illegal Mining.
mechanization through automation, develop a more
thorough awareness of the resource base, optimize
material and equipment flow, improve failure III. METHODOLOGY
prediction, and monitor performance in real-time.
Deductive and inductive components are combined in the
• Our efforts to foster a respectful and safe workplace research methodology. In deductive studies, the
are motivated by innovation in balancing safety in the investigation is guided by the current theory and
mining industry in Ghana, which includes developing presumptions. The gathered data is then used to support or
a culture of care, promoting diversity, equity, and challenge the hypothesis, assisting in its revision. In a
inclusion, and identifying and eliminating harmful nutshell, once the empirical findings of the research are
behaviors like bullying, harassment, and compared to the selected hypothesis, the deductive
discrimination that have a broader focus. While in the technique may include an inductive strategy. The method
area of physical safety, we broadened our perspective of deductive reasoning appears to be consistent with the
to ensure that workers and contractors are shielded research design of the study. This is demonstrated by the
from all types of harm, including psychological. In research's utilization of existing ideas which include the
response to growing awareness of bullying and resource enchantment hypothesis, Dutch sickness
harassment in the mining sector. hypothesis, and mine ideas.
• There are five cutting-edge approaches to making the
gold mining business more environmentally
sustainable, and they are as follows.

Fig.1:Different type of study we conducted

In this study, the consequences of mining on the Ghanaian 3.1 Mathematical Model
economy from 1992 to 2020 were examined through a Our research work is based on theoretical and empirical
review of the literature. The study looked at how mining study. In our study, we employed a statistical approach for
operations affected the economy, society, and environment sampling all 110 survey respondents. By doing a case
to provide information to decision-makers, stakeholders, study, we use regression and descriptive statistics to
and academics. examine the relationships between the variables to
determine the tactics employed to strike a balance between

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

security, financial success, and environmental characteristics, common OSH concerns, managerial
sustainability. This was used due to the unclear population. commitment, training, and demographic characteristics.
After gathering information and administration, the study
began by generating descriptive data and analyzing
possible difficulties with multicollinearity, heterogeneity,
• =Size of the sample, and oscillation. The suitableness of using random vs fixed
• = the desired confidence level is impacts was subsequently assessed.
abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area
In order check the multicollinearity we use VIF, which is
at the tails , l, e.g., ,
called variance inflation factor, the mathematical for
• is the desired degree of accuracy. calculating VIF manually is;
• is the estimated percentage of an
attribute that the population possesses.
• is .

Where; Whereas, is residual correlation regression.

• In order to heterogeneity, we use the mathematical
• formula;
•
• Mathematically, is expressed as ,
where denotes the between-trial heterogeneity,
Therefore;
denotes some common sampling error across trials, and
is the total variation in the meta-analysis.

3.2 Data Collection Methods

The Ghanaian EPA, Ghana's Chamber of Mining, and
local stakeholders who are now gaining from social
entrepreneurship projects were included in the research's
population in addition to all of Ghana's continuously
The linear regression equation is:
operating and publicly listed gold mining enterprises. We
acquired further research information for the project. In the
Republic of Ghana, 14 gold mining companies—10 of
Whereas; which are actively engaged in stock market trading—are
Y represents what can be expected from the subject working on the AKOBEN Initiative.
variable in light of any factor in the independent 3.3. 1 Sampling and Sampling Procedures
variable .
Using the entire population sample method, we chose ten
is the intercept, or the value of that is anticipated when mining firms. The complete research population was taken
is 0. into account in the sampling procedure by using a
complete population sampling (Leedy & Oxford, 2015).
regression coefficient
The mining businesses were selected because they had
is the independent variable (the one that we anticipate offices in Ghana that pursued gold being an asset. We
impacting . is our estimate of the logistic statistic's needed to select samples from a large enough pool of
estimation error, or how much it differs from our organizations to undertake the data analytics for the
estimate?. With looking for the correlation parameter ( ) project. Because this study used archive data, we could
which optimizes the prediction's aggregate error ( ) (Zou access information on ten gold mines, which we identified
et al., 2003), linear regression discovers the best-fitting as a constraint while doing statistical analysis. With care,
line through the data. Using this technique, each
further analyses of the facts were created.
hypothesis was evaluated. The relationship between the
uncorrelated variables as well as dependent factors was • Data Analysis Procedures
analyzed using logistic regression as well as correlation
The study included basic arbitrary and intentional
techniques. The adoption of OSH practices by smallholder
sampling approaches, in addition to a method for
coal miners was the dependent variable in this section,
and the independent variables were sociocultural a descriptive study that focused on operations and mining
for goldfield inspections. Additional sources of data,
including journals, magazines, and the World Wide Web

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

were employed. Gold mining companies who agreed to 3.4 Test the Hypothesis:
take part in the research were approached. 110 people in Using correlation and linear regression, the research
all were questioned as part of the investigation. Targeted tested the subsequent assumptions:
sampling was used to choose ten (10) employees,
= There is no connection between gold mining operations
including two (2) each from the EPA, the Minerals
and common OSHA concerns.
Commission, the Forests Commission, the Wastewater and
Water Resources Commission, and the Asutifi North There is no correlation between management's resolve and
District Congress. The 100 participants in the sample were mining workers' acceptance of occupational safety and
chosen at random. The research team conducted interviews health standards.
with key informants and field research, respectively, to The significance (alpha) levels of 10%, 5%, and 1% were
collect information from significant sources and small- used to evaluate each hypothesis. Confidence intervals of
scale artisanal miners. The EPA, the Miners Commission, 90%, 95%, and 99% were also used. When the P-value is
the Timber Commission, the Minerals and Water Sources below the levels of statistical significance (alpha), the
Commission, and the Asutifi North Regional Assembly hypothesis test is considered statistically significant. For
have all employed key informant interviews and surveys to the findings to be regarded as statistically significant, the
learn more about their personnel. The people who confidence interval must not include the conclusion of the
responded as the most important informants were chosen null hypothesis (Greenland et al., 2016). According to
through purposeful sampling. (Sauro, 2015), the 90% confidence level is used as
To assure the reliability and fullness of the technological assurance when examining questionnaire
information that was obtained, the questionnaires and data as well as a comparability because 90% confidence
guide to interviews were sequentially numbered. for a symmetrical assertion is equivalent to 95%
Respondents' confidentiality and safety were ensured, confidence for a biased assertion. While the research used
thus they felt under no need to submit information.
poll results, the 90% confidence level was chosen as
This was used due to the unclear population.
commercial assurance in examining the miners' reactions.
According to (Sauro, 2015), the 99% confidence level is
usually applied for scenarios when a poor decision might
result in harm or fatalities, and the researchers applied it
• =Size of the sample,
since poor decision-making in the gold mining sector
• = the desired confidence level is
abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area would contribute to fatalities or serious injuries. To
at the tails , l, e.g., , guarantee an elevated degree of accuracy in the opinions
• is the desired degree of accuracy. of the smaller-scale miners, nearly each of the precious
• is the estimated percentage of an metals processing facilities in Ntotroso traveled to collect
attribute that the population possesses. facts. Each of the provided hypotheses was tested using
• is . confidence ranges of 90%, 95%, and 99%, with
corresponding significance (alpha) values of 10%, 5%, and
Where; 1%. Correlation analysis, a statistical technique, assesses
• the degree of association between prevalent health and
• safety problems and gold mining. When there is a strong
• correlation between several factors, there is a meaningful
• relationship between them. Consequently, it may be
characterized by the examination of the intensity of an
Therefore; association using existing statistical data (Franzese and
Iuliano, 2018). The approach described here is reliant upon
linear regression analysis, a form of statistics used for
describing the relationship between an intervention
variable and any number of independent/explanatory
variables. The research project utilized metrics to evaluate
the relationship. The linear regression equation is:
Whereas;
As a consequence, the collection size for competent
participants and inspectors selected for the study is 110. Y represents what can be expected from the subject
The Statistical Program for Social Science (SPSS 20.0) variable in light of any factor in the independent variable .
was used to purify, code, and evaluate the data. 2.3.

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

is the intercept, or the value of that is anticipated when is informants using semi-structured questionnaires. Through
0. deliberate sampling, the key informants' respondents were
regression coefficient selected. Key informant interviews were carried out to
gain additional knowledge of the perceived effects of
is the independent variable (the one that we anticipate
artisanal and small-scale gold mining as well as the
impacting .
functions performed by these specific regulatory
is our estimate of the logistic statistic's estimation error, or authorities in the research area. To determine the
how much does it differ from our estimate? By looking for challenges miners faced when implementing OSH
the correlation parameter () Linear regression discovers the techniques, this data was acquired. However, the questions
best-fitting line through the data. Using this technique, in the field survey were primarily concerned with how
each hypothesis was evaluated. The relationship between OSH regulations were being applied as well as common
the uncorrelated variables, as well as dependent factors, OHS problems related to small-scale mining operations.
was analyzed using logistic regression as well as Primary data from ASGM operational sites were gathered
correlation techniques. The adoption of OSH practices by by the study via a survey. The survey was broken down
smallholder coal miners was the dependent variable in this into two sections: (a) demographic information on the
section, and the independent variables were sociocultural respondents; and (b) data on the causes and effects of
characteristics, common OSH concerns, managerial accidents that occur while ASGM operations are in place.
commitment, training, and demographic characteristics. a) OSH improvement techniques and compliance levels; b)
OSH dangers posed by ASGM operations in Ghana. The operational activities and OSH management systems for
risks associated with gold mining in Ghana have been the ASGM business in Ghana. According to the scale, 1
assessed and published, including the psychological, stood for strongly agreeing, 2 for agreeing, 3 for neither
mental arbitrary, auditory, natural, chemical, and other agreeing nor disagreeing, 4 for disagreeing, and 5 for
risks. strongly disagreeing. Options for not at all, Very often,
Often, Indifferent, Not often, and often were also available
on the Likert scale. Self-administered questionnaires were
IV. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
used by us. The two sets of questions that made up the
Simple random and intentional sampling techniques were questionnaires had both closed-ended and open-ended
employed in the study, along with a descriptive research inquiries. For the closed-ended questions, respondents had
plan that concentrated on ASGM operating operations and to choose from a variety of answers the one that best
on-site field observation. The internet, journals, and expressed their ideas. However, there were no more
periodicals were employed as secondary data sources. We options for the open-ended questions. Responses from
contacted ASGM operators who agreed to take part in the respondents were recorded or entirely expressed in writing.
study. For the study, questions were asked of a total of 110 Respondents had enough time to carefully consider the
people. 100 participants for the study were chosen using questions before responding, ensuring that they gave
simple random sampling, and ten (10) officers, including truthful answers and answered questions as they
two (2) each from the Environmental Protection Agency, understood them. Before beginning the whole question-
Minerals Commission, Forestry Commission, Water asking process, pretesting was done to ensure the
Resources Commission, and Asutifi North District questionnaires were correct. The interview guides and
Assembly, were chosen using purposeful sampling. The questionnaires were serially numbered to ensure the
study used field surveys and key informant interviews to correctness and comprehensiveness of the data collected.
collect data from key informants and artisanal small-scale Respondents have the freedom to withhold information
miners. The Environmental Protection Agency, the because their confidentiality and privacy are guaranteed.
Minerals Commission, the Forestry Commission, the
Water Resources Commission, and the Asutifi North
District Assembly officials were interviewed as key
Table 1Information about Respondent's Demographics
Variables Frequency Percentages
Gender
Male 88 80.0
Female 22 21.0

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Total 110 100

Age Distribution
25 15 13.6
26-35years 56 50.9
36-45years 29 26.3
10 0.10
Total 110 100
Level of Education
No Education 38 34.5
Primary School 32 29.1
JSS/JHS 20 18.18
Technical/SSS/SHS 14 12.7
Tertiary/GCE ‘O’ Level 6 0.1
Total 110 100
Number of years in ASGM Operations
18 16.4
6-10 years 30 27.3
11-15years 40 36.4
16-20years 21 19.1
Total 110 100
Valid Mining Permit
Yes 10 0.1
No 100 90.9
Total 110 100
Source of Funding for Mining Operations
Individual Effort 21 19.1
Loan from Financial Institution 24 21.9
Family 10 0.1
Investors gold dealers 55 0.50
Total 110 100

4.1 Industry's Daily Operations Additionally, this is the most straightforward method of
Table 2 lists the conclusions about ASGM operational acquiring land for ASGM operations at Ntotroso. As a
activities. 4.5% of those surveyed possessed active result, the vast majority of family estates now have ASGM
licenses or permits. This implies that the bulk of those who businesses. This is in line with the findings of (Agariga et
responded and were running ASGM did not possess any al., 2021), which demonstrate that the forest cover has
valid licenses or permits. (McQuilken and Hilson, been replaced by a variety of land uses, such as open
2016b)(), according to which the majority of artisanal vegetation, mining, settlements, etc. The other respondents
miners lack operating money and the necessary licenses to (Table 2) acquired the land from either chiefs or mining
engage in mining. According to Table 2, which details the companies. This backs up the judgment made by chiefs in
techniques respondents used to acquire land for ASGM 2019 and documented by Boafo et al.
operations, 59% of them obtained it from family members.

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Table 2ASGM's operational activities in Ghana

Variable Frequency Percentage
Have you gotten a valid permit
Yes 10 0.1%
No 100 99.9%
Total 110 100%
From whom did you acquire land from ASGM operations
Family 60 54.54%
Chiefs 36 32.73%
Mining companies 14 12.73%
Total 110 100%
Do you have supervisors
Yes 80 72.3%
No 30 27.3%
Total 110 100%
Do you use explosives
Yes 90 81.82%
No 20 18.18%
Total 110 100%
Description of the type of Mining
Both surface and underground 110 100%
The main mineral produced by Gold 110 100%
Confidence Interval 95%

Traditional leaders are responsible for supervising mined explosives in their regular activities, as shown by Table 2
customary areas, particularly stool lands, and they should as well. This supported earlier studies that showed
be notified before the start of mining and paid for their explosives are used when the ore is hard and difficult to
assistance. The Forestry Commission's desk staff claims shatter (Mcwhorter et al., 2017). The study also made an
that in addition to purchasing land from individuals, effort to divide mining into surface mining and
families, or chiefs, the Commission also plays a crucial underground mining. Instead of limiting themselves to one
part in making sure that the territory used for ASGM sort of mining, all of the respondents engaged in both
activities is not close to or within any forest reserves. (Table 2). ASGM miners operate in both surface and
However, if the ASGM activity occurs outside of a forest underground mining.
reserve but may have an influence on valuable commercial 4.2 OSH Risks
trees, the commission will provide clearance for the
Associated with ASGM operations in Ghana Physical,
removal of the trees that are located within a mining
psychological, ergonomic, mechanical, acoustic,
concession. According to the Water Resources
biological, and chemical risks are those connected to
Commission, neither the ASGM site nor its operations
Ghana's ASGM sector.
significantly affect any significant water body or resource.
Information on the respondents' supervisor status is 4.2.1 Physical Hazards
provided in Table 2, which reveals that 75.4% of them had Dangers to the body According to Table 3, a result, the
supervisors. These managers—frequently referred to as mean reaction value in ASGM operations is only 3.59
"ghetto leaders"—direct a group of miners within a because there are so few fire outbreaks. Observations from
"ghetto" (mine). The majority of respondents employ the field survey show that combustible goods like fuel

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(diesel and gasoline) are often held in smaller quantities that during the rainy season, flooding occurs at ASGM
within the ASGM sector as opposed to open mining sites. sites. This is consistent with the results of a study by
This explains the main cause of the ASGM industry's Donoghue from August 2004 that identified flooding of
relative lack of fire breakouts. Additionally, the mean of underground pits as a significant contributor to fatal
the ASGM sector demonstrates that explosions at injuries among miners. As a result, operations frequently
abandoned sites are not common. This may be explained come to a standstill, and pumping the water may take
by the fact that when explosives are utilized, they are not several days. The mean reaction values for miners exposed
frequent. According to the research, falls from great to extreme heat both underground and from the sun were
heights are a prevalent risk in the ASGM sector. The 1.86 and 2.16, respectively (Table 3). Since ASGM can't
average reaction as a result was 2.08 (Table 3). This is erect shelters that completely enclose a site, many miners
consistent with the findings of Nakua et al. (2019), who are subjected to intolerable amounts of solar heat. The
discovered that falls and slips are among the injuries investigation as a result showed that miners use handmade
sustained while working in the ASGM mining industry. In plastic lines to connect deep underground tunnels to
the ASGM sector, collapsing mine pits and stranded temporary ventilators known as "blowers" (see Fig. 2).
individuals are common issues. In this instance, the typical These improvised ''blowers'' hardly blast out enough air as
answer value was 2.13 (Table 3). This validates the the miners continue to toil in the sweltering heat. The
findings of (Nakua et al., 2019) that underground miners in study also discovered that electrocution happens frequently
ASGM frequently run the risk of pit collapse due to their (Table 3). The majority of mining locations were
inability to erect concrete walls and pillars to avoid discovered to have electrical lines that were improperly
rockfalls and pit collapse. Another physical concern connected and may electrocute at the slightest contact.
mentioned in the paper is flooding. Table 3 demonstrates
Table 3 Hazards
Hazards Mean S.D.
Physical Hazards 3.49 1.13
Fire outbreaks occur at construction sites 3.29 1.20
Abandoned areas often experience explosions 2.10 1.14
Workers who are walking about an unfenced hole or climbing up or down in one 2.10 1.31
experience falls.
A pit caved in because there was insufficient earth support underground. 1.45 0.68
Sites where small-scale mines were being operated were flooded during the rainy season. 1.78 1.12
During the day, employees are exposed to too much sun. 2.20 1.26
Workers are subjected to extreme heat underground 2.87 1.29
In Ghana, ASGM electrocutes workers while conducting operational tasks. 2.40
Mechanical Hazards
At a mine site, excavators and other mobile machinery run over workers. 3.45 1.23
The whirling elements of machinery cause abrasion to workers 2.20 1.24
Some perils could lure in or trap you 2.09 1.12
There are problems with cutting and shearing while using equipment in Ghana's ASGM. 3.10 1.18
Noise Hazards
During blasting, drilling, milling, and other operational tasks involving the use of power 1.62 1.10
plants and heavy equipment, workers are exposed to a high level of noise.
Artisanal Mining in Ghana as a Whole 1.61
Chemical Hazards
During operation, workers are exposed to hazardous chemicals 1.98 1.13
Smoke from diesel operating equipment's total ASGM in Ghana has accumulated. 2.45 1.09

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Biological Hazards
No nose mask or guard is used, thus employees are exposed to dust at work. 1.34 1.09
Fungi infection exists because workers are required to remain barefoot in still water while 2.03 1.11
washing gold.
Because of the remoteness and stagnant water at the sites, ASGM in Ghana employees are 1.98 1.23
subject to mosquito bites.
Ergonomic Hazards
Employees are involved in heavy lifting 1.34 1.06
Workers' knee injuries result from carrying large loads 2.31 1.94
Shoulder issues are prevalent among workers 1.78 1.51
Workers experience back and waist pain 2.31 1.78
Uncomfortable working images are maintained during the ASGM operation in Ghana 3.01 1.98
Physiological Hazards
Employees put in a lot of overtime 1.98 1.23
After putting in long hours at work, employees have appropriate interactions with their 3.09 2.98
families
There is violence among the workforce at all ASGM facilities in Ghana. 3.10 1.76

4.2.2 Mechanical hazards The study found that noise was an issue, and the mean
Table 3 displays the study's findings on mechanical response value of 1.71 (Table 3) demonstrates how
dangers. The findings (mean = 3.41) demonstrate how pervasive it is. The primary causes of excessive noise in
uncommon it is for ASGM staff members to be struck by ASGM activities may be the machinery and equipment
trucks, excavators, or other mobile machinery. This is (see Fig. 3). The fact that large machinery is needed for
because simple tools and equipment were used. Trucks, ore drilling, blasting, transporting, sorting, and crushing
excavators, and other mobile equipment may be utilized, supports Hermanus's (2007) conclusion that noise is a
but not when numerous machines are running at once and significant problem in the mining industry.
could crush or run over people. The mean response value 4.2.4 Chemical Hazards
for abrasion, which was 2.13 (see Table 3), indicates that The mean reaction value for dangerous substances was
abrasion concerns are widespread. According to a field 1.77 (Table 3). According to the results of the field
evaluation, abrasion often occurs in the rotating parts of investigation, Mercury and Med are the key ingredients
the machinery and equipment used in mining operations. used in ASGM. Because miners spend longer time
Small crushers, in contrast, are employed in ASGM and underground, they breathe in poisonous materials like
don't injure anything because they can readily pull in and mercury, which are harmful to their health even if their
trap material. Although cutting and shearing risks are toxicity is not immediately apparent when they come into
listed among the mechanical hazards in the survey, ASGM contact with skin. The study also found that a key source
enterprises do not face them, as evidenced by their mean of chemical hazards faced by miners in ASGM was smoke
response value of 3.09 (see Table 3). The mechanical risks buildup from diesel-powered equipment. The
found in the study were consistent with those found in accumulation of smoke from diesel equipment suggests
(Abbasi, 2018), which showed that mining requires the use that it is frequently observed with a mean response score
of machinery, tools, and equipment for a variety of tasks. of 2.56 (Table 3). The field investigation indicated that the
This machinery, tools, and equipment all have the primary sources of smoke that miners inhaled were diesel-
potential to sever, cut, crush, strike, or stab anyone in the powered equipment such as the Chinese-made crusher
machine's path because of their moving or spinning parts, ("chan fan"), compressors, excavators, and power plants.
sharp edges, and heated surfaces. The majority of miners experienced vertigo after spending
4.2.3 Noise a lot of time around diesel-powered machinery, according
to the field survey. The finding that miners exposed to
diesel particulate matter (DPM) developed cardiovascular

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dysfunction, eye and nose irritation, headache, nausea, and Due to the rigorous and challenging nature of their work, it
asthma is consistent with the findings of the Utembe et al. may be assumed that miners were using narcotics at the
(2015) study. time. Bullying and mobbing were mentioned as two
4.2.5 Biological Hazards psychological issues that miners must cope with in the
study (Abbasi, 2018). Pit invasions might also have a role
Dust (mean = 2.01) continued to be a major biological
in miners acting violently. When it is determined that a
hazard in almost all ASGM operations (Table 3),
group of miners' pit has struck the gold-bearing ore that is
particularly during overburden removal, blasting, ore
rich in gold, invasions take place. When the owners aren't
transportation, crushing, and even ore washing. According
there, unauthorized individuals frequently break into the
to a 2016 study by Bansah et al., dust is created in mining
pits or infiltrate them to steal from them. Because of the
during ore drilling, ore blasting, crushing, and grinding.
regular fighting among the miners, the areas are
Since most miners do not wear masks or nasal guards, they
dangerous.
frequently run the risk of being exposed to dust. An
additional biological risk discovered was fungi infection 4.3 Implementation of OSH Procedures by ASGM
(mean = 2.3). (Table 3), illustrating how mining-related 4.3.1 Safety training
fungal infections are a common problem for miners. The The mean response value for the question of whether the
stagnant waters that are frequent at mining sites make this ASGM industry has a well-established safety protocol was
condition hazardous. This is in line with research (Abbasi, 1.59 (Table 5), indicating that it does not. Therefore, the
2018), which demonstrates that biological risks are existence of safety measures has little impact on the
connected to mining activities as a result of unhygienic adoption of OSH in the ASGM industry. This can be a
working conditions. Therefore, the health and safety of result of ASGM management's general lack of
mineworkers are significantly impacted by limbs subjected consideration for developing safety measures. There were
to biological dangers such as snakebites and injuries, and no formal safety procedures in place at almost all ASGM
exposure to bacteria, viruses, fungi, and blood-borne locations. If safety protocols are absent from the ASGM
illnesses. Miners also experience a high rate of mosquito locations, they cannot affect the miners' adoption of OSH
bites (mean = 1.61) due to the standing water and distance practices. For safety measures, a mean response value of
between mine sites (Table 3). 3.23 (Table 5) was discovered, indicating indifference.
4.2.6 Ergonomic Hazards Since the majority of miners were illiterate and had no
When objects are lifted without assistance, lifting heavy awareness of safety procedures, they were unable to
weights (mean = 1.93) is an occupational risk that determine whether a safety routine was necessary. This
frequently affects miners (Table 3). In addition to these supports the conclusions of (Stephens, 2016), The mean
new types of injuries, miners also experience improper response scores of 1.74 and 1.56, respectively, in Table 4
posture while working and knee, shoulder, waist, and back indicate that workers receive enough training on safety
problems during ASGM tasks (see Table 3). Beth's (2018) practices and how to use PPE, as well as follow-ups and
findings that protracted digging, uncomfortable postures, refresher safety training. This demonstrates that teaching
bending down, and lifting heavy goods over long distances in personal protective equipment (PPE), training in safety
can all cause severe and chronic back pain were supported procedures, and follow-up and refresher safety training do
by the study. not affect the adoption of OSH practices by miners. The
field survey found that virtually any of the venues looked
4.2.7Psychological Hazard
at offered their personnel pre- or on-the-job training. This
Table 3 (Mean = 1.98) shows that miners worked a lot of might be the outcome of miners believing they don't
overtime. The findings of this study are congruent with require any specialist training and that learning and
those of (Abbasi, 2018), who discovered that the lengthy training occur on the job. The mean response values for
workweeks typical of the mining sectors can occasionally regularly recognizing and reporting safety issues as well as
lead to psychological dangers in the mining industry. evaluating and resolving issues that are detected promptly
Additionally, the results demonstrate that respondents were 2.07 and 2.5, respectively (Table 4), indicating not
frequently communicate positively with their families, as frequently. Therefore, these variables won't typically have
evidenced by the mean answer value of 2.54 for adequate an impact on how OSH techniques are adopted in ASGM.
engagement between respondents and miners' families The average response in Table 4 for how frequently
(Table 3). These results refute the claim made by (Abbasi, facilities and equipment are maintained before and after
2018) that the major psychological risks for miners are usage was 2.33. This shows that the ASGM doesn't always
isolation and loneliness. The prevalence of violence among perform adequate machine and equipment repairs.
miners is considerable (mean = 2.5), as seen in Table 3.

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Additionally, it was said that repairs are only performed to normal maintenance on apparatus and equipment doesn't
tools and machines after they have entirely failed and are happen very often, it won't have a big impact on how
unable to be used to finish a task. Additionally, because frequently ASGM's miners practice OSH.
Table 4 Safety Training
Safety Training
A tried-and-true safety procedure is in place. 1.49 0.59
The safety protocol is appropriate. 0.59
The usage of personal protection equipment and safety procedures are adequately 3.01 1.10
taught to employees.
Enough follow-up and refresher safety training is offered. 1.36 0.85
Safety issues are often recognized and reported. 2.04 0.69
Identified safety concerns are carefully evaluated and handled. 2.3 0.88
Before and after me, facilities and equipment are repaired. 2.11 0.71
Overall mean 1.99
Cultural and Social Issues 2.22 0.74
My family is very important to me, thus I strictly follow safety regulations. 2.99 0.82
I support OSH because my community has designated me as a safety ambassador. 4.058 1.12
Overall mean 2.23

Table 5 Correlation Analysis

Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Physical Hazards 2.36 0.27 0.99
Mechanical Hazards 2.82 0.52 0.21 0.99
Noise 1.62 0.62 0.28 0.21 0.99
Chemical Hazards 2.16 0.23 0.22 0.28 0.22 0.99
Biological Hazards 1.89 0.23 0.41 0.22 0.314 0.164 0.99
Ergonomic Hazards 2.22 0.36 0.22 0.41 0.436 0.644 0.544 0.99
Psychological Hazards 2.24 0.54 0.42 0.22 0.245 0.512 0.625 0.610 0.99

4.3.2 Social and Cultural Problems safety of their operations. This, which is an important
The findings (Table 5) demonstrate how socio-cultural predictor, has a substantial impact on how responders
factors affect how well the ASGM at Ntotroso miners embrace OSH techniques. The mean response value for the
embrace OSH. The average response value was 4.58, claim that "WE take OSH seriously because my
which indicates that respondents regard their family so community has appointed me as a safety ambassador" was
highly that they take safety concerns seriously. Because 3.03, which is considered indifferent (Table 4). Because
they care deeply about their families and wish to live as the majority of them had not been chosen to serve as safety
long as possible in excellent health, the respondents ambassadors in their communities, the respondents to the
commonly say that they take safety issues seriously. field survey expressed uncertainty. Does not, therefore,
Because of this, even though their work is exceedingly represent a substantial factor influencing the respondents'
dangerous, they take all required procedures to ensure the adoption of OSH.

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Table 6: Relationship between safety education, sociocultural issues, and OSH practices adoption by miners.
OHS practices Coefficient Std. Error T Sig
Safety Instruction 0.286 0.025 3.734 0.000
Social and Cultural Problems 0.259 0.0212 3.087 0.000
Con 1.643 0.357 5.052 0.000

4.4 Sociocultural Factors and Safety Education On basic requirements, the growth of social capital, justice,
ASGM Miners' Adoption of OSH Practices equity, and other challenges; "Bridge sustainability" (B)
We evaluated the connections among safety training, discusses behavioral changes; (C) discusses how people
sociocultural concerns, and respondents' adoption of OSH actively embrace or reject such changes; and (D) discusses
practices. Safety Training and responders' adoption of the preservation of socio-cultural qualities in the face of
OSH practices are positively correlated, as shown in Table change (or what can be sustained). The aforementioned
5. The significance level for this positive connection is idea provides a framework for social sustainability that
0.01. This indicates that responders who receive more considers the necessity for growth, the preservation of
safety training are more likely to adopt OSH practices. social capital, and collaborative relationships with
According to Table 5, there will be a 2.78% rise in stakeholders who have a substantial impact on changes
respondents' adoption of OSH practices for every 10% and transformations (Viveros, 2016). Using this more
more safety training provided. Additionally, the adoption comprehensive paradigm for social sustainability, it
of OSH techniques by respondents was positively examines how large-scale mining companies deal with
correlated with socio-cultural difficulties at a significant societal consequences before, during, and after mine
level of 0.01. In addition, a rise in socio-cultural concerns closure.
will cause respondents' adoption of OSH practices to rise 4.7 Sustainability in the Environment
by 2.19%. This might be explained by the importance To stop the loss of biological diversity as a result of our
respondents place on their families and relationships. They actions, it also calls for measures. The management of
place a high importance on their family and will do "waste rocks, tailings, acid mine drainage, airborne dust,
everything in their power to provide for them. So that they and other contaminants, which are deposited on land, in
can take care of others, they embrace OSH practices to the air and water" is crucial to the mining industry's
stay healthy and powerful. The alternative hypothesis (), environmental sustainability, according to K. Söderholm et
which asserts that there is a positive connection with a al. (2015). For environmental sustainability in mining,
99% confidence interval between safety training, climate change, biodiversity, and water are essential, claim
sociocultural factors, and the adoption of OSH practices Tost, Hitch, Chandurkar, Moser, and Feiel (2018). The
among miners in ASGM, is accepted in place of the null following explanation emphasizes the relationship between
hypothesis ()). human efforts to meet needs and initiatives to protect or
4.5 Sustainability improve biodiversity, water quality, and ecosystems,
These sustainability elements are seen as interconnected demonstrating how adaptable humans are to living in a
and should work in harmony because a company cannot dynamic balance with the environment. The
compensate for a poor performance in one area with a aforementioned definition is used in this study to
fantastic performance in another (Viveros, 2016). The understand how large-scale mining operations preserve
phrases "sustainability" and "sustainable development" are and replenish biological variety in the sense indicated by
used interchangeably in this study to refer to long-term the environmental effect categories.
business strategies- and short-term scope to satisfy both 4.7.1 The Sustainability of the Environment
current and future social expectations. The empirical data, Some of the key environmental consequence categories
discussion, and theoretical framework would, however, include changes in biodiversity, freshwater use,
consider these two difficulties since the study analyzes acidification, ozone depletion, chemical pollution, and
solutions for social and environmental sustainability. climate change (Dong &Hauschild, 2017). The literature
4.6 Social Responsibility also offers a variety of benchmarks or metrics for
Due to the underlying themes in social sustainability) evaluating environmental sustainability. The monitoring of
mapped the definitional bounds to include the following: resource usage efficiency, including emissions,
"Development sustainability" (a) takes into consideration byproducts, and performance are two essential areas to

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focus on, Effect indicators (calculate a company's indicators for environmental sustainability give a
influence on the environment, worker health, and framework for assessing and understanding the effects of
occupational injuries), supply chain management, and corporate operations and sustainable efforts (See Figure 5).
supply chain sustainability. These definitional criteria and

Fig.4 Environment's domain, effects, and sustainability

4.7.2 The Sustainability of the Economy • Sustainability criteria and categories for
To improve a company's financial position and increase environmental impacts.
earnings, the internal component of economic This aspect of economic sustainability shows that
sustainability focuses on using the concepts of consumers are more concerned about how sustainability
effectiveness and efficiency in investments. Long Climate will affect them personally than they are about a
Systems & Murphy (Climate Change Risks) Energy company's profits or financial performance. The economic
systems (energy efficiency and consumption) aspect of sustainability has also drawn a lot of attention in
• Biodiversity in Terrestrial Systems studies on how companies increase their financial
performance or look for a competitive edge (Kim, 2018).
• The Nitrogen and Carbon Cycle (feedback
According to a similar statement, "Enterprise decision-
mechanisms)
makers naturally focus on the economic pillar of
• Aquatic Systems: Freshwater Ecosystems and sustainability" (Hutchins, Richter, Henry, & Sutherland,
Biodiversity 2019, p. 687). Up until recently, it was the only part of
• Human Settlements (including Transportation and sustainability that had received attention. In addition,
Cities) although the economic element of sustainability
predominates, a study conducted in the metals sector by
• Examples of environmental issues include
Armindo, Fonseca, Abreu, and Toldy (2019) suggests
acidification,
links between the various components of sustainability.
• Ozone depletion, However, the literature on mining shows that, despite
• Chemical change, stakeholders' primary focus on social and environmental
issues, businesses still give economic sustainability a high
• Freshwater use,
priority (Rodrigues & Mendes, 2018). This study only
• Biodiversity loss, considers social and environmental actions to address
• Air pollution, consequences. About the extraction of nonrenewable
• Regeneration, natural resources, sustainability is discussed in the section
that follows.
• Substitutability,
• Assimilation, and Irreversibility.

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4.8 Mining Environmental Sustainability strategies for biodiversity restoration and ecosystem
The majority of studies on sustainability in the extractive functioning linked to revegetation, species selection, and
industries have focused on environmental issues, impacts, management of biological invasion. In contrast to the
and frameworks as well as the management of the inherent initial level of flora diversity and concentration, the
risks associated with mining, according to Mensah et al. process of reintroducing species is haphazard, and the
(2015), and numerous other studies. Several scholars, such amount of vegetation grown after a mine closes is always
as Schaltegger, Hörisch, & Freeman (2019), assert that far less. However, because laws have a significant impact
mining firms' concerns about the consequences on the on mining enterprises' sustainability practices, national
environment were ultimately what prompted them to variations in environmental legislation may evoke different
accept sustainability as a broad phrase. Accordingly, reactions depending on the institutional structure. For
"waste rocks, tailings, acid mine drainage, airborne dust, example, K. Söderholm et al. (2015) observe that
and other contaminants, which are deposited on land, in "regulation also tends to vary from country to country
the air, and water" are listed as some of the negative depending on public policies and industry practices" about
consequences of mining on page 130 of their report by K. mine closure and rehabilitation. This article investigates
Söderholm et al. (2015). Tost et al. (2018) claim that to how large-scale mining corporations adhere to
keep the environment sustainable, mining is highly reliant environmental sustainability principles within the
on elements like water, biodiversity, and climate change institutional framework, regulatory framework, and
(see Figure 2.1). industry-led self-regulation activities of Ghana.
4.9 Ghana's CSR and Sustainability Initiatives
This section reviews studies on Ghana's mining industry's
social and environmental sustainability strategies. Since
the mining industry's social sustainability methods are
usually part of CSR (Essah & Andrews, 2016), this section
will also analyse them in Ghana. Social and environmental
sustainability in developing nations defines a company's
CSR operations, according to the literature. Thus, this
section examines Ghana's large-scale mining sector's
sustainability and CSR. Sustainability in South American
mining has been studied (Loayza & Rigolini, 2016;
Viveros, 2016). Thus, this part analyses sustainable
implementation qualities using the latest research. As to
Fig.5 Environmental sustainability and mining in the Agyemang, Agyemang, Ansong, and Ansong (2017), CSR
landscape is new to the national institutional landscape but has
gained popularity, especially in business. Businesses in
banking, mining, and telecoms have adopted the idea by
Additionally, ecological quality is sustainably improved by
following essential statutory requirements (Agyemang et
environmental sustainability, which also incorporates
al., 2017). Oppong (2016a) says CSR initiatives often
techniques for reducing the negative consequences of
improve children, the environment, health, social
mining (Tost et al., 2018). In particular with large-scale or
entrepreneurship, and sports. This calls into question your
international mining businesses, these environmental
sustainability understanding. Some of Ghana's
sustainability plans also involve innovative technology and
environmental and social sustainability programmes
resource efficiency methods (Barkemeyer et al., 2015b.
exceed their CSR or sustainability implementation level,
Therefore, environmental sustainability in developing
as shown in Table 2.4. Ghana may employ a lot of
nations continues to be significantly hampered by ambient
hydropower, which minimises greenhouse gas emissions.
pollution, deforestation, chemical seepages, and
Large enterprises voluntarily disclose their energy use to
biodiversity loss brought on by mining activities (Mensah
global reporting organisations like the Global Reporting
et al., 2015; UNDP & UN Environment, 2018). Plans for
Initiative and ISO 14001. Table 2.4 shows that
environmental sustainability also include measures to
sustainability problems must be addressed during the
mitigate effects after mine closure due to the serious
mine's operating period upon closing. To meet Ghana's
hazards connected with leaving behind lasting effects.
Minerals and Mining Act, 2006 (Act 703)'s minimum
Even though trial-and-error techniques are most frequently
standards, land restoration, reforestation, and chemical
used, mine closure land rehabilitation typically includes
spill avoidance are social sustainability initiatives

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(Oppong, 2016a). Social sustainability, a developing term, related social problems, the state and major mining firms
varies from CSR owing to its broader conceptual often oppose impacted communities and civil society
similarities. Ghana may overemphasise CSR organisations (Tetreault, 2020). The institutional
implementation as self-regulatory, which may explain framework of developing nations negatively impacts
certain sustainability difficulties. Ghana's social managerial cognition, or how managers make sense of
sustainability efforts, according to Andrews (2016), are their environment, which threatens mining regions' long-
fragmented CSR programmes that contradict sustainable term viability. Ghana's sustainability efforts prioritise land
actices. CSR programmes prioritise physical initiatives restoration, impact reduction, and community growth. The
above social sustainability (tangible and intangible) after usual CSR method for neighbourhood protection is also
mine closure owing to the operational implications of criticised in this study. The poor institutional structure that
mining. According to Andrews (2016), voluntary CSR limits compliance monitoring and regulatory enforcement
programmes threaten social sustainability in Ghana's is the main cause of Ghana's sustainability implementation
extractive economy. Social sustainability may involve problems (Andrews, 2016). Thus, multinational mining
volunteer initiatives, mining-induced displacement companies' social sustainability strategies are more
legislation, development partnerships, and regulatory significant. The following observations provide a
compliance processes. Multinational companies' CSR framework for studying social sustainability theoretically
agenda limits mining stakeholders' capacity to challenge and empirically.
large-scale mining operations (Ross, 2017). In mining-
Table 7 Domains for Environmental and Social Sustainability

As previously said, mining poses significant hazards to the

sustainability of the environment while it is still in
operation, and managing the environmental effects of mine
closure in developing nations is still very difficult. This led
to the mention of "waste rocks, tailings, acid mine
drainage, airborne dust, and other contaminants, which are
deposited on land, in the air, and water" as examples of
such mining consequences (K. Söderholm et al. 2015, p.
130). Large mining firms conduct sustainability initiatives
to reduce these negative environmental effects throughout
the mine's life. Although mining firms assert that their
operations are beneficial to the environment, little is
Fig.6 Environmental sustainability techniques' main topics known about how they are addressing the short- and long-
and sub-themes Operational conformity term effects of their operations. The sustainability
programs that big mining corporations have implemented

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

to mitigate the damaging environmental effects of their statistics, impact reduction is the main goal of the
operations in Ghana are examined in this chapter. To environmental sustainability practices of the companies
depict the main themes and sub-themes that arose from the used as examples. Two crucial tools for doing this are
data, thematic networks in two different implementation strategies for regulatory compliance and corporate
types are used. These sustainable practices and self- environmental responsibility. The findings demonstrate
regulatory initiatives have led to these eco-friendly actions. that environmental sustainability methods are applied at all
The results presented in this chapter are set against the stages of mining development, including pre-operational,
theme network in Figure 6. Highlighted are the key issues operational, and post-operational stages. The sections that
related to the causes that support environmental follow provide further detail on each organizational area
sustainability, while the sub-themes focus on how large for the methods of managing environmental effects (Figure
businesses offset their consequences. 4.1). The table below (Table 4.1) provides a full
4.10 Practices for Environmental Sustainability examination of Ghana's environmental sustainability
practices for controlling the consequences of mining
Selected large-scale mining companies have been profiled
throughout a mine's lifecycle.
in this area to address environmental effects on water
(quality and quantity), biodiversity, ambient climate (air
and noise pollution), and soil quality. According to the
Table 8 Implementing Environmental Sustainability in Ghana

4.11Environmental Sustainability Obstacles

To address the ecological impact requirements, which
include those for ambient air quality, pollution avoidance,
water and soil quality, biodiversity, and terrestrial
conditions, environmental sustainability practices work to
adhere to the recommendations in section 4.3. However,
both the case companies chosen for the interviews and the
other stakeholder groups were able to identify key themes
about the shortcomings in resource governance and effect
mitigation that are the principal obstacles to environmental
sustainability (Figure 6). The two main problems are
further divided into two sub-themes, which are
deficiencies in regulatory and compliance monitoring and
Fig.7 Implementation Challenges for Environmental
deficiencies in proactive and residual mitigation, as shown
Sustainability
in Figure 6. About these themes and their sub-themes,
more information is provided in the section that follows.

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Yang et al. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 10(12)-2023

V. CONCLUSION spatial multi-criteria approach. J. Sustain. Min. 17 (4), 215–

225. doi:10.1016/j.jsm.2018.10.001.
Finally, we summarize the findings of our study as Gold
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mining, which is rapidly expanding and widely practiced politics of artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASM) in the
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