Assignment #2 - Chemical Bonding and Properties

Arpita Rathod
NBCC
Chemistry 112
10/07/2023
1. Ions

➢ Ions:

Atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net
positive or negative charge.

➢ Monatomic Ions:

• Definition: Ions formed from a single atom.

• Details:

▪ Cation: A monatomic ion that has lost one or more electrons, resulting in a positive
charge.
▪ Anion: A monatomic ion that has gained one or more electrons, resulting in a negative
charge.

• Examples:

Cation: Na⁺ (Sodium ion), Mg²⁺ (Magnesium ion)

Anion: Cl⁻ (Chloride ion), O²⁻ (Oxide ion)
➢ Multivalent Ions

• Definition:
Ions that can have more than one possible charge.

• Details:

These ions, usually transition metals, can lose different numbers of electrons, leading
to different charges on the ion.

• Examples:
• Fe²⁺ (Iron(II) ion) and Fe³⁺ (Iron(III) ion)
• Cu⁺ (Copper(I) ion) and Cu²⁺ (Copper(II) ion)

➢ Polyatomic Ions
• Definition:

Ions that consist of two or more atoms bonded together and that function as a single
ion.

• Details:
These ions can be either positively or negatively charged. The atoms within the ion are
covalently bonded, and the entire group has a net charge.
• Examples:

• The hydroxide ion is OH−, where an oxygen atom is bonded to a hydrogen atom, and
the whole entity carries a net charge of -1.
2. Ionic Compounds

When metal and non-metal atoms come together, they form ion compounds. The ion
formation happens when electrons are transferred from metal to non-metal. These ions
stick together because of the strong electrostatic attraction.

• Ionic Bonding:

Definition:

Ionic bonding is when a metal and a non-metal share the same valence electron. This
creates two ions that are positively and negatively charged. The metal takes the
electrons to become a cation, and the non-metal takes them to become an anion.

• Example:

Sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride (NaCl).
Sodium becomes Na+ and chlorine becomes Cl−.

• Ionic Structure:

Ionic compounds are arranged in a repeating pattern called a crystal lattice, where each
ion is surrounded by an ion and vice versa to make sure the positive and negative
charges are attracted to each other.

• Example:

In the crystal lattice of sodium chloride (NaCl), each sodium ion is surrounded by six
chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions.
 • Ionic Properties:

• High Melting and Boiling Points: The ions are attracted to each other due to the strong
electrostatic force between them.

• Electrical Conductivity: When ionic compounds are soluble in water or in a molten

state, they are able to conduct electricity. Free moving ions in either the solution or the
molten state are able to transfer charge.

• Solubility: The solubility of many ionic compounds in water is due to the ability of
water molecules to surround and dissolve the ions, thereby separating them from one
another.

• Hard and Brittle: Ionic compounds are hard in their solid state because of the strong
attraction between ions. However, when force is applied to the ionic compound, the
lattice can be displaced, resulting in the repulsion between ions that are both positively
and negatively charged, making the ionic compound brittle.

• Examples of Ionic Compounds:

Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Common table salt.

Calcium fluoride (CaF2) – Used as a flux in the production of steel.
Magnesium oxide (MgO) – Used as a refractory material in furnace linings for
producing iron and steel.

3. Metallic Compounds

Metallic compounds are compounds that are composed of metal elements. It is

important to note, however, that pure metal and alloys typically display metallic
bonding and characteristics, whereas metallic compounds, such as metal oxides and
sulfides or halides, exhibit a range of bonding types. For the purpose of this discussion,
I will concentrate on metallic bonding observed in pure metal and alloy.

▪ Metallic Bonding:

Metal bonding is a chemical bond that is formed by the electrostatic attraction of

conduction electrons (also referred to as delocalized electrons, or a “sea of electrons”)
to positively charged metal ions, and is the primary bond that unites metal atoms in
metal crystal structures.

▪ Example:

The bonding in a piece of pure gold (Au) is metallic bonding.

▪ Metallic Structure:

Metals adopt close-packed structures, meaning they pack in the most number of atoms
in a given volume. There are two main types of close-packed structures: face-centered
cubic (fcc) and hexagonal close-packed (hcp).

▪ Example:

Copper (Cu) has a face-centered cubic (fcc) arrangement, while magnesium (Mg) has
a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure.
 ▪ Metallic Properties:

Electrical Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of electricity due to the free-
moving delocalized electrons.

Thermal Conductivity: Metals are also good conductors of heat.

Malleability and Ductility: Metals can be bent, hammered into sheets (malleable), or
drawn into wires (ductile) without breaking.

Lustrous Appearance: Metals have a shiny appearance when polished.

High Melting and Boiling Points: The strength of the metallic bond generally results in
high melting and boiling points.

Strength and Hardness: Most metals are strong and resist compression, but their
hardness varies widely. For example, lithium is relatively soft while tungsten is very
hard.

▪ Examples of Metallic Structures:

▪ Pure Metals: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), etc.

▪ Alloys (mixtures of metals): Bronze (typically copper and tin), Brass (copper and
zinc), Steel (iron with carbon and sometimes other elements), Stainless Steel (iron,
carbon, chromium, and other elements).

In summary, the properties of metals are attributed to metallic bonding, which makes
them essential in a wide range of applications, including construction, transportation,
electronics, and jewelry.

3. Covalent Network Substances

Covalent Network Substances, also referred to as Network Solids or Covalent Network

Crystals, are a type of material in which the molecular bonds between the atoms are
covalent and form a continuous network that runs through the entire material. There are
no separate, individual molecules in these structures.

➢ Bonding:

The atoms in covalent network solids are connected by strong covalent bonds. These
bonds hold the atoms in a fixed, rigid structure.

▪ Example:

In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms.
➢ Structure:

In covalent network substances, the atoms are organized in a repeating, three-

dimensional network.

▪ Example:

In quartz (SiO2), each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement, and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms.

➢ Properties:

▪ High Melting and Boiling Points: The strong covalent bonds require a lot of energy to
break, leading to high melting and boiling points.
 ▪ Hardness: Many covalent network solids, like diamond, are extremely hard due to their
rigid, interconnected structures.

▪ Electrical Insulators: Most covalent network solids do not conduct electricity because
they don't have free-moving electrons or ions. However, there are exceptions like
graphite.

▪ Thermal Stability: They are generally stable and require a lot of energy to decompose
or react with other substances.

▪ Brittleness: Despite being hard, many covalent network solids are brittle. If enough
force is applied, the covalent bonds can break, causing the substance to shatter.

▪ Examples of Covalent Network Substances:

▪ Diamond: A form of carbon in which each carbon atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four
other carbon atoms.
▪ Graphite: Another form of carbon where each carbon atom is bonded to three others
in flat, two-dimensional planes.
▪ Silicon Dioxide (SiO2 or Quartz): Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms
in a three-dimensional structure.
▪ Silicon Carbide (SiC): Similar in structure to diamond, it's a compound of silicon and
carbon.

At the most fundamental level, the covalent nature of network substances provides them
with distinctive properties that enable them to be used in a wide range of industries,
such as jewelry (Diamonds), electronics (Silicon) and abrasives (Silicon carbide).

4. Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the capacity of a molecule's atom to attract its shared electrons towards
itself (or its electron density). This concept was first proposed by the scientist Linus Pauling
and is used to understand the distribution of electrons in a chemical compound, as well as the
polarity of the chemical bonds.

▪ Values:

Electronegativity is usually measured on the Pauling scale, where values range from
0.7 to 3.98. The values are dimensionless.

▪ Differences:

The difference in electronegativity between two atoms can help predict the type of bond
they will form:

▪ Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Difference of 0 to 0.4.

▪ Polar Covalent Bond: Difference of 0.4 to 1.7.
▪ Ionic Bond: Difference greater than 1.7.
• Periodic Table Patterns:

▪ Across a Period (from left to right): Electronegativity generally increases. This is

because the number of charges on the nucleus increases, attracting the electrons in the
bond more strongly.

▪ Down a Group (from top to bottom): Electronegativity generally decreases. Atoms

have more shells, meaning the valence electrons are further from the nucleus and there's
a greater electron shielding effect.

• Highest/Lowest Values:

▪ Highest Electronegativity: Fluorine (F) with a value of 3.98 on the Pauling scale.
▪ Lowest Electronegativity: Francium (Fr), though it's rarely dealt with due to its
radioactivity. Among more commonly encountered elements, cesium (Cs) has a very
low electronegativity of 0.79.

• Examples:

▪ Water (H2O): Oxygen has an electronegativity of 3.44 and hydrogen has an

electronegativity of 2.20. The difference (1.24) suggests a polar covalent bond, which
matches our understanding that water is a polar molecule.

▪ Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Sodium has an electronegativity of 0.93 and chlorine has an
electronegativity of 3.16. The difference (2.23) indicates an ionic bond.
4. Bonding Forces (Polarity)

Chemical bonds and intermolecular forces are the glue that holds matter together. Here's
a breakdown of the forces:

1. Intramolecular Forces:

These are the forces within molecules, responsible for holding the atoms together in a molecule.

a. Ionic Bonding:

▪ Strength: Strong

▪ Explanation: Formed by the electrostatic attraction between positively charged cations

and negatively charged anions.

▪ Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) has an ionic bond between Na+ and Cl-.

b. Covalent Bonding:

▪ Strength: Can vary from weak (as in some diatomic gases) to extremely strong (as in
diamond)

▪ Explanation: Formed by the sharing of electron pairs between two atoms.

▪ Example: In a water molecule (H2O), the bond between hydrogen and oxygen is
covalent.

2. Intermolecular Forces:

These are forces between molecules, not within the molecules themselves.

a. Ion-Dipole Forces:

▪ Strength: Strong
▪ Explanation: Occurs between an ion and the polar molecule.
▪ Example: When sodium chloride (NaCl) is dissolved in water, the sodium ions are
attracted to the partial negative charge on the oxygen atoms of water, and the chloride
ions are attracted to the partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms.

b. Dipole-Dipole Forces:

▪ Strength: Moderate
▪ Explanation: Occurs between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative
end of another.
▪ Example: In a sample of liquid hydrogen chloride (HCl), the positive hydrogen end of
one molecule is attracted to the negative chlorine end of another.
c. Hydrogen Bonding:

▪ Strength: Stronger than dipole-dipole but weaker than ion-dipole

▪ Explanation: A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in
a polar bond (like N-H, O-H, or F-H) and a nearby small electronegative ion or atom
(like N, O, or F).
▪ Example: In liquid water, hydrogen bonds form between the hydrogen atom of one
molecule and the oxygen atom of another.

d. London Dispersion Forces (Van der Waals Forces):

▪ Strength: Weak, but can be substantial in large molecules

▪ Explanation: Arise due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution, which lead to
temporary polarity. Every atom and molecule has London dispersion forces.
▪ Example: These forces hold non-polar molecules, like helium (He) gas or diatomic
oxygen (O2), together.

e. Ion-Induced Dipole Forces:

▪ Strength: Varies, generally weaker than ion-dipole

▪ Explanation: Occurs between an ion and a non-polar molecule. The presence of an ion
can cause a temporary partial charge to induce in a nearby non-polar molecule.
▪ Example: The interaction between noble gases (like Xenon) and cations in a gas phase.

f. Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces:

▪ Strength: Weaker than dipole-dipole

▪ Explanation: A polar molecule can induce a temporary dipole in a neighboring non-
polar molecule.
▪ Example: The interaction between a polar water molecule and a non-polar oxygen
molecule in air.
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